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Published in final edited form as: Addict Behav. 2014 Apr 18;39(9):1293–1296. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.04.014

Acculturation and perceived discrimination: Predictors of substance use trajectories from adolescence to emerging adulthood among Hispanics

Jennifer B Unger 1, Seth J Schwartz 2, Jimi Huh 1, Daniel W Soto 1, Lourdes Baezconde-Garbanati 1
PMCID: PMC4060241  NIHMSID: NIHMS587586  PMID: 24837753

Abstract

Purpose

Previous studies have documented associations between cultural factors and substance use among Hispanic adolescents. Negative cultural experiences such as discrimination have been associated with an increased risk of substance use among Hispanic adolescents, whereas positive cultural resources, such as maintenance of Hispanic cultural orientations, have shown protective effects. However, few studies have examined the continuing influence of cultural factors on substance use from adolescence to emerging adulthood.

Methods

We surveyed a cohort of Hispanic adolescents in Southern California in 9th, 10th, and 11th grades, and 3–4 years after high school. Growth curve analyses were conducted to examine the effects of U.S. acculturation, Hispanic acculturation, ethnic identity, and perceived discrimination on change in tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use over time.

Results

Higher perceived discrimination at baseline was significantly associated with a higher intercept (initial level) of tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use. Higher initial level of Hispanic acculturation was significantly associated with a lower slope of tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use.

Conclusions

Cultural phenomena such as acculturation and perceived discrimination can continue to affect substance use through the transition to emerging adulthood. Health education interventions are needed to help Hispanics navigate this developmental transition without engaging in substance use.

Keywords: acculturation, Hispanic, adolescence, emerging adulthood, cigarette smoking, tobacco, alcohol, marijuana

Hispanic Americans experience cultural challenges including acculturative stress (Romero et al., 2007), discrimination (Pérez et al., 2008), and family acculturation discrepancies (Schwartz et al., 2010; 2012; Unger et al., 2009). Most Hispanics learn to navigate these challenges and become well-adjusted, productive members of society. Unfortunately, some turn to maladaptive behaviors such as substance use. It is important to understand the risk and protective factors for substance use among this vulnerable population, especially those factors that are unique to immigrant and/or minority groups (Szapocznik et al., 2007).

Culture-related risk factors for substance use

Acculturation to the United States

Adoption of a new culture and retention of the heritage culture represent separate processes (Berry, 1980). Immigrants and their families can identify with the culture of settlement (i.e., U.S. orientation or assimilation), with the culture of origin (i.e., Hispanic orientation or separation), with both cultures (i.e., biculturalism), or with neither culture (i.e., marginalization). Biculturalism may be especially protective against substance use (Carvajal et al., 2002; Nguyen and Benet-Martínez, 2013). Hispanic adolescents who identify primarily with the U.S. culture but not with their heritage cultures may be at increased risk for substance use (De La Rosa, 2002; McQueen et al., 2003; Schwartz et al., 2011).

Discrimination is differential treatment based on membership in a minority or lower-status group. It includes overt harassment and subtle micro-aggressions such as implying that a person is unintelligent or untrustworthy (Sue et al., 2007; Williams et al., 2008). Perceived discrimination has been associated with substance use among Hispanics (Kam et al., 2010; Lorenzo-Blanco et al., 2011; Tran et al., 2010).

Culturally-related protective factors

Ethnic identity includes knowledge about one’s ethnic group, emotional significance of group membership, and commitment to the ethnic group (Phinney and Ong, 2007). Studies have found that a strong ethnic identity is protective against substance use (Brook et al., 2010; Love et al., 2006; Marsiglia et al., 2004). However, other studies have found opposite (Zamboanga et al., 2009) or inconsistent (Kulis et al., 2012) associations.

Maintenance of Hispanic cultural orientation

Maintenance of Hispanic cultural orientation may facilitate better relationships between adolescents and their parents, protect adolescents from peer influences, and promote protective cultural values such as collectivism and respect for authority (Schwartz et al., 2012). Maintenance of Hispanic cultural orientation has been associated with reduced risks for substance use (Love et al., 2006; Unger et al., 2009; Szapocznik et al., 2007).

Although numerous studies have identified cultural risk and protective factors for unhealthy behaviors among Hispanic adolescents, it is unclear whether those risk and protective factors continue to influence behavior in emerging adulthood (EA). EA is a transitional period for exploring options in love, work, and education before making firm commitments to specific roles and responsibilities (Arnett, 2004; Schwartz et al., 2013). EA also can be a high-risk period for substance use because it is a time of increased autonomy and exploration but few commitments (Arnett, 2004).

Most research on EA has focused on (non-Hispanic-White) college students, who are not representative of the Hispanic emerging adult population overall (Gomez et al., 2011; Hernández et al., 2010; Huynh and Fuligni, 2012; Schwartz et al., 2011). The experience of EA may differ for those Hispanics who cannot postpone taking on adult responsibilities such as contributing to household income and caring for family members (Phinney et al., 2006; Schwartz et al., 2013). Because Hispanic emerging adults—especially those from families that emphasize familism and other collectivistic, interdependent cultural values—face these added responsibilities, their experience of EA may differ from that of Whites. It is not known whether the cultural phenomena that influence Hispanic substance use during adolescence continue to influence substance use in EA.

This article examines longitudinal associations between cultural phenomena and substance use among a cohort of Hispanic adolescents in Southern California who completed surveys in 9th–11th grade and 3–4 years later, in EA. We hypothesized that Hispanic orientation and ethnic identity would be protective against increases in substance use over time, and that U.S. orientation and perceived discrimination would represent risk factors for increases in substance use over time.

Method

Project RED (Reteniendo y Entendiendo Diversidad para Salud; Unger et al., 2009) is a longitudinal study of acculturation patterns and substance use among Hispanic adolescents in Southern California. Students attending seven predominantly Hispanic high schools in the Los Angeles area completed surveys in 9th, 10th, and 11th grade, and again 3–4 years after high school.

Student recruitment

The 9th, 10th, and 11th grade surveys were conducted in 2005, 2006, and 2007, respectively. In 2005, all 9th-grade students in the 7 schools (N=3218) were invited to participate. Of those, 2,420 (75%) provided parental consent and student assent. Of those students providing consent and assent, 2,222 (92%) completed the survey in 9th grade. Between the 9th and 10th grade surveys, a school district transferred some of the participants to a new school, so we added that school’s 10th grade class to the sample, resulting in an additional 704 participants in 10th grade. An additional 43 students also moved into the schools and joined the sample in 11th grade. Therefore, a total of 2,969 students had provided data at one or more timepoints during high school. Of those 2,969 students, 2,722 (92%) self-identified as Hispanic/Latino and were included in the present analyses.

EA survey

In 2011–2012, we attempted to re-contact the 2722 Hispanic/Latino participants who had participated in any wave(s) of the high school survey for an EA follow-up survey. Valid contact information was located for 2151 participants, and 1303 completed the EA survey. Overall, there were a total 7,799 observations provided by 2,722 Hispanic participants, of whom 274 provided data at 1 timepoint, 576 provided data at 2 timepoints, 1,116 provided data at 3 timepoints, and 756 provided data at all 4 timepoints.

Measures

Acculturation was assessed with a short form of the ARSMA-II (Cuéllar et al., 1995): 7 from the U.S. orientation subscale and 5 from the Hispanic orientation subscale. These 12 items were selected based on a pilot study in which these items had the highest factor loadings on their respective scales. Cronbach’s alpha=.77 for U.S. Orientation, .88 for Hispanic Orientation.

Discrimination was assessed using a 10-item measure of perceptions of personal experiences of discrimination (Guyll et al., 2001). Sample items include, “You are treated with less respect than other people.” Cronbach’s alpha=.87.

Ethnic identity development was assessed with the 12-item Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (Phinney, 1992). Items include, “I have spent time trying to find out more about my ethnic group, such as its history, traditions, and customs.” Cronbach’s alpha=.88

Substance use

Past-month use of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana was assessed in high school and EA. Respondents were asked how many times in the past 30 days they had smoked cigarettes, had at least one drink of alcohol, and used marijuana. The variables were log-transformed because their distributions were skewed.

Demographic characteristics included age, gender, and socioeconomic status (SES). Age and gender were self-reported. SES was assessed with a composite scale (Unger et al., 2009).

Data analysis

Multiple imputation (MI)

Only 28% of the respondents were present at all 4 timepoints and provided 4 datapoints for the main dependent variables. Restricting the analyses to the participants with complete data (listwise deletion) could produce biased parameter estimates and limited external validity (Graham, 2012). We used multiple imputation (MI) to replace each missing value with a set of plausible values that represent the uncertainty about the actual value, using the SAS MI procedure. The imputation model included all variables in the analysis and the demographic covariates that varied across participants with differing amounts of missing data. The growth curve analyses were conducted on each dataset separately and the parameter estimates were combined with the SAS MIANALYZE procedure.

Growth curve analysis

SAS PROC MIXED was used to estimate the growth curve models. The model specified fixed effects for gender, U.S. acculturation, Hispanic acculturation, perceived discrimination, and ethnic identity (reported in 9th grade), a repeated effect of time (grade), and the cross-level random effect of each predictor with time on substance use.

Results

Demographic characteristics

Among the 2,722 participants who provided data at one or more timepoints, 52% were female, and the mean age in 9th grade was 14.0 years. Countries of origin included Mexico (84%), the United States (29%), El Salvador (9%), Guatemala (6%), and Honduras (1%) (Respondents could select more than one country). Over half (61%) were second-generation (student born in the U.S. but neither parent born in the U.S.)

Missing data

We examined the characteristics of students with different patterns of missing data (those with data at 1, 2, 3, or all 4 timepoints). The variables that differed significantly across those groups included gender, grades in school, lifetime alcohol use, lifetime marijuana use, U.S. acculturation, ethnic identity, and perceived discrimination. These variables were included in the MI model.

Associations between cultural variables and substance use

Growth curve analyses examined each participant’s trajectory of substance use from 9th grade to EA and identified variables (in 9th grade) that predict the intercept (initial level) and linear slope of the growth trajectory. The significant effects of grade indicate that the use of all three substances increased from 9th grade to EA. There were several significant associations between cultural variables and substance use trajectories (Table 1). Perceived discrimination at baseline and male gender were positively associated with the intercept (initial level) of tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use. In contrast, the levels of Hispanic acculturation at baseline were negatively associated with a lower slope of tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use. U.S. acculturation and ethnic identity were not associated with either the intercept or the slope of any substance use variables.

Table 1.

Growth curve models predicting cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use, Southern California Hispanic adolescents, 2005–2012

Cigarettes Alcohol Marijuana
Intercept −.109* −.172* −.056*
Grade .111* .140* .101*
Female gender −.162* −.138* −.229*
U.S. acculturation .003 −.002 .004
Hispanic acculturation .004 .020 −.012
Ethnic identity −.021 −.016 −.006
Perceived discrimination .064* .117* .108*
U.S. Acculturation × time −.013 −.007 .004
Hispanic acculturation × time −.031* −.027 −.050*
Ethnic identity × time −.006 .002 .005
Perceived discrimination × time .012 −.018 −.012
Open in a new tab
*

p<.05

Discussion

Hispanic Americans are a heterogeneous group with wide variation in acculturation patterns, language use, ethnic identity development, experiences of discrimination, and numerous other characteristics. Although previous studies have demonstrated that cultural phenomena influence substance use among Hispanic adolescents, few studies have examined the long-term associations between cultural phenomena and substance use trajectories into EA.

Respondents who reported higher initial levels of discrimination indicated higher intercepts (initial levels) of cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use, relative to their peers who experienced less discrimination. Because the significant effects of discrimination were main effects (effects on the intercept) rather than interactions with grade (effects on the slope), it appears that the effect of discrimination occurred prior to 9th grade. Discrimination might signal to minority group members that they are not accepted by the mainstream population, which may lead them to adopt oppositional identities that include deviant behaviors (Ogbu, 1991).

Hispanic orientation was protective against the use of all three substances. These significant protective effects were on the slopes rather than the intercepts, indicating that Hispanic orientation did not protect against initial experimentation with substance use, but it was protective against escalation of substance use over time. This is consistent with previous studies of the protective effects of heritage-culture retention (Yoon et al., 2013) and suggests that programs to encourage Hispanics to learn about their heritage culture (Schwartz et al., 2010) may provide them with a wider array of coping skills and access to supportive social networks, which may reduce their likelihood of substance use. Findings from this study have implications for the delivery of culturally specific substance abuse interventions for Hispanic youth and emerging adults.

Limitations

Although these findings are based on self-reported substance use, previous studies have found self-reports to be quite accurate under confidential survey conditions (Harrison and Hughes, 1997). Similar to many other longitudinal studies, there was a considerable amount of missing data. MI uses all existing data and generally produces unbiased parameter estimates when the data are missing at random; it is still preferable to other techniques even when the data are missing not at random (Graham, 2012).

Implications

Cultural variables including discrimination and acculturation continue to influence substance use over the transition from adolescence to EA. It is important to develop culturally relevant interventions to help Hispanic adolescents—a significant proportion of future citizens, workers, and parents—avoid maladaptive patterns of substance use and achieve their full potential.

Highlights.

  • We surveyed Hispanic adolescents from 9th grade through emerging adulthood.

  • Perceived discrimination was significantly associated with substance use.

  • Hispanic acculturation was protective against an increase in substance use.

  • Cultural phenomena can affect substance use through the transition to emerging adulthood.

Acknowledgments

Role of Funding Sources

This research was supported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (grants DA016310 and DA025694). NIDA had no role in the study design, collection, analysis or interpretation of the data, writing the manuscript, or the decision to submit the paper for publication.

Footnotes

The authors report no conflicts of interest.

Contributors

Jennifer Unger conceptualized the study, conducted the analysis, and wrote the first draft. Seth Schwartz advised on the analysis and wrote parts of the introduction and discussion. Jimi Huh guided the data analysis and interpretation. Daniel Soto contributed to conceptualization, survey development, data collection, and writing. Lourdes Baezconde-Garbanati contributed to conceptualization of the study and interpretation of results. All authors have approved the final manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

All authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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