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BMC Genomics logoLink to BMC Genomics
. 2014 Jan 24;15:66. doi: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-66

Large-scale analysis of differential gene expression in coffee genotypes resistant and susceptible to leaf miner–toward the identification of candidate genes for marker assisted-selection

Danielle C Cardoso 1,#, Juliana C Martinati 1,#, Poliana F Giachetto 2, Ramon O Vidal 3, Marcelo F Carazzolle 3, Lilian Padilha 1,4, Oliveiro Guerreiro-Filho 1, Mirian P Maluf 1,4,
PMCID: PMC3924705  PMID: 24460833

Abstract

Background

A successful development of herbivorous insects into plant tissues depends on coordination of metabolic processes. Plants have evolved complex mechanisms to recognize such attacks, and to trigger a defense response. To understand the transcriptional basis of this response, we compare gene expression profiles of two coffee genotypes, susceptible and resistant to leaf miner (Leucoptera coffella). A total of 22000 EST sequences from the Coffee Genome Database were selected for a microarray analysis. Fluorescence probes were synthesized using mRNA from the infested and non-infested coffee plants. Array hybridization, scanning and data normalization were performed using Nimble Scan® e ArrayStar® platforms. Genes with foldchange values +/-2 were considered differentially expressed. A validation of 18 differentially expressed genes was performed in infected plants using qRT-PCR approach.

Results

The microarray analysis indicated that resistant plants differ in gene expression profile. We identified relevant transcriptional changes in defense strategies before insect attack. Expression changes (>2.00-fold) were found in resistant plants for 2137 genes (1266 up-regulated and 873 down-regulated). Up-regulated genes include those responsible for defense mechanisms, hypersensitive response and genes involved with cellular function and maintenance. Also, our analyses indicated that differential expression profiles between resistant and susceptible genotypes are observed in the absence of leaf-miner, indicating that defense is already build up in resistant plants, as a priming mechanism. Validation of selected genes pointed to four selected genes as suitable candidates for markers in assisted-selection of novel cultivars.

Conclusions

Our results show evidences that coffee defense responses against leaf-miner attack are balanced with other cellular functions. Also analyses suggest a major metabolic reconfiguration that highlights the complexity of this response.

Keywords: Coffea arabica, Leaf miner, Microarray, Plant defense

Background

Once a plant recognizes a pathogen attack, the metabolism must balance demands for resources to support defense versus requirements for cellular maintenance, growth and reproduction [1-4]. Defense mechanisms involve a shift on metabolism, activating specific pathways such as synthesis of secondary metabolites, programmed cell death, ions translocation. Concomitantly, can occur a shutdown of other metabolic pathways not directly involved with defense response, such as those associated with growth and reproduction. A resistance and/or tolerance trait is attributed whenever this defense response is successful in controlling pathogen or herbivore attack.

Genetic control of metabolic re-programming is normally triggered by few resistance genes which are seek out to be transferred to other plants. However, resistance response involves changes in other genes, not usually identified, with determinant roles in the overall response. Therefore for an effective transference of resistance traits, to know how these genes interact during re-programming of plant metabolism is essential.

Among available methods for high-throughput analysis the microarray is a powerful tool for large-scale gene expression studies in many plant species with whole genome sequenced: potato [5,6], tomato [7,8], soybean [9,10], wheat [11], barley [12,13] maize [14,15], grape [16], pine [17], Arabidopsis [18-20]. The main advantage of microarray analyses is to evaluate the expression of large number of genes in different genotypes, organs, tissues, treatments, using the same set of genes. These genes can be compared during different biological situations allowing both an association with metabolic pathways and establishement of their role on resistance response. Several studies have been carried out using microarray analysis to identify genes associated with plant defense [21-25].

The leaf-miner, Leucoptera coffeella (Guérin-Méneville, 1842) (Lepidoptera-Lyonetiidae) is a specialist parasite of Coffea species. Upon oviposition on leaves, ecloded larvae feed directly from parenchyma tissues, leading to a reduction of foliar surface and eventual leaf drop [26]. This damage results in reduction of photosynthetic area and plant survival. In Brazilian breeding programs resistance genes from C. racemosa have been transferred to the susceptible C. arabica by controlled crosses, and so far a large number of hybrid progenies are under selection for resistance to leaf-miner [27]. Although defense mechanism to leaf-miner is not understood yet, genetic analysis demonstrated that resistance to the insect is dominant and controlled by two complimentary genes [28]. At the molecular level, there is little information regarding gene expression on coffee plants during defense response. Using subtractive hybridization methodology (SSH), Mondego et al. [29] found differentially expressed genes in coffee plants upon leaf-miner infestation, among which a miraculin-like encoding gene was significantly overexpressed in resistant coffee plants. Differential expression of defense-related genes such as lipoxygenase, glutathione transferase, protein-kinase receptor and glucanase was observed in response to leaf-miner infestation [30]. However, the expression profiles indicate that differences results from gene expression timing along insect infection rather than with gene regulation.

Despite the efforts of breeding programs to develop novel coffee cultivars bearing leaf-miner resistance, selection of progenies homozygotes for this trait is difficult [27], as advanced generations are still producing susceptible plants. Therefore, information regarding molecular control of resistance response as well as identification of candidate-genes associated with these processes will contribute with assisted-selection.

In this context, the aim of our study was to explore transcriptomic differences throughout insect infestation, in susceptible and resistant C. arabica plants challenged by L. coffeella, using microarray technology. The arrays were developed using coffee-specific oligoprobes designed based on gene sequences available at the Brazilian Coffee Genome Project [31]. The database contains a collection of around 32,000 gene sequences, covering most of the C. arabica genome [32]. Besides this, we selected a group of candidate-genes to be used as molecular markers for assisted-selection. As far as we know, this is the first report of a large-scale transcriptional profile analysis used to study gene expression changes in coffee plants in the presence of an herbivore insect.

Results

Microarray analyses were performed to characterize large-scale gene expression profiles during leaf-miner development on coffee leaves. The analyses included a hybridization of a 135 K array with 6 different samples, corresponding to time-course infestation stages in both resistant and susceptible plants. The arrays contain sequences of around 33 K genes identified in EST libraries prepared from different physiological and metabolic situations [31]. A minimum of 6 - 24mer match probes for each selected gene were used for the array set up. The arrays were hybridized with probes corresponding to 3 treatments of both susceptible (S) and resistant (R) leaves: non-infestated (T0), after oviposition and egg-eclosion (T1) and damaged by insect feeding (T2).

Initially, differential expression patterns were identified using statistical analysis, and specific transcriptional profiles were established for each evaluated interaction. In a second approach, genes exhibiting differential expression among genotypes and treatments were submitted to in silico evaluations to classify and categorize those genes regarding their possible molecular functions and metabolic pathways. Finally, a group of 19 genes involved with defense-related mechanisms, exhibiting regulated expression, were further characterized using qRT-PCR.

Microarray and statistical analysis

A total of 2141, 2359 and 2257 differentially expressed genes were identified from in silico analyses of raw hybridization data considering 3 interactions: T0R X T0S, T1R X T1S and T2R X T2S (Table 1). Comparing T0R X T0S we observed higher differential expression levels where foldchange values range from 400 and 1000 times in up-regulated genes, and from 200 to 400 times in down-regulated genes in resistant leaves. The other interactions exhibited foldchange values ranging from 150 and 350 times in down-regulated, and from 10 to 15 times in up-regulated genes (Table 2).

Table 1.

Distribution of regulated genes in each interaction analyzed

Genes T0R_T0S
T1R_T1S
T2R_T2S
(non infested plants) (Egg hatching) (Egg eclosion)
Up regulated
1268
1231
889
Down regulated
873
1128
1368
No differences 19057 18837 18939

Table 2.

Survey of differentially expressed genes in all considered interactions including number and fold-change values range

T0R_T0S T1R_T1S T2R_T2S Range of “fold change”
14
9
10
1000-100
32
17
23
99-40
57
51
39
39-20
103
96
125
19-10
1062
1058
1171
9-2
858
1117
880
(-)2- (-)9
15
11
9
(-)10- (-)499
Total 2141 Total 2359 Total 2257  

Different regulation profiles for defense response were observed among differentially expressed genes. The first group includes chitinase and polygalacturonase genes, regulated differently in resistant and susceptible leaves from T0 to T2. The second group includes genes that were up or down regulated in control resistant or susceptible leaves, but throughout insect development inverted their expression pattern. Example of this group is the gene encoding the enzyme polyphenol oxidase, up regulated at T0 in resistant plants and down regulated at T1 and T2. And a third group includes genes that were up and/or down regulated in response to the leaf-miner infestation, either in susceptible or resistant leaves.

Interaction between resistant and susceptible genotypes without insect infestation (T0R x T0S)

Since higher values for differential gene expression were observed when comparing T0R X T0S samples, we chose this interaction for further analyses and selection of candidate-genes for validation. In this interaction, 2141 genes exhibited differential expression, 1268 were up regulated and 873 were down regulated.

Regulated genes from the T0 samples were functionally characterized into three gene ontology categories – molecular function, component cellular and biological function - and grouped according their metabolic categories (Figures 1 and 2). A description of the first one hundred most variable genes, both up and down regulated, is shown on Tables 3 and 4 and illustrated in Figures 3 and 4. Several contigs had no correspondence with defined categories. A larger number of genes are up-regulated rather than down-regulated, and associated with primary and cellular metabolism, which included functions such as ion, protein and nucleic acid binding, hydrolase and transferase activities, among others. As these differences were observed in non-infested leaves, possibly a different transcriptional programming takes place in resistant leaves. This may result in a pre-defense status, enabling resistant plants to a faster defense response upon leaf-miner attack.

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Pathways from the top 100 up-regulated genes in T0 interaction. Pathways were identified considering T0 interaction. Amount of genes belonging to pathways is specified in each line.

Figure 2.

Figure 2

Pathways from the top 100 down-regulated genes in T0 interaction. Pathways were identified considering T0 interaction. Amount of genes belonging to pathways is specified in each line.

Table 3.

List of up-regulated genes observed for the T0R_T0S interaction with respective annotation and fold-change values

Name Blast Sol network genomics e-value Annotation* Fold change (T0R X T0S)
0U1
SGN-E628893
0
---NA---
1000,27
0U2
SGN-E1352064
5e-89
Caffeine synthase
642,35
0U3
SGN-E1326397
0
Acidic endochitinase se2
447,45
0U4
SGN-E1310344
0
Metallothionein-like protein
280,91
0U5
SGN-E1334735
0
Kunitz trypsin inhibitor
238,17
0U6
SGN-E1316291
0
Acid phosphatase
236,53
0U7
SGN-E661231
1e-175
Polygalacturonase-1 non-catalytic subunit beta
236,37
0U8
SGN-E1327615
0
Kunitz trypsin inhibitor
168,12
0U9
SGN-E1337775
0
Organ-specific protein
155,92
0U10
SGN-E659257
0
Polygalacturonase-1 non-catalytic subunit beta
152,17
0U11
SGN-E1352070
0
Caffeine synthase
148,75
0U12
SGN-E642649
0
Cytokinin oxidase
143,25
0U13
SGN-E833713
1e-146
Asr1 protein
119,38
0U14
SGN-E667484
0
Protein
115,77
0U15
SGN-E1319644
0
pr-10 type pathogenesis-related protein
98,14
0U16
NM**
 
Protein
97,12
0U17
NM
 
Protein
94,57
0U18
SGN-E1321440
0
Acid phosphatase
93,94
0U19
NM
 
Invertase pectin methylesterase inhibitor family protein
82,40
0U20
SGN-E1312621
0
---NA---
76,83
0U21
SGN-E1309331
0
mpbq msbq methyltransferase 2
75,15
0U22
SGN-E837532
2e-31
Class iii chitinase
75,05
0U23
SGN-E1316252
0
Heat shock
73,55
0U24
SGN-E1325880
0
Swib complex baf60b domain-containing protein
72,42
0U25
SGN-E832873
1e-119
Kunitz trypsin inhibitor
63,26
0U26
SGN-E1322100
1e-73
Polyphenol oxidase
60,83
0U27
SGN-E660241
0
Polyphenol oxidase
57,50
0U28
SGN-E671322
0
60s acidic ribosomal protein p0
56,95
0U29
SGN-E1128614
8e-11
Protein
53,42
0U30
SGN-E682004
0
Lipid transfer protein
50,27
0U31
SGN-E1334549
0
Type ii proteinase inhibitor family protein
49,57
0U32
SGN-E1337715
0
Protein
49,57
0U33
SGN-E640935
0
Class iii chitinase
48,21
0U34
SGN-E990795
7e-16
Microsomal glutathione s-
47,84
0U35
SGN-E668445
0
Serine-type endopeptidase inhibitor
47,81
0U36
NM
 
Metallothionein-like protein
47,79
0U37
NM
 
Polyphenol oxidase
46,30
0U38
SGN-E640935
0
Class iii chitinase
45,63
0U39
SGN-E657601
0
Protein
44,71
0U40
SGN-E835025
 
4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyl diphosphate reductase
44,21
0U41
SGN-E1320197
0
Peroxisomal membrane
43,89
0U42
SGN-E636199
0
---NA---
43,72
0U43
SGN-E1333755
0
Type ii proteinase inhibitor family protein
41,88
0U44
SGN-E1337775
0
Organ-specific protein
41,68
0U45
SGN-E912118
1e-23
Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase type 5
41,04
0U46
SGN-E628829
8e-94
Cell wall protein
40,77
0U47
SGN-E449176
 
Phospholipid glycerol acyltransferase family protein 7
39,90
0U48
SGN-E830846
0
r3h domain containing
39,64
0U49
SGN-E628829
8e-94
Oxygen-evolving enhancer protein chloroplast
39,55
0U50
NM
 
Auxin-independent growth promoter protein
39,13
0U51
SGN-E1349312
0
Lipid transfer protein
39,09
0U52
SGN-E639273
1e-160
Protein kinase domain containing expressed
38,61
0U53
SGN-E1352095
0
Protein
35,83
0U54
SGN-E838896
0
Cytochrome p450
34,98
0U55
NM
 
nadh dehydrogenase subunit f
34,83
0U56
SGN-E838821
0
mta sah
34,62
0U57
SGN-E669832
0
Cytokinin oxidase
33,83
0U58
SGN-E643214
0
vesicle-associated membrane protein 714
33,06
0U59
SGN-E1346029
0
Protein
32,83
0U60
SGN-E1348577
0
Protein
32,50
0U61
SGN-E674849
1e-15
Mitochondrial chaperonin hsp60
32,40
0U62
SGN-E788243
6e-20
Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase type 5
32,40
0U63
SGN-E109388
3e-31
Protein
31,93
0U64
SGN-E1326628
0
Formate dehydrogenase
31,83
0U65
SGN-E1333903
0
Elongation factor-1 alpha
31,16
0U66
NM
 
Protein
30,56
0U67
SGN-E1321812
0
Peptidylprolyl isomerase
30,27
0U68
SGN-E1310338
0
60s ribosomal protein
30,00
0U69
NM
 
Conserved hypothetical protein [Ricinus communis]
29,87
0U70
SGN-E681444
0
Homeobox-leucine zipper protein
29,71
0U71
SGN-E1168096
2e-20
Protein
29,31
0U72
SGN-E818914
2e-36
Gibberellin 20
29,19
0U73
SGN-E431715
7e-11
Cellulose synthase
28,99
0U74
SGN-E650445
0
Poly -binding protein
28,29
0U75
SGN-E631106
3e-19
orf i polyprotein
28,09
0U76
SGN-E1314273
0
Ankyrin repeat domain
27,84
0U77
SGN-E1315499
9e-23
Atapy2 atpase nucleotide diphosphatase
27,54
0U78
SGN-E1315958
0
nadh ubiquinone oxidoreductase b14 subunit
26,38
0U79
SGN-E830665
0
sec61 transport protein
25,52
0U80
SGN-E1316141
0
Flavanone 3-hydroxylase-like protein
24,98
0U81
NM
 
cbl-interacting serine threonine-protein
24,92
0U82
SGN-E1342733
0
Transcription factor lim
24,70
0U83
SGN-E837532
8e-30
Class iii chitinase
23,94
0U84
SGN-E1322208
5e-90
Cysteine proteinase
23,93
0U85
SGN-E1322866
1e-126
Protein
23,85
0U86
SGN-E1315443
0
Acid phosphatase
23,69
0U87
SGN-E662706
0
gdsl-motif lipase hydrolase family protein
23,27
0U88
SGN-E266690
7e-11
Protein
23,16
0U89
SGN-E1319812
0
Protein
22,87
0U90
SGN-E1334410
0
Protein
22,82
0U91
SGN-E1321222
0
Triosephosphate isomerase
22,62
0U92
SGN-E648331
1e-68
Serine-threonine protein plant-
22,61
0U93
SGN-E1351186
0
Class iii chitinase
22,36
0U94
SGN-E951741
2e-22
Late embryogenesis abundant protein lea14-
22,06
0U95
SGN-E686943
0
Dehydrin
21,99
0U96
SGN-E674268
1e-90
mta sah
21,79
0U97
SGN-E1352075
0
7-methylxanthine n-methyltransferase
21,73
0U98
SGN-E1323598
0
Transcription initiation factor iib
21,29
0U99
SGN-E1348381
1e-151
Translation factor
21,07
0U100 SGN-E1322408 0 Beta-glucosidase-like protein 20,89

*The annotation of each sequence was established on the Coffee Genome Database [31].

**No match with any sequence on the Solanaceae Genomic Database.

Table 4.

List of down-regulated genes observed for the T0R_T0S interaction with respective annotation and fold-change values

Name Blast Sol network genomics e-value Annotation* Fold change (T0R X T0S)
0D1
SGN-E1320843
0
Protein
-445,87
0D2
SGN-E676870
0
Protein
-235,45
0D3
SGN-E1320843
0
Zinc finger
-126,65
0D4
SGN-E1325444
0
Hypothetical protein VITISV_000181 [Vitis vinifera]
-62,54
0D5
SGN-E835732
0
Tapetum-specific protein lla-115
-49,63
0D6
SGN-E661762
0
---NA---
-35,43
0D7
NM**
 
PREDICTED: hypothetical protein [Vitis vinifera]
-24,73
0D8
NM
 
Glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase 6
-17,93
0D9
SGN-E1321887
0
gdsl-motif lipase hydrolase-like
-16,98
0D10
SGN-E1033676
5e-19
er glycerol-phosphate acyltransferase
-16,50
0D11
SGN-E1322050
0
Extensin-like protein
-14,88
0D12
SGN-E791894
1e-118
Cytochrome p450
-12,96
0D13
SGN-E837009
0
Cytochrome p450
-11,39
0D14
NM
 
Cytochrome b
-11,12
0D15
SGN-E1349845
1e-137
gdsl-motif lipase hydrolase family protein
-10,27
0D16
SGN-E1318049
1e-153
Gibberellin-regulated protein 1
-9,89
0D17
SGN-E660879
0
Zinc finger
-9,88
0D18
SGN-E835266
0
Isocitrate lyase
-9,22
0D19
SGN-E673783
0
Isocitrate lyase
-8,84
0D20
NM
 
---NA---
-8,83
0D21
SGN-E660879
0
Zinc finger
-8,73
0D22
SGN-E680272
1e-128
Protein
-8,498
0D23
SGN-E898278
4e-13
Protein
-8,43
0D24
SGN-E1328871
0
---NA---
-8,16
0D25
NM
 
Cytochrome p450
-8,02
0D26
SGN-E678498
0
Protein
-7,36
0D27
SGN-E1319644
0
Serine-threonine protein plant-
-7,35
0D28
SGN-E838812
1e-40
---NA---
-7,34
0D29
NM
 
Pathogenesis-related protein 1
-7,27
0D30
SGN-E1312882
0
Heat shock protein
-7,17
0D31
NM
 
---NA---
-7,12
0D32
SGN-E830806
0
Cytochrome p450
-7,06
0D33
SGN-E1334002
0
abc transporter
-7,00
0D34
SGN-E659349
0
Glutathione s-transferase gstu6
-6,85
0D35
SGN-E1317104
0
Aspartyl protease family protein
-6,74
0D36
SGN-E1322588
1e-180
at1g72120 f28p5_2
-6,53
0D37
NM
 
---NA---
-6,46
0D38
SGN-E1350292
0
Lactoylglutathione lyase family protein
-6,46
0D39
NM
 
Achain crystal structure of a cell-wall invertase from Arabidopsis thaliana in complex with sucrose
-6,36
0D40
SGN-E1335955
3e-56
Retroelement pol polyprotein
-6,24
0D41
SGN-E820310
2e-64
Xyloglucan endotransglucosylase hydrolase protein 22
-6,23
0D42
SGN-E836814
1e-169
Leucine-rich plant specific
-6,20
0D43
SGN-E686810
0
Zinc finger
-6,09
0D44
SGN-E839045
0
Glucose-methanol-choline oxidoreductase family protein
-6,06
0D45
SGN-E531670
1e-12
Hydrolyzing o-glycosyl
-5,97
0D46
SGN-E1216540
2e-27
Aminotransferase family protein
-5,91
0D47
SGN-E747084
4e-68
Alkaline alpha-galactosidase seed imbibition protein
-5,81
0D48
SGN-E836814
1e-179
Leucine-rich plant specific
-5,71
0D49
SGN-E1345225
0
---NA---
-5,71
0D50
SGN-E1325272
0
Protein
-5,69
0D51
SGN-E626178
8e-17
 
-5,62
0D52
NM
 
Alkaline alpha-galactosidase seed imbibition protein
-5,60
0D53
NM
 
Cinnamoyl reductase-like protein
-5,57
0D54
SGN-E1349228
0
Proline dehydrogenase
-5,54
0D55
SGN-E775239
8e-14
Kinesin like protein
-5,46
0D56
NM
 
Methyl-accepting chemotaxis sensory transducer
-5,45
0D57
NM
 
Transcription factor
-5,42
0D58
NM
 
3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase family protein
-5,39
0D59
NM
 
Outer membrane porin protein
-5,36
0D60
SGN-E1317853
0
Transcription activator
-5,31
0D61
SGN-E666413
0
bahd family clade v
-5,20
0D62
SGN-E658983
0
Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
-5,18
0D63
SGN-E1327315
0
Tonoplast intrinsic
-5,17
0D64
SGN-1331462
0
Achain crystal structure of a cell-wall invertase from arabidopsis thaliana in complex with sucrose
-5,08
0D65
NM
 
Inner-membrane translocator
-5,00
0D66
NM
 
Beta-ig-h3 fasciclin
-4,94
0D67
SGN-E653486
1e-52
bahd family clade v
-4,90
0D68
NM
 
Stachyose synthase
-4,86
0D69
SGN-E1349101
3e-46
60s acidic ribosomal protein p1
-4,85
0D70
NM
 
Disease resistance
-4,79
0D71
SGN-E666413
0
bahd family clade v
-4,75
0D72
SGN-E1313854
0
Cytosolic aldehyde dehydrogenase
-4,75
0D73
SGN-E1320568
0
Protein
-4,72
0D74
SGN-E748200
1e-22
Anthranilate synthase alpha subunit
-4,71
0D75
SGN-E1316428
0
Heat shock protein
-4,68
0D76
NM
 
Protein
-4,67
0D77
SGN-E700960
8e-56
Magnesium transporter
-4,67
0D78
SGN-E1321133
0
Glutathione s-transferase
-4,66
0D79
SGN-E1309644
1e-33
---NA---
-4,66
0D80
NM
 
nac domain ipr003441
-4,63
0D81
SGN-E791702
0
Zinc finger
-4,57
0D82
SGN-E524668
0
Protein
-4,49
0D83
SGN-E667829
0
gdsl-motif lipase hydrolase family protein
-4,46
0D84
SGN-E955597
4e-15
Proline dehydrogenase
-4,44
0D85
NM
 
---NA---
-4,43
0D86
SGN-E1312314
0
PREDICTED: hypothetical protein [Vitis vinifera]
-4,39
0D87
NM
 
Undecaprenyl pyrophosphate phosphatase
-4,37
0D88
SGN-E1350610
0
Cytosolic class i small heat-shock protein
-4,35
0D89
NM
 
---NA---
-4,34
0D90
SGN-E747084
2e-89
Alkaline alpha-galactosidase seed imbibition protein
-4,34
0D91
NM
 
Protein
-4,32
0D92
SGN-E528554
 
pili assembly chaperone
-4,31
0D93
SGN-E528554
7e-30
Cell-wall invertase
-4,28
0D94
NM
 
nbs-lrr resistance protein
-4,26
0D95
NM
 
Transcriptional family
-4,26
0D96
NM
 
---NA---
-4,24
0D97
NM
 
Oxysterol binding protein
-4,21
0D98
SGN-E1196563
2e-53
ap2 domain-containing transcription factor
-4,20
0D99
SGN-E834183
0
nac domain protein nac2
-4,19
0D100 SGN-E678677 0 ---NA--- -4,19

*The annotation of each sequence was established on the Coffee Genome Database (Vieira et al., 2006).

**No match with any sequence on the Solanacea Genomic Database.

Figure 3.

Figure 3

Biological process for up-regulated genes. Functional categorization of up regulated genes (%) in coffee genotypes (susceptible and resistant to leaf miner) without insect.

Figure 4.

Figure 4

Biological process for down regulated genes. Functional categorization of down-regulated genes (%) in coffee genotypes (susceptible and resistant to leaf miner) without insect.

Metabolic pathways

The categorization of annotated genes using Kegg database was performed with the first 100 up and down regulated genes (Figures 1 and 2). Most of these genes are from starch and purine metabolism, and several others are involved in primary metabolism. Three main metabolic pathways are highlighted here: citrate metabolism, linoleic acid metabolism and phenylpropanoids metabolism.

We choose the citric acid cycle for further characterization as previous analyses using NMR indicated that lower levels of malate, a metabolite resulting from the citrate metabolism, are observed in resistant coffee leaves [33]. Several genes encoding citric acid cycle enzymes exhibit differential-expression (Figure 5). Expression of isocitrate lyase gene is repressed in resistant genotypes at T0 (fold change value -8,84), suggesting that synthesis of malate may be deficient, and therefore low levels of malate may accumulate in those leaves. However, this gene is up-regulated upon oviposition and egg ecclosion (fold change value 2,33).

Figure 5.

Figure 5

Citric acid pathway (KEGG database). Enzymes are identified by E.C. number and those corresponding to differentially expressed genes are highlighted according to the color scale. Color codes for each gene at T0 are as follows: red for up-regulated, green for down-regulated and grey for no differential expression. E.C number and correspondent enzyme: 1.1.1.37 - Malate dehydrogenase; 1.1.1.41 - Isocitrate dehydrogenase (NAD(+); 1.1.1.42 -Isocitrate dehydrogenase (NADP(+); 1.2.4.1 - Pyruvate dehydrogenase (acetyl-transferring) (Pyruvate dehydrogenase) 1.3.99.1 - Succinate dehydrogenase (Fumarate reductase); 2.3.3.1 - Citrate (Si)-synthase, 4.1.1.32 – Phosphopyruvate carboxylase; 4.2.1.2 – Fumarate hydratase (Fumarase).

The linoleic acid is the first substrate of the Jasmonic acid (JA) pathway, a major signaling pathway during herbivore-defense responses. Control resistant plants (T0) show up-regulation of jasmonate O-methyltransferase and lipoxygenase while differential expression for these genes was not observed at any stage in susceptible genotypes (Figure 6). Also, 13 genes from the alpha-linoleic acid metabolism and 57 genes from jasmonate biosynthesis were regulated in resistant plants (Figure 6). For instance, transcripts of enoyl-CoA hydratase and phospholipase A2 were four times more expressed in T0 than in T1 in resistant genotypes (Figure 6), but increased only at later stages in susceptible leaves.

Figure 6.

Figure 6

Alfa-Linolenic acid metabolism pathway (KEGG database). Enzymes are identified by E.C. number and those corresponding to differentially expressed genes are highlighted according to the color scale. Color codes for each gene at T0 are as follows: red for up-regulated, green for down-regulated and grey for no differential expression. E.C number and correspondent enzyme: 1.3.1.42 – 12-oxophytodienoate reductase; 3.1.1.4 – Phospholipase A2; 1.13.11.12 – Linoleate 13S-lipoxygenase; 5.3.99.6 – Allene oxide cyclase; 2.1.1.141 - Jasmonate O-methyltransferase; FADS2 – fatty acid desaturase 2 ; MFP2 – 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase/ enoyl-CoA hydratase.

Phenylpropanoids are major plant phtytoalexins, part of the secondary metabolism (Figure 7). Twenty-seven genes from phenylpropanoids synthesis exhibited differential expression at T0, with foldchange values ranging from 9 to -5. Transcript levels of phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the pathway, is up-regulated only at T0 in resistant plants (2,05), and this level decreases along insect development. In susceptible plants, PAL transcript levels increase at final steps of insect infection, T2 (2,55). However, genes fromlignin and isoflavones synthesis, downstream metabolites, such as cynnamyl alcoholdehydrogenase (-2,79) and isoflavone reductase (-1,20), are down-regulated in resistant plants. On the other hand, genes from biosynthesis of anthocyanins and tannins, such as flavonoide 3’-hydroxylase (T0 = 24; T1 = 5; T2 = 8) and leucoanthocyanidin dioxygenase (T0 = 2; T1 = 9; T2 = 3) are up-regulated at all times in resistant plants. This expression profile suggests that synthesis of anthocyanins and tannins is favored over synthesis of flavones. Also, activation of upstream genes such as phenylalanine ammonia lyase, chalcone synthase and flavonone dehydrogenase is observed at final stages in susceptible plants, indicating that phenylpropanoid biosynthesis is delayed.

Figure 7.

Figure 7

Phenylpropanoid biosysthesis pathway (KEGG database). Enzymes are identified by E.C. number and those corresponding to differentially expressed genes are highlighted according to the color scale. Color codes for each gene at T0 are as follows: red for up-regulated, green for down-regulated and grey for no differential expression. E.C number and correspondent enzyme: 1.1.1.195 - Cinnamyl-alcohol dehydrogenase; 1.2.1.44 - Cinnamoyl-CoA reductase; 1.11.1.7 - Peroxidase; 1.14.13 monoxygenase; 2.1.1.68 Caffeate O-methyltransferase; 2.3.1.91 - Sinapoylglucose--choline O-sinapoyltransferase 2.3.1.99 - Quinate hydroxycinnamoyltransferase, 2.3.1.133 - Shikimate O-hydroxycinnamoyltransferase; 4.3.1.24 - Phenylalanine ammonia lyase.

Several other defense-related genes are also positively regulated in resistant plants, including herbivore-response related genes glutathione-S-transferase and cysteine proteinase inhibitor. Apoptosis-related genes have a variable expression profile: catalase is up-regulated throughout insect development but citocrome c oxidase, superoxide dismutase and a senescence-associated protein have no differential expression, and polygalacturonase is up-regulated only at T0.

Validation of expression profile for selected candidate-genes

We selected 18 genes for validation, listed with corresponding expression levels on Table 5. Genes exhibited a consistent expression pattern when quantified by either microarray or qPCR, and the Pearson coefficient for this comparison is 0.92

Table 5.

Expression Pattern of eighteen genes selected for validation

Name Blast SOL network genomics Annotation Fold-change value * (microarray) ΔΔCt value ** (relative expression) Coef. Pearson.***
0U17
NM
Protein
94
39
0,9242
0U6
SGN E1316291
Acid phosphatase
236
15
 
0U14
SGN E667484
Protein
115
36
 
0U2
SGN E1352064
Caffeine synthase
642
179
 
0U4
SGN E1310344
Metallothionein-like protein
280
8,45
 
0U322
SGN E450221
nadp-dependent d-sorbitol-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
6,56
3
 
0U1
SGN E628893
No hits
1000
186,9
 
0U42
SGN E636199
---NA---
43
8,16
 
0D6
SGN E661762
---NA---
-35
-4,3
 
0D10
SGN E1033676
Glycerol-phosphate acyltransferase
-16
-1,8
 
0D2
SGN E676870
Protein
-235
-120
 
0D1
SGN E1320843
Protein
-445
-200
 
0D19
SGN E673783
Isocitrate lyase
-8
-6
 
0D3
SGN E1320843
Zinc finger
-126
-17
 
0D4
SGN E1325444
Hypothetical protein
-62
-36
 
0D8
NM
Glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase 6
-17
-2,3
 
0D9
SGN E1321887
gdsl-motif lipase hydrolase-like
-16
-2,2
 
0D7 NM Hypothetical protein -24 -5,8  

*Microarray analysis value.

**qRT-PCR analysis value.

***Pearson coefficient correlation value.

Further qPCR analyses were performed to validate expression of selected leaf-miner resistance-associated candidate-genes (Figure 8). These included genes from pathways described above and genes with either no significant hits or similarity to unknown proteins, which may represent coffee specific genes, not yet identified or characterized.

Figure 8.

Figure 8

Correlation between foldchange values obtained from microarray analysis and qRT-PCR. Blue bars indicate values for T0 interaction (T0R_T0S), red bars for T1 interaction (T1R_T1S), green bars for T2 interaction (T2R_T2S). Dark colors of each interaction indicate fold change values from microarray analysis and soft color from qRT-PCR.

The putative caffeine synthase gene exhibited the greatest response to leaf-miner infection (Figure 8), as its expression was significantly higher (Relative Quantification value – RQv 230.45) in control resistant leaves, and also in later stages (RQv 155.24). The expression of gene SGN-E628893, encoding an unknown protein, is significantly higher (RQv 1000) in control resistant leaves than in susceptible ones (Figure 8). However, transcript levels dropped in resistant plants at first stages of infection, such as oviposition (RQv -1.53) and egg ecclosion (RQv 1.22). This gene is a good candidate for differentiation of resistant and susceptible plants, although possibly is not related to resistance.

The isocitrate lyase gene is down-regulated (RQv -6.38) in resistant leaves at T0. At initial steps of infection its transcript levels increased rapidly (RQv 5.49), but decreased during feeding stages. Other evaluated genes also exhibited a regulated expression. The glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase 6 gene, a trans-membrane protein associated with synthesis of cutin, is up regulated (RQv 11.12). A gene encoding metallothionein-like protein, a class of metal-chelators proteins with possible anti-oxidant role, is also up-regulated (RQv 12.88) at initial stages of insect development.

Genes encoding unknown proteins with lipase protein domain, such as SGN-U585128, SL2.40ch08 and SGN-U585128 were activated in resistant plants, being up-regulated at oviposition and/or egg ecclosion with RQ values of 19.72, 19.03 and 10.30 respectively. As these genes are down-regulated on leaves at T0, this profile during insect development suggests a role during defense response (Figure 8).

The expression profile of polygalacturonase gene was not confirmed by real-time PCR. According to microarray in silico analysis this gene is activated at T0 (fold change value 236,370), and afterwards transcript levels drop along insect development (fold change value 1,628). Yet by real-time PCR analysis transcript levels are similar in susceptible and resistant plants at all times. This result may reflect differences on genetic background of evaluated plants, once they are part of a population still segregating for some characteristics. However, as this was the only observed discrepancy between all performed analyses, these genetic differences may not be associated with the resistance trait.

Discussion

The use of resistant or tolerant cultivars represents an alternative for reducing the use of chemical defensives, the costs of production, and the negative impact over environment. In coffee, breeding for herbivore resistance is important once Coffea arabica, the main commercial Coffea species, is susceptible to almost all known coffee pathogens. Then resistance must be transferred from other compatible species, which is not always possible due to limited efficiency of inter-specific crosses.

At the Agronomic Institute (Campinas, Brazil) leaf-miner resistance genes have been transferred from C. racemosa to C. arabica through traditional breeding strategies, and although the program is currently at advanced generations, no resistant commercial cultivar is available yet. The lack of knowledge of molecular aspects controlling the resistance response, and the restricted genetic variability of breeding populations [34] limit the development of genomic-based selection tools. In this context, we aimed to provide information on molecular aspects of leaf-miner defense mechanisms and identification of reliable candidate-marker genes for assisted-selection. Those genomic tools associated with traditional breeding strategies guarantee that agronomical traits such as productivity and cup quality will be selected in advanced generations. Also, once novel genomic-markers associated with other desirable traits are developed for coffee genotypes, a genome-wide selection strategy will be possible to develop multiple-pathogen resistant cultivars. We chose the microarray analysis approach to assess the co-expression of a large amount of genes, including those that are not looked at in common analyses. Nevertheless, the results described in this work indicated that pathways regularly activated in response to herbivory, such as linoleic acid cycle, phenylpropanoids synthesis and apoptosis, are also activated during coffee-response to leaf-miner. Genes associated with jasmonate (JA) synthesis, such as lipoxygenase and enoyl-CoA hydratase, and with flavonoids synthesis, such as chalcone synthase and flavanone 3-hydroxylase-like, are up-regulated in resistant plants. Also, pathways from the primary metabolism, such as the citric acid cycle are down-regulated during leaf-miner defense response in resistant plants, a profile observed also in conifers [35].

Results of this study provide evidence that most genes encoding enzymes from the citric acid cycle are down-regulated in resistant plants (Figure 5). In a parallel analysis, a metabolite profile was established for resistant and susceptible genotypes using an NMR-based technique [33] and indicated that malate levels on resistant leaves are lower than in susceptible ones. Malate results from conversion of either fumarate or glyoxylate. Expression of fumarase, that converts fumarate into malate, is down-regulated at T0 in resistant genotypes (-2), what could explain the low malate levels. Production of malate from glyoxylate may also be deficient in resistant plants, once genes encoding for malate synthase, that converts glyoxylate into malate, and for isocitrate liase, the upstream enzyme that converts isocitrate into glyoxylate and succinate, are both down-regulated (-2,51 and -9, respectively). In contrast to this profile, susceptible plants exhibit a regular expression levels for these genes at T0. Therefore, both metabolic and transcriptional profiles support the affirmations that citrate cycle is down regulated in leaf-miner resistant coffee plants, and the model of down-regulation of primary metabolism in herbivore-resistant plants [36].

Biosynthesis of JA starts with alpha-linoleic acid release in non-injured tissues, triggered by systemin and phospholipase A2. Alpha-linoleic acid is then converted to JA after enzymatic steps performed by 13-lipoxygenase (LOX), allene oxide synthase (AOS), jasmonate o-methyltransferase and others [37,38]. Several genes from the JA biosynthesis pathway are up-regulated in resistant plants at T0, including those from downstream steps such as jasmonate o-methyltransferase which expression is 10-fold higher than in susceptible plants. All genes of the JA biosynthesis are either down-regulated or up-regulated at later stages in susceptible plants, as for instance expression of LOX (T0 -8.66; T1 1; T2 2) increases only at T1. These observations suggest that the JA signalling pathway, including intermediate signaling-molecules such as oxo-pentenyl-cyclopentane (OPC), may be impaired in susceptible plants. Down-regulation of genes from later steps of JA biosynthesis, such as allene oxide cyclase, allene oxide synthase, carboxyl methyltransferase, the enzyme that converts jasmonic acid into methyl jasmonate, is observed at T1 and T2 in resistant plants. Therefore, a feedback regulation may be activated, with a re-programming of transcriptional response upon leaf-miner infection.

Genes associated with biosynthesis of secondary compounds are shown here to be regulated. Expression profile of genes from phenylpropanoids biosynthesis, both up-stream genes such as PAL and CHS, and downstream genes such as flavonoide 3’-hydroxylase, leucoanthocyanidin dioxygenase, reveals a preferential synthesis of tannins and anthocyanins instead of ligninin, flavones and isoflavones in resistant plants. This profile indicates a direct defense strategy against leaf-miner, once among anthocyanins and tannins are found toxic compounds with antifeedants effects over insects [39,40].

Another gene linked to secondary metabolism is a putative caffeine synthase, which encodes one enzyme from caffeine biosynthetic pathway. Caffeine is an alkaloid distributed in coffee plant tissues and organs. The fact that expression of a gene from its biosynthesis is significantly increased upon leaf-miner infection suggests that caffeine may have a role in defense response. However, several studies regarding caffeine and leaf-miner development indicated that this compound has no effect on insect survival rates [41,42].

Once the ultimate goal of this study is to identify potential candidate for markers, several genes were selected for validation using real-time PCR. Potential candidates include: isocitrate lyase, which increased expression during initial steps of leaf-miner infection may be co-related with reduction of primary carbon metabolism; putative caffeine synthase, part of an important pathway of coffee plants; glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase 6, a gene associated with lipid metabolism and part of cutin biosynthetic pathway, a secondary metabolite [43]; and finally metallothionein-like protein gene, a metal-transporter protein family with an uncertain role in plant metabolism but previously associated with redox responses [44]. Future analyses include cloning and re-sequencing genomic regions of target genes from different genotypes in order to identify suitable polymorphisms.

Among selected genes are those that have no similarity with any known reported gene or protein. Although they could not yet be associated with a biological process, their expression profile was very specific and related to defense response. For instance, genes SGN-E676870, SGN-E1128614 SGN-E1320843 were activated upon leaf-miner infection in resistant plants, and therefore represent good candidates for further investigation. Another interesting unknown gene is SGN-E628893, which is highly activated in resistant plants at T0 but is repressed upon infection. The expression profile indicates that this gene is useful for early differentiation between resistant and susceptible plants.

In summary, differential expression profiles between resistant and susceptible genotypes are observed even in the absence of leaf-miner, indicating that defense is already build up in resistant plants, as a priming mechanism. Then, a systemic defense response may be more rapidly activated in resistant plants, once basic compounds such as nitrogen and sugars are readily available as a result of repression of primary metabolism. This shift in plant metabolism is common after a pathogen attack, where defense-related pathways are activated, resulting in reduction of growth and reproduction, and in changes on link-source relationship [45]. During herbivore-defense transcript levels of genes involved in photosynthesis are also down-regulated [21,46], probably as a strategy to liberate nitrogen compounds for the secondary metabolism. Maintenance of these physiological and metabolic states has a high energetic cost, and could represent a survival limitation if nutritional conditions on the field are depleted. Actually, field observations in cultivated areas demonstrated that leaf-miner resistant coffee plants, under a severe nutritional deficit, are attacked by the leaf-miner at the same intensity as susceptible plants [27].

Conclusions

As a basal defense state is decisive for triggering a rapid resistance response, genes associated with priming validated here, represent key genes for assisted-selection. Future studies will focus on comparisons of selected genes genomic sequences, from both resistant and susceptible parental lines, to identify suitable marker polymorphisms.

Methods

Plant materials

Resistant and susceptible coffee progenies were developed by the Coffee Breeding Program from the Agronomic Institute (IAC), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil. The evaluated population (H14954-46), with 136 plants, is a F2BC5 generation of the inter-specific cross (C. racemosa X C. arabica) X C. arabica.

Plants were evaluated regarding the defense-response to Leucoptera coffeella using infestation methodology described by Guerreiro-Filho et al. [28]. After egg hatching, 1.8 cm leaf discs were taken from the leaves using a cork bore. Discs were placed on damp plastic foam and maintained in a plastic box for two weeks. Resistance/susceptibility response was visually scored according to the evaluation scale defined by Ramiro et al. [26].

Coffee leaf miner infestation of selected plants

Fifteen resistant (R) and fifteen susceptible (S) coffee plants previously selected were used for leaf-miner infestation. Plants/seedlings of each group (R and S) were challenged with L. coffeella in rearing cages and following the same procedures described above. Control non-infestaded plants of each group were also evaluated. Three independent infestation experiments were used for further analyses.

Leaves were collected from the third and fourth pair from plants during different stages of insect development. Stages corresponded to egg hatching, after 1 to 5 days after infestation with L. coffeella (T1), and egg eclosion and tissue injury, after 6 to 10 days after infestation (T2). Control non-infested leaves (T0) were also collected for each genotype. Three leaves of each plant and each stage of insect development were collected (totalizing nine leaf per time of sampling/genotype) and immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at -80°C until RNA extraction. Experimental design was completely randomized including three replicates for each sample.

RNA isolation and preparations

Total RNA for both NimbleGen microarray hybridization and real-time qPCR experiments was isolated using protocol described by Chang et al. [47]. RNA extractions were performed using 2 g of tissue of pooled samples. All RNA samples were analyzed by formaldehyde-agarose gel electrophoresis and by spectrophotometry to assess physical and chemical integrity. To avoid contamination by polyphenols, carbohydrates and proteins, only RNA samples with OD 260/280 and 260/230 > 1.8 were selected for further analysis. For microarray hybridizations, extracted RNA was also checked for purity and degradation using an Agilent Bioanalyzer 1000 (Agilent Technologies). Samples were stored at -80°C until further use.

cDNA double strand synthesis, labeling and hybridization

Ten thousands nanograms (10.000 ng) of each RNA sample were pooled and treated with DNAse- RNAase free for cDNA synthesis and labelling. Three biological replicates of each treatment were used for hybridization with the cDNA microarray chip. Equal amounts of each replicate from resistant and susceptible plants were pooled respectively to minimize variation between individual RNA samples. All RNA samples were sent to Roche NimbleGen Systems, where cDNA synthesis and Cy3 labeling were performed following the manufacturer’s procedures (Nimblegen Gene Expression Analysis protocol, Nimblegen Systems, Inc., Madison, WI, USA). Equal quantities of total RNA of each sample were converted to double strand cDNA (cDNA Synthesis System, Roche Applied Science). All the required equipments, reagents and procedures were provided and executed by Roche/NimbleGen.

Design and production of the Coffea ssp. Nimblegen® custom array

Arrays were designed using sequence information available at the Brazilian Coffee Genome Project, which contains sequences of around 33 K genes identified in EST libraries prepared from different physiological and metabolic situations [31]. The Coffea dataset was composed by quality-filtered contigs from different non-normalized ESTs/cDNA libraries of two coffee species Coffea arabica, Coffea canephora and Coffea racemosa, and by singlets of this assembly. Only sequences with at least one blast hit against NR database (e-value <1e-10) were used as source sequences to generate probes for the 12 coffee microarray. The probes were designed by Roche-NimbleGen software, which selected unique sequences regions for each gene to avoid multiple hybridization with gene family members. Each microarrays consisted of 135.000 probes with length of 48 nucleotides and Tm average from 68°C to 76°C, representing 22,000 genes, with a minimum of 6 probes/gene. The final probe list was submitted to Roche-NimbleGen, Inc. (Madison, WI, USA) for quality control and subsequent probe array layout. Additional probes were also included on the microarray by Roche-NimbleGen, Inc. for quality control of the hybridization process. Microarray manufacture was synthesized in situ by photolithography on glass slides using a random positional pattern by NimbleGen (http://www.nimblegen.com/).

Normalization and statistical analysis

Hybridized-microarray slides were imaged with a high resolution array scanner (GenePix 4000B Microarray Scanner, Molecular Devices Corp., Sunnyvale, CA, USA) and fluorescent signal intensities from each spot were quantified using NimbleScan Software (NimbleGen Systems Inc.). The intensity values were normalized using the oligo package from R statistics software [48]. The workflow used to normalize our data was followed as explained by the package provided for Nimblegen® expression microarrays. Fold change values were calculated comparing resistant and susceptible genotypes with and without infestation. All clusters were annotated using the blast2go software [48] in order to label them with their probable molecular function, biological process and cellular component. An automatic pipeline using Perl scripts was created to map each probe to its corresponding gene and annotation.

Differentially expressed genes (fold change values between 2 and -2) were identified using linear models and by taking into account technical and biological replicates. When individual probes met the criteria that average signals from resistant versus susceptible genotypes differed significantly by at least two fold, probes were selected for final analysis.

Functional characterization of differentially expressed genes was performed using Blast2GO [49] and also through directed searches on Gene Ontology (http://www.geneontology.org), KEGG (http://www.genome.jp/kegg) e InterPro (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/) databases.

Microarray validation

Validation of selected differentially expressed genes was performed by real-time PCR. Gene-specific primers were designed using Primer Express 3.0 (Applied Biosystems) and Premier Primer 5.0 (Premier Biosoft International, Palo Alto, CA, USA). Gene sequences were aligned with GeneBank reference sequences using the tBLASTx tool. Possible ORFs and functional and conserved domains were identified using the Open Reading Frame Finder (ORF FINDER) and CDD tools from the NCBI database. In order to guarantee gene-specificity and avoid amplification of multigene families, primers were designed upon target regions which included the conserved domain and/or motif and anchoring outside the conserved region. A list of designed primers is shown on Table 6.

Table 6.

Primer sequences used for validation in qRT-PCR analysis

Name Blast SOL network genomics Annotation Foward sequence Reverse sequence
0U17
NM
Protein
ACTACCAACATTCACAGCAGCTC
TTAACCCTGTTGAAGGTTAGTGC
0U6
SGN E1316291
Acid phosphatase
CTAATTAACCCTCTCCGCATGAT
GCCAACTCAGGCAATTATATACG
0U14
SGN E667484
Protein
TAGTCAAGAATATGGGCATGGAC
ATACCTTCTTGATTCACGCCTTC
0U2
SGN E1352064
Caffeine synthase
AAAGGGAGCATTTACTCTTCCAAAG
AGCATGCATCCTGAGAAATGTGGTA
0U4
SGN E1310344
Metallothionein-like protein
ATTCGTCTGCTCTGTGAAGATGT
ATACATGTTTCCGCAGTTTCCT
0U322
SGN E450221
nadp-dependent d-sorbitol-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
CCTTTGTGGCTTCTAAGCAAAT
GGAAAGCAGAGATTGACAAACAG
0U1
SGN E628893
No hits
CAAGGAAGATGCTTTTGACGAT
TGTAATTATGCTGCTGGTGCTAC
0U1
SGN E628893
No hits
CATTTAGTTTGGAAGGGGACAA
GGATACAGCCGGTAGGACTAACT
0U42
SGN E636199
---NA---
ACCCGCCGGGAAACC
GATGCACAGACAGGAATCACAAC
0D6
SGN E661762
---NA---
TTGGTAATGATGGAAGTGTCCTC
GCCAGTAATGGGATTGTAGTTGA
0D10
SGN E1033676
Glycerol-phosphate acyltransferase
CTAGCTTGACCAGGAAAGACAAG
GACTCAGGACTGCTCATTTCATT
0D2
SGN E676870
Protein
GGCAACTACTGCATTCTATCAGC
AAATGGATGAGCTGAAGGAGAAC
0D1
SGN E1320843
Protein
ACTAGTACTGGGTGTTGCCTCAA
GGTGAGCAAATAGTTGTTGTTGC
0D19
SGN E673783
Isocitrate lyase
GGCCAGGAGCAACAGACATT
ATTCTCTCACAATCTTGACTTTGCA
0D3
SGN E1320843
Zinc finger
CTGATTACGTCCGCTATCTCATT
AACCTATCGGACCTGTACCTGTT
0D4
SGN E1325444
Hypothetical protein
TACTGGCACTAATGGAGGAAATG
AATGGGGACAGATGTATCATCAC
0D8
NM
Glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase 6
TTCAAGAGTTTGGTACTGACGTG
ATCATGGTCTGTCTCTCGATCTC
0D9
SGN E1321887
gdsl-motif lipase hydrolase-like
TCTTAACTGGACTTCCTCCAATG
CCATTGAAGTTTAGAGCCACAAC
0D7
NM
Hypothetical protein
CCAAGACAGTTGATCTCCCTCTA
CGTAGTAGCTAGATGGTGCCAGT
0U9
SGN-E1337775
Organ-specific protein
GGTTTCTTTAGGGTTTCCTTCCT
CACAGTGTGTGTGTTTTGTTCCT
0U11
SGN-E1352070
Caffeine synthase
CCTAGCAAGCCATTTTGGAG
ATTCTTGGCAAACCTGTGGA
0U6
SGN-E1316291
Acid phosphatase
ATTACGGCTATGGCAGAATTAGC
CACCATGTTTCCTTGTTTGAGA
0U3
SGN-E1326397
Acidic endochitinase se2
CAGCAAATTCTTCCCTATGTCC
CAGCGTTTCAGGGTTAACATAAG
0U8 SGN-E1327615 Kunitz trypsin inhibitor CTCTTCCTTTCATTTCTGCTCTTC GACGTAGTACTCGACACCAGGAC

Corresponding cDNAs were synthesized from 250 ng of total RNA using the RevertAidTM Minus First Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit (Fermentas) according to the manufacturer protocol. PCR products were amplified using primers designed with Primer Express 3.0 (Applied Biosystems) and analyzed by Premier Primer 5.0 software (Premier Biosoft International, Palo Alto, CA, USA). In order to confirm primer specificity and presence of single amplicons, all PCR products were analyzed through a dissociation curve, with temperature varying from 60°C to 95°C.

Thermocycling and fluorescence detection were performed using ABI Prism 7300 Sequence Detection System (Perkin-Elmer Applied Biosystem). Real-time PCR amplification was carried out in a final volume of 15 μl by reaction using equal amounts of cDNAs (2 μl - 200 ng/μl) as template, 0,2 μM of each primer and 7,5 μl of Maxima SYBR Green/ROX qPCR master Mix (fermentas, USA) at the following conditions: 50°C for 2 min, 95°C for 10 min, 45 cycles of 95°C for 2 min, 62°C for 30 seg, 72°C for 30 seg. Data was collected during extension fase. Three independent qPCR reactions were performed for final quantification.

Expression levels of GAPDH were used as endogenous control. Relative gene expression was calculated using the 2-ΔΔCT method (where CT is threshold cycle) [50]. The Pearson correlation coefficient of linear regression from 18 pairs of microarray/qPCR expression ratios was calculated to validate the qPCR analysis.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they do not have any non-financial competing interests political, personal, religious, ideological, academic, intellectual, commercial or any other competing interests.

Authors’ contributions

JCM and DCC carried out experiments of infestation and the molecular genetic analysis by qRT-PCR. Both authors contributed equally for the experiments. PFG carried out the metabolic pathways analyses. ROV and MFC participated in the microarray analyses and performed the statistical analysis. MPM, LP, OGF performed the design and coordination of the study. JCM, DCC and MPM wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Contributor Information

Danielle C Cardoso, Email: danielleccard@yahoo.com.br.

Juliana C Martinati, Email: julianamartinati@gmail.com.

Poliana F Giachetto, Email: poliana.giachetto@embrapa.br.

Ramon O Vidal, Email: ramon.vidal@gmail.com.

Marcelo F Carazzolle, Email: mcarazzo@lge.ibi.unicamp.br.

Lilian Padilha, Email: lilian.padilha@embrapa.br.

Oliveiro Guerreiro-Filho, Email: oliveiro@iac.sp.gov.br.

Mirian P Maluf, Email: mirian.maluf@embrapa.br.

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