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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2014 Apr 8.
Published in final edited form as: Psychol Rep. 2013 Dec;113(3):921–929. doi: 10.2466/09.10.13.PR0.113x26z9

PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS IN THE MID-FORTIES PREDICT WOMEN’S SMOKING CESSATION IN THEIR MID-SIXTIES

J S Brook 1, C Zhang 1, E B Balka 1, N Seltzer 1, D W Brook 1
PMCID: PMC3979540  NIHMSID: NIHMS528903  PMID: 24693821

Summary

This study examined whether personality characteristics measured when a woman is in her mid 40s can predict success in sustained smoking cessation 22 years later, i.e. when the woman is in her mid 60s. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted on data from a sample of 195 women (mean ages 43 and 65, respectively), who were regular smokers and participated in a longitudinal study from 1983 to 2009. The results suggest that women who exhibited low self-control, high resistance to rules, impulsivity, and sensation seeking in their mid 40s were significantly less likely to succeed in quitting smoking, for a period of 5 years or more, when they reached their mid 60s. Addressing some personal characteristics in smoking cessation programs might enhance their effectiveness and success.

Cigarette smoking is the leading contributor to preventable mortality among older individuals (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2008; US Department of Health & Human Services, 2010). Since cigarette smoking is extremely addictive, successful cessation is often very difficult. Nevertheless, many individuals are able to quit smoking and those unable to quit wish they could do so (Tindle, Rigotti, Davis, Barbeau, Kawachi, & Shiffman, 2006).

Family Interactional Theory (FIT; Brook, Brook, Gordon, Whiteman, & Cohen, 1990) predicts the interrelationship of domains of psychosocial predictors of substance use (cigarette smoking) or problem behaviors. Family relationships, personality attributes, peer characteristics, and ecological context are examples of these domains. The domain of personality attributes has both a direct and indirect relationship to substance use. The specific personality predictors included in the current study are those for which we have longitudinal data and whose content seems related to the demands of smoking cessation (Brook, Brook, Zhang, Whiteman, Cohen, & Finch, 2008). These predictors have been defined as follows (VandenBos, 2001): Self-control is the capacity to regulate one’s behavior to secure the benefit of a long-term outcome when it varies from a short-term gain. Resistance to rules reflects multiple oppositional attitudes and behaviors. Sensation seeking is the tendency to look for and engage in thrilling activities. Impulsivity is the tendency to act in haste, without adequate reflection. This longitudinal study assesses the relationship of these personality characteristics to long term or sustained quitting.

This study contributes to the literature in two important ways. First, the criterion used here for successful cessation is not smoking for at least five years, rather than the shorter time spans used in other studies of cessation. Some, cross-sectional investigations have used former smokers’ self-reports of their smoking status, but did not include the length of cessation in their criteria (Kahler, Daughters, Leventhal, Rogers, Clark, Colby, et al., 2009; Lipkus, Barefoot, Williams & Siegler, 1994). Other studies have followed participants for periods ranging from eight weeks to one year after their quit date (Cook, Fucito, Piasecki, Piper, Schlam, Berg, et al., 2012; Doran, Spring, McChargue, Pergadia, & Richmond, 2004; Jardin & Carpenter, 2012; Kahler, Spillane, Metrik, Leventhal & Monti, 2009; Piper, Cook, Schlam, Jorenby & Baker, 2010; Whiteley, Williams, Dunsiger, Jennings, Ciccolo, Bock, et al., 2012). Second, we examine the longitudinal associations of personality characteristics to sustained quitting in an understudied population, a community sample of women in late midlife.

While some investigators have assessed the relationship of personality characteristics to various smoking patterns from adolescence to as late as the thirties (Brook, Brook, Zhang, Whiteman, et al., 2008; Chassin, Presson, Pitts, & Sherman, 2000; White, Nagin, Replogle, & Stouthamer-Loeber, 2002), few have examined predictors of cessation in samples including substantial numbers of those in late midlife (Doran et al., 2004; Kahler, Daughters, et al., 2009; Kahler, Spillane, et al., 2009; Tindle et al., 2006). Since predictors may vary for different age groups, it is important to assess such relationships at all ages. Studying the predictors of smoking cessation in the mid-forties is important, because middle age represents the last period of time when cigarette cessation can effectively reduce the odds of ill health and mortality in smokers (Ostbye et al., 2002; Peto et al., 2000). For instance, Peto and his colleagues (2000) found that women who quit smoking by age 50 and 60 had a 2.2% and 5.3% cumulative risk of lung cancer by age 75, respectively, which is less than the 9.5% risk for those who continued smoking.

This study assesses maladaptive predictors such as low self-control, sensation seeking, impulsivity, and resistance to rules. To our knowledge, only our previous research has examined the longitudinal relationship between early low self control and long-term smoking patterns. Brook and his colleagues (Brook, Brook, Zhang, Whiteman, et al., 2008) found that less self control in adolescence significantly increased the likelihood (A.O.R.=1.54, p <0 .01) of being a heavy continuous smoker rather than a nonsmoker, an occasional smoker, or a quitter, from adolescence until the mid-thirties.

Regarding sensation seeking, Kahler, Spillane, et al. (2009) found that higher sensation seeking scores predicted reduced odds (A.O.R.=0.73, p < 0.05) of abstinence from smoking six months after quitting. This was also characteristic of the older participants in their sample whose mean age was 41.5 years (SD=12). Sensation seeking has also been found to predict continued smoking 20 years later (A.O.R.=1.72, p <0.001) (Lipkus, et al., 1994). Impulsivity predicted a shorter time to smoking relapse even in a treatment study that followed participants for only a month (R2 Change = 0.147, p = 0.011) (Doran et al., 2004). Resistance to rules has predicted nicotine dependence cross-sectionally and longitudinally, and has been associated with differences between smoking patterns among young adults in their mid-twenties (Brook, Ning, & Brook, 2006; Brook, Koppel, & Pahl, 2009; Brook, Brook, & Zhang, 2008). However, to our knowledge, there have been no studies of the association of resistance to rules with smoking cessation in any age group.

Based on the aforementioned research, this study hypothesized that: (H1) self-control, measured in the mid 40s will be positively associated with sustained smoking cessation in the mid 60s. (H2) sensation seeking, impulsivity, and resistance to rules measured in the mid 40s will each be inversely associated with sustained smoking cessation in the mid 60s.

Method

Participants and Procedure

The women in this study were a sub-sample of a community-based random cohort of mothers and youths who resided in two upstate New York counties in 1975. The original sampled families were chosen to be representative of families living in Albany and Saratoga counties, two upstate New York counties, with regard to gender, family intactness, family income, and education. There was a close match of the participants’ family income, education, and family structure with data reported by the 1980 Census conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau. For example, 75% of the children lived with married parents, and 19% lived with a mother who was not currently married; the census figures were 79% and 17%, respectively (Cohen & Cohen, 1996). A more complete description of the sample appears in Brook, Brook, Gordon, Whiteman, & Cohen, 1990.

Interviews of the participants were conducted in 1983 (N=772; mean age=40), 1985–1986 (N=717; mean age=43), 1992 (N=719; mean age=48), and in 2009 (N=511; mean age=65). Extensively trained and supervised lay interviewers administered interviews in private in 1983, 1985–1986, and 1992. In 2009, the participants were given self-administered questionnaires. Written informed consent was obtained from the participants at each stage. The Institutional Review Boards of New York University School of Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, and New York Medical College approved the procedures used in this research study. Additional information regarding the study methodology is available in Brook et al. (1990).

In the current analysis, we included the 195 women who participated in 2009 and had reported being regular smokers during the 1985–1986 data collection. At the 2009 interview, 87 (44.6%) reported smoking in the past year, 21 (10.8%) reported having quit smoking for 1–4 years, and 87 (44.6%) reported having quit smoking for at least 5 years. Ninety two percent of the 195 women were white. The mean (SD) age of the 195 participants in 2009 was 63.7 years (SD=5.7).

Measures

Successful smoking cessation

At the 2009 interview, the participants reported their current smoking status and the last time that they had smoked a cigarette. We created two smoking cessation categories. Successful smoking cessation for at least 5 years was coded as 1, if a participant reported that the last time when she smoked a cigarette was at least 5 years ago. A score of 0 was assigned if she smoked in the past year. The participants (N=21, 10.8%) who reported that they had quit smoking for 1–4 years were not assigned a score.

Personal Characteristics in 1985–1986

The following scales have been found to predict delinquency and drug use (Brook et al., 1990). The low self-control scale (Brook et al., 1990) consisted of 6 items (alpha=0.65; e.g. “I feel like losing my temper at people”). The resistance to rules scale (Smith & Fogg, 1979) consisted of 7 items (alpha=0.72; e.g. “when you break the rules, it doesn’t really bother you”). The impulsivity scale (Gough, 1957) refers to difficulty in inhibiting behavioral responses. The impulsivity scale consisted of 5 items (alpha=0.61; e.g. “you are one of those people who blurt out things without thinking”). In the above three scales, each item was scored on an ordinal 4 point scale: false (1) to true (4). The sensation seeking scale (Zuckerman, Eysenck, & Eysenck, 1978) consisted of 7 items (alpha=0.44; e.g. “you like “wild,” uninhibited parties”). Each item of the sensation seeking scale was scored on an ordinal 2 point scale: no (1) to yes (2). All of the measures of personal characteristics were standardized around means.

Analyses

We conducted separate multivariate logistic regression analyses to examine the association between earlier personal characteristics (i.e., low self-control, resistance to rules, impulsivity, and sensation seeking) and later successful smoking cessation for 5 years or more, the dependent variable. Since age, education, and income have been found to be related to smoking cessation (Kahler, Daughters, et al., 2009), these variables as well as the frequency of cigarette smoking in 1985–1986 [each participant reported how many cigarettes she smoked per day on a 5 point scale: none (1) to more than one pack a day (5)], were controlled in these analyses.

Results

The intercorrelations of the four personality predictors were all statically significant (p<.001). The Pearson correlations follow: 0.45 (low self-control with resistance to rules); 0.44 (low self-control with impulsivity); 0.32 (low self-control with sensation seeking); 0.35 (resistance to rules with impulsivity); 0.38 (resistance to rules with sensation seeking); and 0.24 (impulsivity with sensation seeking). Hence the relationships are sufficiently moderate for the predictors to be considered individually. They are related but separate dimensions.

Table 1 presents the results of the multivariate logistic regression analyses. Both, H1 and H2 (see the Introduction Section), were supported; low self-control, resistance to rules, impulsivity and sensation seeking in 1985–1986 were all significantly associated with a lower likelihood of successful smoking cessation for 5 years or more, after controlling for the covariates. Among the covariates, age and income were significantly associated with successful smoking cessation for 5 years or more. We also analyzed the data using a cessation criterion of 1 year or longer. The results were similar to those using the more stringent criterion except that sensation seeking was no longer a significant predictor of smoking cessation. Those reporting having last smoked 1–4 years ago were omitted from the analysis because the group (N=21) was too small for analytic purposes. In addition, the relationships between the personality characteristics and the ≥5 year measure of smoking cessation were similar to those for ≥1 year measure of smoking cessation.

Table 1.

Personality Characteristics Measured in the Mid 40s Predict Women’s Smoking Cessation in their Mid 60s.

Adjusted Odds
Ratios
(95% Confidence
Interval)		 Adjusted Odds
Ratios
(95% Confidence
Interval)		 Adjusted Odds
Ratios
(95% Confidence
Interval)		 Adjusted Odds
Ratios
(95% Confidence
Interval)
Low Self-Control 0.66 (0.47–0.93)** - - -
Resistance to Rules - 0.74 (0.54–1.02)* - -
Impulsivity - - 0.72 (0.52–1.00)* -
Sensation Seeking - - 0.75 (0.54–1.03)*
Smoking Frequency in 40s 1.09 (0.80–1.51) 1.10 (0.80–1.51) 1.06 (0.77–1.46) 1.08 (0.78–1.48)
Age 1.06 (1.01–1.13)* 1.06 (1.01–1.13)* 1.07 (1.01–1.14)* 1.08 (1.01–1.14)**
Educational Level 1.07 (0.93–1.23) 1.08 (0.94–1.24) 1.05 (0.91–1.21) 1.07 (0.93–1.23)
Family Income 1.10 (0.99–1.23)* 1.11 (1.00–1.23)* 1.11 (1.00–1.23)* 1.09 (0.98–1.22)
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1

*p<0.05; **p<0.01 (one-tailed test);

2

Each personality variable was standardized around the mean.

3

Adjusted odds ratios reflect the associations between the independent variable and the likelihood of success smoking cessation for 5 years or more versus smoking in the past year.

Discussion

This study found that selected personality characteristics were significant longitudinal predictors of sustained smoking cessation in a sample of women. Greater self-control, less resistance to rules, less impulsivity, and less sensation seeking, all measured in the mid 40s (M=43), were associated with smoking cessation for five years or more when the women were in their mid-sixties. These relationships were obtained after controlling for earlier smoking frequency, age, educational level, and family income. Among the covariates, age and family income were significantly associated with smoking cessation for five years or more.

These results are consistent with FIT and extend prior research. According to FIT, self control not only has a role as a longitudinal predictor of later smoking status when measured in adolescence, but also as a longitudinal predictor of later cessation when assessed in middle age (Brook, Brook, & Zhang, 2008). Self control seems to function as a protective factor, a type of coping skill that facilitates cessation, even if quitting is initially stressful (Carmody, 1989).

In line with FIT, the current findings regarding the association between sensation seeking and the likelihood of smoking cessation support those of Lipkus et al. (1994) (A.O.R.=0.58, p < .001) and of Kahler, Spillane, et al. (2009) (A.O.R.=0.73, p < .05). The present study adds to their researches by extending the criterion of cessation from six months to 5 years or more. Similarly, this study’s findings regarding impulsivity confirmed those of Doran et al. (2004) (R2 Change = 0.147, p = 0.011). Furthermore, we add to their results by demonstrating the inverse relationship between impulsivity and smoking cessation for five years or more rather than one month.

This is the first study, to our knowledge, that has assessed the relationship of resistance to rules with smoking cessation, but the inverse association found is consistent with FIT and prior research that found a positive association between resistance to rules and nicotine dependence (Brook, Brook, & Zhang., 2008; Brook et al., 2009). Possibly, those who are resistant to rules are less likely to heed warnings regarding the health consequences of cigarette smoking and hence, less likely to quit for a sustained period. It may be that those who are still resistant to rules in their 40’s have particular difficulty with quitting.

Limitations

This study has some limitations. First, there are no biological measures to confirm the participants’ self-reports regarding their smoking. Second, we do not have the full smoking data from these participants (i.e. at several intervals from their late 40s to their mid-60s). Third, more reliable measures of impulsivity and sensation seeking would strengthen this study’s findings. Fourth, there is some conceptual overlap among the predictors. Nevertheless, each of the predictors are moderately related to smoking cessation (p<0.05).

The results suggest some of the personal attributes (e.g., low self-control, impulsivity) that, if addressed in smoking cessation programs, might enhance the program’s success. From a public health perspective, reducing smoking by addressing some personal attributes may contribute to lowering the economic burden resulting from tobacco-related illnesses.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the National Institute of Health research grant DA003188 and Research Scientist Award DA00244, both from the National Institute on Drug Abuse, and research grant CA 094845, from the National Cancer Institute.

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