Table 1.
Summary of experimental infections of West Nile virus performed in wild birds.
| Order | Family | Species | Strain/Mortality+ | Viremia | Distribution | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Passeriformes | Turdidae | American robin (Turdus migratorius) | NY | H | AM | [5,54] |
| Swainson’s thrush (Catharus ustulatus) | NY | M | AM | [82] | ||
| Clay-colored thrush (Turdus grayi) |  |
M | AM | [88] | ||
| Corvidae | Carrion crow (Corvus corone) |  |
L | EUR/ASIA | [34] | |
| American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) |  |
H | AM | [5,25,26,27,35,89,90,91,92] | ||
 |
M | |||||
| Fish crow (Corvus ossifragus) |  |
H | AM | [5,89,92] | ||
| Little raven (Corvus mellori) | NY | M | OCE | [59] | ||
| KUN | L | |||||
| Hooded crow (Corvus cornix) |  |
H | EUR/ASIA/AFR | [13] | ||
| Western scrub-jay (Aphelocoma californica) | |
H | AM | [53] | ||
| Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) | |
H | AM | [5,91] | ||
| Black-billed magpie (Pica hudsonia) | |
H | AM | [5] | ||
| Jungle crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) | |
H | ASIA | [93] | ||
| Passeridae | House sparrow (Passer domesticus) |  |
H | WORLDWIDE | [5,13,27,28,36,38,53,67,76,80,81,88,94] | |
| TEX/KUN/IT08 | M | |||||
| MEX | L | |||||
| Cape sparrow (Passer melanurus) |  |
L | AFR | [21] | ||
| Icteridae | Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) | NY | M/L | AM | [5,77,95] | |
| Brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) | NY | L | AM | [67,77] | ||
| Brewer’s blackbird (Euphagus cyanocephalus) | NY | H | AM | [67,77] | ||
| Tricolored blackbird (Agelaius tricolor) | NY | H | AM | [77] | ||
| Common grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) |  |
H | AM | [5] | ||
| Great-tailed grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus) |  |
H | AM | [88] | ||
| Bay-winged cowbird (Agelaioides badius) | ARG | L | AM | [30] | ||
| Shiny cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) | ARG | L | AM | [30] | ||
| Emberizidae | Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) | NY | M | AM | [96] | |
| White-crowned sparrow(Zonotrichia leucophrys) |  |
na | AM | [67] | ||
| Fringillidae | Hawai’i ’amakihi (Hemignathus virens) | |
H | AM | [81] | |
| House finch (Haemorhous mexicanus) | |
H | AM | [5,53,67,87] | ||
| Passeriformes | Ploceidae | African masked weaver (Ploceus velatus) | |
M | AFR | [21] |
| Red-billed quelea (Quelea quelea) | |
L | AFR | [21] | ||
| Red bishop (Euplectes orix) | |
M | AFR | [21] | ||
| Hirundinidae | Cliff swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) | NY | M | AM | [56,97] | |
| Mimidae | Gray catbird (Dumetella carolinensis) | NY | M | AM | [82] | |
| Northern mockingbird (Mimuspolyglottos) | NY | H | AM | [94] | ||
| Sturnidae | European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) | NY | M | WORLDWIDE | [5,67] | |
| Cardinalidae | Northern cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis) | NY | H | AM | [79,94] | |
| Paridae | Tufted titmouse (Baeolophus bicolor) | |
H | AM | [98] | |
| Troglodytidae | Carolina wren (Thryothorus ludovicianus) | |
H | AM | [98] | |
| Falconiformes | Falconidae | Gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus) |  |
H | AM/EUR/AS | [43] |
| NY | M | |||||
| Hybrid falcon (Falco rusticolus x Falco cherrug) | |
L | WORLDWIDE | [99] | ||
| American kestrel (Falco sparverius) | NY | H | AM | [5,66] | ||
| Common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) | EGY | L | EUR/AS/AFR | [13] | ||
| Accipitriformes | Accipitridae | Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) | NY | H | AM | [66] |
| Strigiformes | Tytonidae | Barn owl (Tyto alba) | NY | L | WORLDWIDE | [66] |
| Strigidae | Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) | NY | H | AM | [5,66] | |
| Eastern screech-owl (Megascops asio) | |
H | AM | [100] | ||
| Galliformes | Odontophoridae | California quail (Callipepla californica) | NY | L | AM | [53,68] |
| Gambel’s quail (Callipepla gambelii) | NY | L | AM | [68] | ||
| Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) | NY | L | AM | [5] | ||
| Phasianidae | Red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) |  |
H | EUR | [37,101] | |
|
L | |||||
| Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) | NY | L | WORLDWIDE | [5] | ||
| Ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) | NY | L | WORLDWIDE | [5] | ||
| Greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) | |
M | AM | [102] | ||
| Pelecaniformes | Ardeidae | Rufous night-heron (Nycticorax caledonicus) | KUN | L | OCE | [23,24] |
| Little egret (Egretta garzetta) | KUN | L | EUR/AS/AFR/OCE | [23,24] | ||
| Intermediate heron (Mesophoyx intermedia) | KUN | L | AFR/AS | [23,24] | ||
| Cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis) |
/EGY
|
L | WORLDWIDE | [13,21] | ||
| Threskiornithidae | African sacred ibis (Threskiornis aethiopicus) | |
L | AFR/AS | [21] | |
| Columbiformes | Columbidae | Rock pigeon (Columba livia) |
/NY/TEC/TAB
|
L | WORLDWIDE | [21,88] |
| Ring-necked dove (Streptopelia capicola) | |
L | AFR | [21] | ||
| Eurasian collared-dove (Streptopelia decaocto) | NY/CO | M | AM/EUR/AS/AFR | [29] | ||
| Laughing dove (Spilopelia senegalensis) |
/EGY
|
L | AFR/AS | [13,21] | ||
| Common ground-dove (Columbina passerina) | |
na | AM | [67] | ||
| Mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) | NY | M | AM | [5,53,67] | ||
| Picui ground-dove (Columbina picui) | ARG | M | AM | [30] | ||
| Gruiformes | Rallidae | American coot (Fulica americana) | NY | L | AM | [5] |
| Crested coot (Fulica cristata) | |
L | AFR/EUR | [21] | ||
| Gruidae | Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis) | NY | L | AM | [103] | |
| Anseriformes | Anatidae | Common goose (Anser anser) | |
M | WORLDWIDE | [33] |
| Canada goose (Branta canadensis) | NY | M | AM/EUR | [5] | ||
| Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) | NY | H | WORLDWIDE | [5] | ||
| Yellow-billed duck(Anas undulata) | |
L | AFR | [21] | ||
| Red-billed teal (Anas erythrorhyncha) | |
L | AFR | [21] | ||
| Southern pochard (Netta erythrophthalma) | |
L | AFR | [21] | ||
| Charadriiformes | Charadriidae | Killdeer (Charadrius vociferus) | NY | H | AM | [5] |
| Laridae | Ring-billed gull (Larus delawarensis) | |
H | AM | [5] | |
| Psittaciformes | Psittacidae | Monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) | NY | L | AM | [5] |
| Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus) | NY | L | OCE | [5] | ||
| Piciformes | Picidae | Northern flicker (Colaptes auratus) | NY | M | AM | [5] |
CA: California 04; NY: New York 99; CO: Colorado 08; SA: South Africa; ARG: Argentina 06; EGY: Egypt; KUN: Kunjin; SP: Spain 07; MO: Morocco 03; AUS: Austria 09; MEX: Mexico 03; TEX: Texas 03; KEN: Kenya 3829; FR: France 00; ISR: Israel 98; TEC: Tecato (Mexico); TAB: Tabasco (Mexico); IT08: Italy 08; IT09: Italy 09. * Lineage 2. + Mortality: 
. L: Low viremia (mean peak viremia ≤ 104 PFU/mL); M: Medium viremia (mean peak viremia 104–106 PFU/mL); H: High viremia (mean peak viremia > 106 PFU/mL); na: Data not available. AFR: Africa; AM: America; AS: Asia; EUR: Europe; OCE: Oceania.