Skip to main content
PMC home page
NIHPA Author Manuscripts logoLink to NIHPA Author Manuscripts
. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2015 Mar 1.
Published in final edited form as: J Nerv Ment Dis. 2014 Mar;202(3):239–246. doi: 10.1097/NMD.0000000000000108

Mental Health Service Use After Trauma Exposure: A Mixed Methods Study

Bita Ghafoori 1, Belen Barragan 1, Lawrence Palinkas 2
PMCID: PMC3959109  NIHMSID: NIHMS557715  PMID: 24566510

Abstract

Research findings indicate that many urban trauma exposed individuals do not access needed mental health care; therefore, it is critical to identify factors associated with the use of mental health services for this group. This study used a mixed methods approach to examine predictors of mental health service use and barriers to care. Quantitative findings showed that adults who did not report current mental health service use were significantly more male and Black with a lower education and income. After controlling for covariates, individuals with lower trauma exposure (OR = 0.7, 95% CI = 0.5, 0.9) and higher depression symptom scores (OR = 1.0, 95% CI = 1.0, 1.1) were significantly more likely to report current mental health service use. Qualitative findings indicated that fear, low mental health literacy, helplessness, and psychosocial issues were identified as barriers to mental health treatment. Implications for treatment and future research are discussed.

Keywords: Trauma, Mental Health Service Use, Urban, Low-income, Mixed-Methods

Trauma exposure in the United Stated impacts large numbers of people and must be considered a significant public health issue (Breslau et al., 1998; Kessler et al., 1995). Numerous public health consequences of trauma exposure have been identified and include: mental health difficulties such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), and depression (Breslau, 2007; Breslau et al., 2003; Roberts et al., 2011); and increased functional impairment, such as unemployment, social difficulties, and family difficulties (Kubzansky et al., 2009; Mezuk et al., 2010). Urban, low income adults have been found to have increased exposure to trauma, more psychosocial stressors, fewer coping skills, higher rates of PTSD and depression, and fewer resources (Alim et al., 2008; Breslau et al., 1998; Gillespie et al., 2009; Switzer et al., 1999); however, these populations often do not access mental health care (Gavrilovic et al., 2005; Schacht et al., 2007).

A growing body of research indicates low mental health service use relative to need among trauma survivors (Gavrilovic et al., 2005; Sayer et al., 2009; Vogt, 2011). Some research indicates urban, low-income, trauma survivors with PTSD endorse a desire for mental health services, but may encounter barriers to treatment (Davis et al., 2008; Vega et al., 2001). Barriers identified include lack of time, competing demands, lack of insurance, difficulty obtaining services, and stigma (Cooper-Patrick et al., 1995; Davis et al., 2008; Hines-Martin et al., 2003; Miranda et al., 2003). However, these barriers do not fully determine mental health seeking behavior in trauma-exposed adults; there are critical personal, social, and cultural factors that are not well studied.

The Behavioral Model of Health Service Use (Anderson, 1995) may facilitate our understanding as to “why” certain individuals use services for trauma related mental health symptoms and provides a conceptual framework for this study. According to this model, service utilization is impacted by three categories of variables: predisposing, enabling, and need. A few studies have applied this model to the study of mental health service use for trauma exposed individuals with PTSD, with the finding that need characteristics, such as PTSD and higher levels of psychopathology, are very important in mental health care utilization; however, predisposing factors, such as female gender, older age, White race, and higher income may influence who actually receives treatment (Fikretoglu et al., 2006; Fontana et al., 1995; Koenen et al., 2003; Sayer et al., 2007). Although studies on the relationship between type of trauma exposure and mental health service use have yielded inconsistent results (Jaycox, et al., 2004), some evidence indicates victims of violent crimes and sexual assault appear to be more likely to seek mental health care (Sorenson & Siegel, 1992; Norris et al., 1990). Few studies have focused on mental health beliefs, which are defined as attitudes, values, and knowledge that people have about their mental health and mental health services that may influence their perceptions of need and use of mental health services.

Identification of factors associated with mental health service use among trauma exposed groups are essential for informing mental health care of trauma survivors. In this mixed methods study, the primary aim was to develop a comprehensive understanding of mental health service use in a community sample of trauma survivors. On the basis of previous empirical and theoretical work as discussed earlier, we expected that predisposing, enabling, and need characteristics such as female gender, older age, White race, and higher income, increased PTSD symptoms, and increased depression symptoms would be associated with current mental health service use. We also investigated the relationship between specific types of trauma exposure and current mental health service use. Finally, qualitative data from a subset of participants was used to describe and understand the narratives of urban, low-income, trauma-exposed adults to learn about mental health beliefs related to trauma exposure, mental health outcomes, and the use of mental health services.

Methods

Study Design

The study’s homogenous purposive sample was comprised of adult clients seeking services at one of three health and mental health facilities in southern California. In a sequential design, quantitative methods were first used to identify sample characteristics, current use of mental health services, types of traumas, total number of traumas experienced, and mental health symptoms, while qualitative methods were then used to document and describe processes and beliefs related to help seeking.

Participants

Eligible participants were English speaking individuals over 18 years of age who had experienced, witnessed, or were confronted with any lifetime traumatic event that involved actual or threatened death or serious injury or threat to the physical integrity of others to which the individual responded with intense fear, helplessness, or horror (4th ed., text rev; DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Exclusion criteria for the study included psychosis, suicidal or homicidal thoughts, history of suicidal attempt/psychiatric hospitalization in the year before the screening interview, or substance use in the 24 hours prior to the screening interview.

Data Collection

Of the 215 people who responded to study flyers and were screened for the quantitative study, 85.6% (n = 181) met eligibility criteria and consented to participate. Reasons for screening out of the study included: no trauma exposure (n = 20), psychosis (n = 2), suicidal thoughts (n = 4) , psychiatric hospitalization in the year before the screening interview (n = 4), substance abuse in the 24 hours prior to the screening interview (n =4). Among the 181 completers, 180 (99.5%) provided sufficient quantitative data on the variables of interest. Two individuals were excluded from the study due to endorsing no PTSD symptoms. A total of 178 individuals comprised the analytic sample for this report. Individuals who expressed interest to participate in the second part of the study (the qualitative interviews) were contacted by telephone by a research assistant. Of the 181 completers of the quantitative study, 40 refused to participate in the qualitative study, 86 did not respond to contact attempts, 15 relocated, and 10 were ineligible due to substance use. 30 individuals from the original sample (17%) completed 60 minute, audio-recorded, semi-structured interviews. Audiotapes were transcribed, reviewed, and checked for accuracy by the first author. Three audio recordings were of poor quality and were excluded from the final analysis. Thus, a sample size of 27 individuals participated in the qualitative portion of the study. Participants received a $10 gift card for participation in each part of this Institutional Review Board approved study.

Quantitative Measures

A history form included questions assessing whether the participant was currently receiving mental health treatment, age, gender, marital status, race/ethnicity, level of education, and annual household income.

The Stressful Life Events Screening Questionnaire (SLESQ) (Goodman et al., 1998) is a 13-item self-report screening measure designed to assess lifetime exposure to a variety of traumatic events. Participants are asked whether they have experienced each of 11 events and two “catch-all” experiences. For this study, we identified both the type of trauma experienced and the number of traumas reported by the participant for eleven events and excluded the “catch-all” experiences.

The PTSD Checklist-Civilian version (PCL-C) (Weathers et al., 1993) is a 17-item self-report PTSD symptom scale (Weathers et al., 1993; Hoge et al., 2004). Respondents rated the extent to which they have been bothered by each symptom using a 5-point scale (1 = not at all to 5 = extremely). Items were summed to yield a total score that serves as a measure of PTSD (Cronbach’s α = .91) symptom severity. In addition, following Blanchard et al. (1996) we used a cutoff score of 44 and over to define probable PTSD (Blanchard, Alexander, Buckley, & Forneris, 1996).

The Brief Symptom Inventory-18 (BSI-18; Derogatis, 2001) is a self-report measure of psychological distress. Respondents reported how much each symptom or problem distressed or bothered them during the past two weeks on a 5-point scale (0 = not at all to 4 = extremely). In the current analysis, raw scores for the depression subscale were converted to T scores using normative data from community samples (Cronbach’s α = .93). T scores of 63 or greater are indicative of clinical “caseness” (Derogatis, 2001; Zabora et al., 2001).

The Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7; Spitzer et al., 2006) is a 7-item measure of GAD that has good internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Response options are not at all, several days, more than half the days, and nearly every day. GAD-7 scores range from 0–21 and reflect anxiety severity (Chronbach’s α = .87); however, a diagnostic cutpoint of 10 or greater was used in this study to indicate probable GAD (Spitzer et al., 2006).

Qualitative Interview Procedures

Semi-structured questions were developed by the research team and constituted the qualitative interview. In particular, questions assessed knowledge, attitude, and beliefs regarding trauma, mental illness, help seeking, mental health treatment, and barriers to treatment. The content of the interview questions were informed by the sensitizing constructs of the Behavioral Model of Health Service Use (Anderson et al., 1973). Of the three investigators, the third author is an anthropologist with extensive experience in using mixed methods designs in health services research. The third author provided comprehensive training in qualitative and mixed-methods research methodology to the first author, and the first author trained and supervised the second author. The first and second author conducted all of the semi-structured interviews.

Data Analysis

Sociodemographic and trauma exposure differences between those with and without current mental health service use were assessed with chi-square analysis for categorical variables. Binary logistic regression was used to understand the relationship between clinical characteristics and current mental health service use, with odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals reflecting the increased or decreased likelihood of mental health service use as a function of PTSD, GAD, depression, or trauma severity. In order to isolate the associations between clinical outcomes and mental health service use, we also conducted these regressions with covariates to reduce potential confounding.

Using a methodology of “Coding Consensus, Co-occurrence, and Comparison” outlined by Willms and colleagues (Willms et al., 1992) and rooted in grounded theory (i.e., theory derived from data and then illustrated by characteristic examples of data) (Glaser et al., 1967), field notes and interview transcripts were analyzed. All data were read and reviewed by the first and second author to develop a broad understanding of content as it relates to the project’s specific aims and to identify topics of discussion. Material in field notes and interviews were coded to condense the data into analyzable units. Segments of text were assigned codes on the basis of emergent themes (known as open coding) or a priori themes (from the interview guide) (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Lists of codes developed by each investigator were then matched and integrated into a single codebook. Members of the research team coded all of the interviews using the codebook in order to establish consensus reliability. When disagreement arose, the research team attempted to identify the source of the discrepancy, and coded sections were reviewed again until consensus was reached (Braun et al., 2006). Thematic analysis of the interviews was completed using QSR NVivo (Fraser, 2000) to identify categories, subcategories, and relationships between codes and categories across the interviews. The technique of constant comparison was used to further condense the categories into broad themes.

Results

Mental Health Service Use and Sociodemographic Correlates

Approximately 19.1 percent of the whole sample (n = 34) reported current mental health service use, whereas 25.9% of the subsample (n = 7) that completed qualitative interviews reported current mental health service use. In the whole sample, those participants not receiving current mental health care were significantly male, Black, high school educated, and very low income compared to participants who were receiving current mental health care (Table 1). Similarly, in the subsample of individuals who completed the qualitative interviews, those participants not receiving current mental health care were significantly male, Black, and very low income compared to participants who were receiving current mental health care (Table 1). In the analyses of the association between mental health outcomes and mental health service use, we adjusted for all of these significant variables.

Table 1.

Background Characteristics by Mental Health Service Use

Whole Sample (N = 178) Current Mental Health Service Use Whole Sample Current Mental Health Service Use Qualitative Subsample (N = 27)
No (n = 144) Yes (n = 34) Test c No (n = 20) Yes (n = 7) χ2 test
% (n) % (n) % (n) % (n) % (n)
Demographic Characteristics
Age range, yrs
 18–44 49.4 (88) 45.8 (66) 64.7 (22) χ2(2) =4.0 45.0 (9) 57.1 (4) χ2(2)=2.2
 45–54 32.0 (57) 34.0 (49) 23.5 (8) 30.0 (6) 42.9 (3)
 55+ 18.5 (33) 20.1 (29) 11.8 (4) 25.0 (5) 0 (0)
Gender
 Female 33.7 (60) 23.6 (34) 76.5 (26) χ2(1)=34.4*** 30.0 (6) 71.4 (5) χ2(1)=3.7*
 Male 66.3 (118) 76.4 (110) 23.5 (8) 70.0 (14) 28.6 (2)
Marital Status
 Married/cohabitating 12.9 (23) 11.8 (17) 17.6 (6) χ2(1) =0.8 15.0 (3) 14.3 (1) χ2(1)=0.0
 Other 87.1 (155) 88.2 (127) 82.4 (28) 85.0 (17) 85.7 (6)
Race/ethnicity
 Black (Non-Hispanic) 45.5 (81) 52.8 (76) 14.7 (5) χ2(2) =16.1*** 50.0 (10) 0 (0) χ2(2)=9.1*
 White/Other 34.8 (62) 29.9 (43) 55.9 (19) 15.0 (3) 71.4 (5)
 Hispanic 19.7 (35) 17.4 (25) 29.4 (10) 35.0 (7) 28.6 (2)
Level of education
 No high school diploma 26.4 (47) 31.2 (45) 5.9 (2) χ2(2) =29.2*** 20.0 (4) 0 (0) χ2(2)=5.4
 At least a high school 45.5 (81) 49.3 (71) 29.4 (10) 65.0 (13) 42.9 (3)
 College degree 28.1 (50) 19.4 (28) 64.7 (22) 15.0 (3) 57.1 (4)
Household income, annual
 <$14,999 77.5 (138) 86.1 (124) 41.2(14) χ2(1) =31.9*** 90.0 (18) 42.9 (3) χ2(1)=6.7*
 ≥$15,000 22.5 (40) 13.9 (20) 58.8 (20) 10.0 (2) 57.1 (4)
Open in a new tab
a

Assessed with the Stressful Life Events Screening Questionnaire (SLESQ);

*

p < .05,

***

p < .001

Mental Health Service Use and Trauma Exposure

Lifetime exposure to multiple traumatic events was fairly common in this sample (Table 2). The mean number of traumas experienced by the whole sample and the subsample of individuals who completed the qualitative interviews was 4.6 (SD = 2.3). In the whole sample, even after adjusting for significant covariates, those with more traumas were significantly less likely to be receiving current mental health services (OR = 0.70, 95% CI = 0.54 to 0.92) compared to participants not receiving current mental health care even after adjusting for significant covariates (Table 3). In the whole sample, those participants not receiving current mental health care had a significantly higher percentage of exposure to physical assault/abuse, robbery/mugging, threat with a weapon, or life threatening accident compared to participants who were receiving current mental health care (Table 2). Those participants receiving current mental health care had a significantly higher percentage of attempted sexual assault (48.1%) compared to participants who were not receiving mental health care (28.8%; Table 2).

Table 2.

Trauma Exposure Characteristics by Mental Health Service Use

Traumatic Event Current Mental Health Service Use Whole Sample
Qualitative Subsample (N = 27a) Whole Sample (N = 178a) No (n = 144a) Yes (n = 34a) χ2 test
% (n) % (n) % (n)
Assaultive Trauma
 Physical assault/abuse 51.9 (14) 44.4 (79) 50.0 (72) 25.0 (7) χ2(1) =5.9*
 Robbery/mugging 40.7 (11) 41.6 (74) 47.9 (69) 19.2 (5) χ2(1) =7.4**
 Attempted sexual assault 18.5 (5) 30.3 (54) 28.8 (41) 48.1 (13) χ2(1) =4.1*
 Sexual assault/penetration 29.6 (8) 29.2 (52) 28.5 (41) 39.3 (11) χ2(1) =1.3
 Threatened with weapon 28.6 (8) 43.3 (77) 49.7 (71) 23.1 (6) χ2(1) =6.3*
 Childhood physical assault 51.9 (14) 51.1 (91) 52.8 (76) 50.0 (15) χ2(1) =0.1
 Domestic violence 48.1 (13) 41.6 (74) 43.1 (62) 42.9 (12) χ2(1) =0.0
 Witnessed death/assault 44.4 (12) 51.7 (92) 58.0 (83) 34.6 (9) χ2(1) =4.9*
Non-assaultive Trauma
 Life threatening illness 33.3 (9) 30.3 (54) 33.3 (48) 23.1 (6) χ2(1) =1.1
 Life threatening accident 51.9 (14) 45.5 (81) 51.4 (74) 26.9 (7) χ2(1) =5.3*
 Death of a loved one by accident, homicide, or 59.3 (16) 50.6 (90) 54.2 (78) 42.9 (12) χ2(1) =1.2
Open in a new tab
a

For some characteristics, N/n is less due to missing data;

*

p < .05,

**

p < .01

Table 3.

Association Between Mental Health Outcomes and Mental Health Service Use

Clinical Outcome Current Mental Health Service Use Whole Sample Odds Ratio (95% CI)
Qualitative Subsample mean ± SD Whole Sample mean ± SD No (n = 144) mean ± SD Yes (n = 34) mean ± SD Crude Odds Ratio Adjusted Odds Ratioa
PTSD symptom severity 44.4 ± 17.2 43.4 ± 14.7 42.3 ± 14.4 47.7 ± 15.3 1.03 (1.00,1.05) 1.01 (0.98,1.05)
Depression symptom severity 61.7 ± 12.9 59.4 ± 11.9 58.5 ± 11.0 62.9 ± 14.8 1.04 (1.00, 1.07)* 1.05 (1.00, 1.09)*
GAD symptom severity 7.7 ± 6.1 9.4 ± 5.7 9.2 ± 5.5 10.2 ± 6.5 1.03 (0.96, 1.10) 1.04 (0.95, 1.13)
Number of traumas 4.6 ± 2.3 4.6 ± 2.3 5.0 ± 2.2 3.1 ± 2.1 0.66 (0.54, 0.81)*** 0.70 (0.54, 0.92)*
Open in a new tab
a

Adjusted for significant demographic characteristics (gender, race/ethnicity, education, and household income)

*

p < .05,

***

p <.001

Mental Health Need and Mental Health Service Use

Approximately 47.2% of the whole sample (n = 84) met criteria for screen positive PTSD, 46.6% (n = 83) met criteria for screen positive GAD, and 42.1% (n = 75) met criteria for screen positive depression. The whole sample and subsample of individuals who completed qualitative interviews had similar PTSD and depression symptom severity scores (Table 3), however, the subsample had a slightly lower mean GAD symptom severity score. Bivariate logistic regressions analyses predicting current mental health service use indicated that only increased depression symptom severity significantly predicted current mental health service use (Table 3). PTSD and GAD symptom severity was not significantly associated with mental health service use. After adjusting for significant covariates, participants with increased depression symptom severity continued to be more likely to be using mental health services (OR = 1.05, 95% CI = 1.00 to 1.09, p < .05).

Beliefs and Perspectives From Qualitative Findings

Perceptions of continued mental health problems as a result of trauma exposure were common among those interviewed. Taking the sample as a whole, during interviews, 13 individuals expressed feeling “normal”, while 14 individuals expressed clear emotional pain, particularly symptoms of avoidance, irritability, sadness, and anxiety, when describing their ongoing reactions related to trauma. Of the 14 individuals reporting emotional pain, half reported that they don’t know why they continue to have symptoms, while the other half described feelings of hopelessness related the trauma symptoms they continue to experience. These reports were in contrast to actual diagnoses participants reported receiving from mental health providers; only 3 individuals reported receiving a depression diagnosis from a mental health practitioner, 2 reported a PTSD diagnosis, 1 reported an adjustment disorder diagnosis, and 16 reported never being given a mental health diagnosis.

Fear (n = 13) about the potential effects of medication or talking to someone and lack of knowledge (n = 8) about how treatment may be beneficial were reasons why some people reported they did not seek assistance with trauma related symptoms. One person stated “Other than medication I don’t know too much…my fear associated with medication is that it’s going to make it worse. That’s what I’ve always heard. I’m just scared of the effect it’ll have on me.” Some individuals stated they would seek mental health treatment for traumatic stress if it was available and explained to them (n = 8), and only a few people stated they would not seek mental health treatment due to lack of time (n = 2), lack of money (n=1), or insurance (n = 1). Most people (n = 16) did not understand how speaking about the trauma to someone would help them. One participant stated, “I never put a whole lot of thought into talking to someone, but it’s almost like a release valve. For example, like from the moment I walked into this room to now, I feel better. And it’s weird because I never even thought to myself that I might feel better. Now, like right this second that I’m thinking about it, I do feel better. Anyways, anybody that goes through mental trauma, I think they should see a counselor, because now, firsthand, I see that it does benefit.”

A theme that emerged was that most individuals interviewed did not know anything about trauma treatment (n = 21). No one interviewed had received a trauma focused psychotherapeutic treatment such as exposure therapy, eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), or cognitive reprocessing. When asked about any mental health treatment for the trauma related symptoms, slightly over half the individuals interviewed reported obtaining mental health services for distressing symptoms at some point in their lives (n = 16), and types of assistance received included primarily medication (n = 8), followed by limited supportive therapy (n = 6). Only 7 of the individuals interviewed were currently receiving some form of mental health treatment for trauma related distress; however, none of these individuals stated they were receiving a trauma-focused treatment. Most participants stated they were interested in receiving counseling/psychotherapy for traumatic stress symptoms (n = 18).

Other themes that emerged were helplessness about ongoing symptoms, even amongst those individuals who considered themselves and their lives “normal”, as well as psychosocial difficulties. Psychosocial issues consisted primarily of lack of employment/financial issues and relationship issues. For example, one person who experienced sexual abuse and considered his life “normal” stated that although he continued to avoid reminders of the event he no longer “pulls over to the side of the road and starts weeping.” He stated, “It is what it is. I can’t undo it or put all of this in reverse. I just deal with it. It was only one time. I can’t fix it.” This participant reported difficulty making and keeping friends, difficulty in romantic relationships, and difficulty keeping employment. He reported that he feared getting treatment might cause more problems because he may have to think about the trauma again. As described by another participant who was a victim of community violence and had continued symptoms, “From the beginning, I didn’t deserve it. Number two, there is a great deal of helplessness that you feel in that situation because my spirit, I wanted to strike back but I couldn’t…I physically couldn’t. Then, I was in the hospital. I couldn't think straight, I couldn’t talk right, and I literally couldn’t even walk straight. There was helplessness involved that also leads to depression.” This participant also reported psychosocial difficulties such as unemployment and problems in romantic relationships.

Most people interviewed indicated they were not concerned about potential stigma associated with a mental health diagnosis or receiving mental health treatment (n = 21). One person stated “I think it’s too late for that now. I would have worried [about what people thought] a long time ago but not anymore. A lot of people go to counseling for a variety of reasons.”

Discussion

The current study used multiple methods to examine the experiences of trauma-exposed adults with mental health service use. Consistent with other studies, this study revealed that urban, low-income, trauma exposed adults had relatively high levels of trauma exposure as well as PTSD, GAD, and depression symptoms but reported relatively low rates of mental health service use (Breslau et al., 1998; Davis et al., 2008; Gillespie et al., 2009; Jaycox, et al., 2004). Our finding that only 19.1 percent of our whole sample and 25.9 percent of our subsample reported current mental health service use adds to the growing literature indicating relatively few individuals seek mental health care after trauma exposure (Davis et al., 2008; Gavrilovic et al., 2005; Jaycox et al., 2004; Norris et al.,1990). The combination of quantitative and qualitative findings from this study may add to an understanding of possible reasons for low rates of service use relative to need.

Some of our quantitative findings are consistent with the Behavioral Model of Service Use (Anderson et al., 1973), as well as existing research, while others were not. For example, consistent with past research on predisposing and enabling factors and mental health service utilization, our results suggest that those individuals not receiving mental healthcare were disproportionately male and Black with a lower education and lower income level compared to other study participants (Boscarino et al., 2005; Koenen et al., 2003; Jaycox et al., 2004; Gavrilovic et al., 2005). Our results also suggest that accumulated trauma as well as exposure to most trauma types is not associated with service use. Our findings are consistent with one other study (Solomon, 1989) that showed fewer negative life events were associated with treatment seeking. Past studies have shown that urban living is associated with increased exposure to violence and other traumas, including an increased risk for accumulated trauma, and these experiences disproportionally affect economically disadvantaged and minority residents (Breslau et al., 1998; Gillespie et al., 2009; Parish et al., 2011). Future research should examine the potential mechanisms by which more stressors, including more traumatic events, may contribute to lower treatment seeking.

The finding that only sexual assault was associated with service use, whereas several other forms of interpersonal violence were associated with lack of service use, may be consistent with past studies examining gender differences in trauma exposure and treatment seeking. For example, a recent meta-analytic review (Tolin & Foa, 2008) found that females are more likely than males to experience violent traumas, particularly sexual assault, interpersonal violence, and child sexual abuse. Men, on the other hand, may be more likely to experience trauma in the form of nonsexual assaults, witnessing death or injury, and combat or war (Tolin & Foa, 2008). Considering evidence suggesting that female trauma survivors are more likely than male survivors to use mental health services (Elhai et al., 2006; Fikretoglu et al., 2006), it is possible that gender may serve as a moderator in the relationship between trauma type and mental health service use. Future research should investigate the relationship between trauma type, gender, and service use.

Past studies suggest the need factor most consistently associated with mental health service use in trauma-exposed groups is the level of psychological symptoms, particularly PTSD (Gavrilovic et al., 2005). Although we did not find a significant association between PTSD symptoms and service use, we did find increased symptoms of depression were associated with service use. It may be possible that trauma exposure in combination with other poverty related stressors may be associated with more depression symptoms, which may in turn impact treatment seeking (Parrish et al., 2011; Rayburn et al., 2005). Poverty has been found to be associated with factors such as the health of the environment, and individuals who live in urban, poor, “stressed” neighborhoods, characterized by residential mobility, crowded conditions, dilapidated housing, drug sales, and numerous safety issues, have been found have more depression compared to individuals residing in less stressed neighborhoods (Matheson et al., 2006). Future research should assess how factors associated with poverty may mediate or moderate the relationship between psychiatric issues and treatment seeking.

Qualitative findings provided some important new information regarding reasons for why treatment has not been sought. Analysis of interview transcripts revealed several themes related to mental health service use: fear related to mental health treatment, lack of knowledge about treatment, helplessness related to ongoing symptoms, and psychosocial issues. These themes seem to be related to lack of receiving a mental health diagnosis for ongoing and/or disruptive symptoms, as well as lack of seeking and receiving mental health care.

Most participants in this study did not access standard of care treatments for their trauma-related psychiatric issues, which include psychotherapy/counseling or medication. In our interviews, we found that despite interest in treatment, fear and lack of knowledge of treatment options inhibited help seeking. Only a few studies to date have identified fear of treatment (Jorm et al., 1997)and lack of knowledge (Proctor et al., 2008) as barriers to help seeking in trauma survivors. The term “mental health literacy”, coined by Jorm and colleagues (Angermyer et al., 2006), is defined as the “knowledge and beliefs about mental illness that aid their recognition, management, or prevention”, and low mental health literacy has been found to be associated with decreased help seeking (Wright et al., 2007) in the broad mental health literature. It is possible that low mental health literacy may contribute to fear and lack of awareness of treatment options in this sample of low-income trauma survivors.

Consistent with past research, feelings of helplessness regarding ongoing symptoms as well as psychosocial issues also emerged as barriers to mental health service use (Davis et al., 2008; Proctor et al., 2008). Studies on helplessness, also known as perceived control, and healthcare utilization have found some empirical support for a relationship between perceived control and use of health services (e.g. Brown & Granick, 1983; Krause, 1988). Also, psychosocial problems, particularly unemployment/financial stress, are prominent among low-income adults (Owens et al., 2009; Silverstein et al., 2012). It is noteworthy to mention that our study participants often reported helplessness and psychosocial problems together. There is likely a complex interaction between socioeconomic status, feelings of helplessness, psychosocial difficulties, and service use, and future research should further investigate these relationships.

Past research has indicated that low-income ethnic and racial minority adults, particularly Black and Hispanic individuals, have been found to be less likely to access specialty mental healthcare compared to Whites (Alegria et al., 2002; Dobalian & Rivers, 2008). These troubling disparities in mental health service use have been linked to poverty; however, some research indicates that even Blacks above the poverty line have less access to needed care compared to their White counterparts (Blendon et al., 1989; Dobalian & Rivers, 2008). Moreover, some research indicates that Blacks, particularly poor Blacks, are more likely than White to indicate that that they received inadequate, inefficient, or insensitive care (Blendon et al., 1989; Trivedi & Ayanian, 2006). Compared to their White counterparts, urban Blacks seeking care have been found to report that they are more likely to report they were treated discourteously, were not treated as active participants in their care, contributing to poor communication, and were treated with prejudice or discrimination (Jackson, 1981; Shi & Starfield, 2001; Trivedi & Ayanian, 2006). In the wider mental health literature, sociocultural and psychosocial factors such as racism or the perception of racism, self-esteem, and helplessness have been found to serve as deterrents to health seeking behaviors among Blacks (Hewins-Maroney et al., 2005; Watson, 2001). Considering the fact that perceived racism or discrimination was not directly assessed in this study, it remains unclear if racism or actual or perceived adverse experiences within the healthcare system may have contributed to helplessless, skepticism, or low mental health literacy among the trauma exposed individuals in this study.

In contrast to other studies, the individuals who participated in semi-structured interviews did not report cost, lack of time, or public stigma associated with counseling as barriers to accessing or engaging in treatment (Koenen et al., 2003; Meredith et al., 2009; Boscarino et al., 2005). Stigma, as reflected in the extent to which an individual believes that he or she will be stigmatized by others for having a mental health problem or receiving services for one, has been implicated as a key barrier to the use of mental health treatment in the National Comorbidity Survey as well as a recent review of barriers to service use in the military (Vogt, 2011). Moreover, some research indicates that reduced use of mental health services by low-income Black males may be associated with greater associated stigmatization within the Black culture (El-Khoury et al., 2004). In this study, we inquired about both concerns about being stigmatized by others as well as one’s own discomfort with help seeking for trauma-related mental health difficulties, and participants denied stigma associated beliefs as a barrier to treatment. Future research is necessary to understand the role of stigma in low-income samples of trauma survivors.

Despite this study’s contribution to the mental health services literature, it has several limitations. First, psychiatric issues were assessed retrospectively by self-report screening instruments rather than a clinical interview; therefore, the external validity of our results may be limited. Participants may not represent the broader population of urban, low-income, trauma survivors, which limits the generalizability of the results. The exclusion criteria for the study also limits the external validity of the results. Individuals in this study were seeking either medical or mental health services, which may influence the higher levels of PTSD, GAD, and depression found in this study. We did not assess for racism, discrimination, or adverse experiences in the healthcare system, and these experiences may have influenced perceived helplessness reported by our study participants. In the qualitative portion of this study, both collection and interpretation of the data were susceptible to subjective bias and preconceived ideas by the investigators.

Conclusions

The low levels of mental health literacy and high levels of psychosocial problems in the present study may contribute to a lack of awareness of mental health treatment options for urban, low-income trauma survivors. Engaging low-income trauma survivors in mental health treatment may be complicated by a lack of ability to identify trauma-related mental health difficulties, particularly when dealing with a depressed mood, a sense of helplessness, and other competing psychosocial problems. Our findings possibly suggest that brief psychoeducational counseling that focuses on increasing knowledge about common reactions to trauma as well as what to expect from trauma treatment may be beneficial for some trauma survivors.

Acknowledgments

Support was provided by NIH grant 1P20MD003942-01; The authors acknowledge the assistance of Dennis Fisher, Kristin Powers, Alina Sgattoni, Lawrence Alexander III, Chelsea Edgecumbe, Mehra Gharibian, and Madelyn Steen

Footnotes

Financial disclosures: None from any author

Disclosures: The authors declare no conflicts of interest

Contributor Information

Bita Ghafoori, Email: Bita.Ghafoori@csulb.edu.

Lawrence Palinkas, Email: palinkas@usc.edu.

References

  1. Alegría M, Canino G, Ríos R, Vera M, Calderón J, Rusch D, Ortega AN. Mental health care for Latinos: Inequalities in use of specialty mental health services among Latinos, African Americans, and non-Latino Whites. Psychiatric Services. 2002;53(12):1547–1555. doi: 10.1176/appi.ps.53.12.1547. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Alim TN, Feder A, Graves RE, Wang Y, Weaver J, Westphal M, Alonso A, Notalelomwan U, Smith BW, Doucette JT, Mellman TA, Lawson WB, Charney DS. Trauma, resilience, and recovery in a high-risk African-American population. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 2008;165:1566–1575. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07121939. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4. Washington, DC: Author; 1994. text rev. [Google Scholar]
  4. Anderson RM, Newman JF. Societal and individual determinants of medical care utilization in the United States. Milbank Quarterly. 1973;51:95–124. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Andersen RM. Revisiting the behavioral model and access to medical care: Does it matter? Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 1995;36:1–10. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Angermeyer MC, Dietrich S. Public beliefs about and attitudes towards people with mental illness: A review of population studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2006;113:163–179. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00699.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Blanchard EB, Jones-Alexander J, Buckley TC, Forneris CA. Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL) Behaviour Research And Therapy. 1996;34(8):669–673. doi: 10.1016/0005-7967(96)00033-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Blendon RJ, Aiken LH, Freeman HE, Corey CR. Access to medical care for Black and White Americans: A matter of continuing concern. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1989;81:261–278. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Boscarino JA, Adams RE, Stuber J, Galea S. Disparities in mental health treatment following the world trade center disaster: Implications for mental health care and health services research. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2005;18:287–297. doi: 10.1002/jts.20039. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Braun V, Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology. 2006;3:77–101. [Google Scholar]
  11. Breslau N. Epidemiologic studies of trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, and other psychiatric disorders. In: Monat A, Lazarus RS, Reevy G, Monat A, Lazarus RS, Reevy G, editors. The Praeger handbook on stress and coping. Vol. 1. Westport, CT US: Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group; 2007. pp. 221–233. [Google Scholar]
  12. Breslau N, Davis GC, Schultz LR. Posttraumatic stress disorder and the incidence of nicotine, alcohol, and other drug disorders in persons who have experienced trauma. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2003;60:289–294. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.60.3.289. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Breslau N, Kessler RC, Chilcoat HD, Schultz LR, Davis GC, Andreski P. Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: The 1996 Detroit area survey of trauma. Archives of General Psychiatry. 1998;55:626–632. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.55.7.626. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Brown BR, Granick S. Cognitive and psychosocial differences between I and E locus of control aged persons. Experimental Aging Research. 1983;9:107–110. doi: 10.1080/03610738308258435. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Cooper-Patrick L, Brown C, Palenchar D. Factors associated with help-seeking behavior for mental health services. AHSR and FHSR Annual Meeting Abstracts. 1995;12 [Google Scholar]
  16. Corbin J, Strauss A, editors. Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. 3. Thousand Oaks, CA US: Sage Publications, Inc; 2008. [Google Scholar]
  17. Davis RG, Ressler KJ, Schwartz AC, Stephens KJ, Bradley RG. Treatment barriers for low-income, urban African Americans with undiagnosed posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2008;21:218–222. doi: 10.1002/jts.20313. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Derogatis LR. Brief Symptom Inventory-18: Administration, Scoring, and Procedures Manual Minneapolis. NCS Assessments 2001 [Google Scholar]
  19. Dobalian A, Rivers PA. Racial and ethnic disparities in the use of mental health services. Journal of Behavioral Health Services Research. 2008;35(2):128–141. doi: 10.1007/s11414-007-9097-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Elhai JD, Patrick SL, Anderson S, Simons JS, Frueh B. Gender- and trauma-related predictors of use of mental health treatment services among primary care patients. Psychiatric Services. 2006;57(10):1505–1509. doi: 10.1176/ps.2006.57.10.1505. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. El-Khoury MY, Dutton MA, Goodman LA. Ethnic differences in battered women’s formal help-seeking strategies: a focus on health, mental health, and spirituality. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 2004;10(4):383–393. doi: 10.1037/1099-9809.10.4.383. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Fikretoglu D, Brunet A, Schmitz N, Guay S, Pedlar D. Posttraumatic stress disorder and treatment seeking in a nationally representative Canadian military sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2006;19:847–858. doi: 10.1002/jts.20164. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Fontana A, Rosenheck R. Attempted suicide among Vietnam veterans: A model of etiology in a community sample. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1995;152:102–109. doi: 10.1176/ajp.152.1.102. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Fraser D. QST NVivo NID*IST Vivo Reference Guide. Melbourne, Australia: QSR International; 2000. [Google Scholar]
  25. Gavrilovic JJ, Schützwohl M, Fazel M, Priebe S. Who seeks treatment after a traumatic event and who does not? A review of findings on mental health service utilization. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2005;18:595–605. doi: 10.1002/jts.20068. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Gillespie CF, Bradley B, Mercer K, Smith AK, Conneely K, Gapen M, Weiss T, Schwartz AC, Cubells JF, Ressler KJ. Trauma exposure and stress-related disorders in inner city primary care patients. General Hospital Psychiatry. 2009;31:505–514. doi: 10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2009.05.003. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Glaser BG, Strauss AL, editors. The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company; 1967. [Google Scholar]
  28. Goodman LA, Corcoran C, Turner K, Yuan N, Green BL. Assessing traumatic event exposure: General issues and preliminary findings for the stressful life events screening questionnaire. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 1998;11:521–542. doi: 10.1023/A:1024456713321. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Hewins-Maroney B, Schumaker A, Williams E. Health seeking behaviors of African Americans: Implications for health administration. Journal of Health and Human Services Administration. 2005;28:68–95. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Hines-Martin V, Malone M, Kim S, Brown-Piper A. Barriers to mental health care access in an African American population. Issues in Mental Health Nursing. 2003;24:237–256. doi: 10.1080/01612840305281. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Hoge CW, Castro CA, Messer SC, McGurk D, Cotting DI, Koffman RL. Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems, and barriers to care. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2004;351:13–22. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa040603. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Jackson J. Urban Black Americans. In: Harwood A, editor. Ethnicity and Medical Care. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; 1981. [Google Scholar]
  33. Jaycox LH, Marshall GN, Schell T. Use of mental health services by men injured through community violence. Psychiatric Services. 2004;55(4):415–420. doi: 10.1176/appi.ps.55.4.415. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Jorm A, Korten AE, Jacomb PA, Christensen H, Rodgers B, Pollitt P. Mental health literacy: A survey of the public’s ability to recognize mental disorders and their beliefs about the effectiveness of treatment. Medical Journal of Australia. 1997;166:182–186. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1997.tb140071.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Kessler RC, Sonnega A, Bromet E, Hughes M. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry. 1995;52:1048–1060. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950240066012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Koenen KC, Goodwin R, Struening E, Hellman F, Guardino M. Posttraumatic stress disorder and treatment seeking in a national screening sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2003;16:5–16. doi: 10.1023/A:1022051009330. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Krause N. Stressful life events and physician utilization. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences. 1988;43:853–861. doi: 10.1093/geronj/43.2.s53. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Kubzansky LD, Koenen KC, Jones C, Eaton WW. A prospective study of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and coronary heart disease in women. Health Psychology. 2009;28:125–130. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.28.1.125. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Matheson FI, Moineddin R, Dunn JR. Urban neighborhoods, chronic stress, gender, and depression. Social Science Medicine. 2006;63(10):2604–2616. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.07.001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Meredith LS, Eisenman DP, Green BL, Basurto-Dávila R, Cassells A, Tobin J. System factors affect the recognition and management of posttraumatic stress disorder by primary care clinicians. Medical Care. 2009;47:686–694. doi: 10.1097/MLR.0b013e318190db5d. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Mezuk B, Rafferty JA, Kershaw KN, Hudson D, Abdou CM, Lee H, Eaton WW, Jackson JS. Reconsidering the role of social disadvantage in physical and mental health: Stressful life events, health behaviors, race, and depression. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2010;172:1238–1249. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwq283. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Miranda J, Azocar F, Organista KC, Dwyer E, Areane P. Treatment of depression among impoverished primary care patients from ethnic minority groups. Psychiatric Services. 2003;54:219–225. doi: 10.1176/appi.ps.54.2.219. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Norris FH, Kaniasty KZ, Scheer DA. Use of mental health services among victims of crime: Frequency, correlates, and subsequent recovery. Journal Of Consulting And Clinical Psychology. 1990;58(5):538–547. doi: 10.1037//0022-006x.58.5.538. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Owens GP, Herrera CJ, Whitesell AA. A preliminary investigation of mental health needs and barriers to mental health care for female veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan. Traumatology. 2009;15:31–37. [Google Scholar]
  45. Parrish MM, Miller L, Peltekof B. Addressing depression and accumulated trauma in urban primary care: Challenges and opportunities. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved. 2011;22:1292–1301. doi: 10.1353/hpu.2011.0139. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Proctor EK, Hasche L, Morrow-Howell N, Shumway M, Snell G. Perceptions about competing psychosocial problems and treatment priorities among older adults with depression. Psychiatric Services. 2008;59:670–675. doi: 10.1176/appi.ps.59.6.670. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Rayburn ND, Wenzel SL, Elliott MN, Hambarsoomian K, Marshall GN, Tucker JS. Trauma, depression, coping, and mental health service seeking in impoverished women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2005;73(4):667–677. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.73.4.667. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Roberts AL, Gilman SE, Breslau J, Breslau N, Koenen KC. Race/ethnic differences in exposure to traumatic events, development of post-traumatic stress disorder, and treatment-seeking for post-traumatic stress disorder in the United States. Psychological Medicine: A Journal of Research in Psychiatry and the Allied Sciences. 2011;41:71–83. doi: 10.1017/S0033291710000401. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Sayer NA, Clothier B, Spoont M, Nelson DB. Use of mental health treatment among veterans filing claims for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2007;20:15–25. doi: 10.1002/jts.20182. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Sayer NA, Friedemann-Sanchez G, Spoont M, Murdoch M, Parker LE, Chiros C, Rosenheck R. A qualitative study of determinants of PTSD treatment initiation in veterans. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes. 2009;72:238–255. doi: 10.1521/psyc.2009.72.3.238. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Schacht L, Pandiani JA, Banks SM. Access to community mental health services: A study of adult victims of trauma. Best Practices in Mental Health: An International Journal. 2007;3:1–8. [Google Scholar]
  52. Shi L, Starfield B. The effect of primary care physician supply and income equality on mortality among Blacks and Whites in U.S. Metropolitan areas. American Journal of Public Health. 2001;91(8):1246–1250. doi: 10.2105/ajph.91.8.1246. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Silverstein M, Lamberto J, DePeau K, Grossman DC. “You Get What You Get”: Unexpected findings about low-income parents’ negative experiences with community resources. Pediatrics. 2008;122:1141–1148. doi: 10.1542/peds.2007-3587. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Solomon Z, Mikulincer M, Flum H. The implications of life events and social integration in the course of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Social Psychiatry And Psychiatric Epidemiology. 1989;24(1):41–48. doi: 10.1007/BF01788199. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Sorenson SB, Siegel JM. Gender, ethnicity, and sexual assault: Findings from a Los Angeles study. Journal Of Social Issues. 1992;48(1):93–104. [Google Scholar]
  56. Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JBW, Löwe B. A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: The GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2006;166:1092–1097. doi: 10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Switzer GE, Dew MA, Thompson K, Goycoolea JM, Derricott T, Mullins SD. Posttraumatic stress disorder and service utilization among urban mental health center clients. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 1999;12:25–39. doi: 10.1023/A:1024738114428. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Tolin DF, Foa EB. Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of research. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, And Policy. 2008;S(1):37–85. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.959. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Trivedi AN, Ayanian JZ. Perceived discrimination and use of preventive health services. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2006;21:553–558. doi: 10.1111/j.1525-1497.2006.00413.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Vega WA, Kolody B, Aguilar-Gaxiola S. Help seeking for mental health problems among Mexican Americans. Journal of Immigrant Health. 2001;3:133–140. doi: 10.1023/A:1011385004913. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Vogt D. Mental health–related beliefs as a barrier to service use for military personnel and veterans: A review. Psychiatric Services. 2011;62:135–142. doi: 10.1176/ps.62.2.pss6202_0135. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Watson SD. Race, ethnicity, and quality of care: Inequalities and incentives. Journal of Law and Medicine. 2001;27:203–224. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Weathers F, Litz B, Herman D, Huska J, Keane T. The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. In paper presented at the 9th Annual Conference of the ISTSS; San Antonio, TX. 1993. [Google Scholar]
  64. Willms D, Best JA, Taylor DW, Gilbert R, Wilson DMC, Lindsay EA, Singer J. A systematic approach for using qualitative methods in primary prevention research. Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 1992;4:391–409. [Google Scholar]
  65. Wright ER, Wright DE, Perry BL, Foote-Ardah C. Stigma and the sexual isolation of people with serious mental illness. Social Problems. 2007;54:78–98. [Google Scholar]
  66. Zabora J, BrintzenhofeSzoc K, Jacobsen P, Curbow B, Piantadosi S, Hooker BS, Owens A, Derogatis L. A new psychosocial screening instrument for use with cancer patients. Psychosomatics. 2001;42(3):241–246. doi: 10.1176/appi.psy.42.3.241. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

RESOURCES