Ethnobotanical investigation of traditional medicinal plants commercialized in the markets of Mashhad, Iran

Abstract

Objective: An ethnobotanical survey on the medicinal plant species marketed in Mashhad city, northeastern Iran, was conducted in order to document traditional medicinal knowledge and application of medicinal plants.

Materials and Methods: This study was undertaken between 2011 and 2012. The indigenous knowledge of traditional healers used for medicinal purposes were collected through questionnaire and personal interviews during field trips. Ethnobotanical data was arranged alphabetically by family name followed by botanical name, vernacular name, part used, folk use, and recipe. Correct identification was made with the help of the various Floras and different herbal literature at the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad Herbarium (FUMH).

Results: The present investigation reported medicinal information for about 269 species, belonging to 87 vascular plant families and one fungus family. The most important family was Lamiaceae with 26 species, followed by Asteraceae with 23, Fabaceae with 20, and Apiaceae with 19. Herbal medicine uses reported by herbalists was classified into 132 different uses which show significant results to treat a wide spectrum of human ailments. Plants sold at the market were mostly used for digestive system disorders, respiratory problems, urological troubles, nervous system disorders, skin problems, and gynecological ailments.

Conclusion: This survey showed that although people in study area have access to modern medical facilities, a lot of them still continue to depend on medicinal plants for the treatment of healthcare problems. The present paper represents significant ethnobotanical information on medical plants which provides baseline data for future pharmacological and phytochemical studies.

Introduction

The usage of medicinal plants presents a very important aspect of the traditional medicine which is imbedded in the culture of people of developing countries (Kloucek et al., 2005 ▶). In many developing countries, medicinal plants have not been well studied, tested, or documented. Most of the information is still in the hands of traditional healers and knowledge of healers is either lost or passed to next generation by the word of mouth (Yirga, 2010 ▶). The extent of the knowledge of traditional medicine practice based on medicinal plants should be documented through botanical surveys. Botanical collection and documentation of the associated ethno-botanical knowledge should be carried out before such rich heritages are lost due to various anthropogenic and other natural causes (Martin, 1995 ▶).

Traditional herbal medicine has played an important role in Iran. Iran has a very honorable past in traditional medicine, which goes back to the time of Babylonian-Assyrian civilization. One of the most significant ancient heritages is sophisticated experience of people who have tried over the millennia to discover useful plants for health improvement and each generation added their own experience to this tradition (Naghibi et al., 2005 ▶). Today, medicinal plants are still widely used in Iran. In all cities and villages, there are specific stores (named Attari), which traditional healers (Attar) give receipts and sell medicinal plants. People use medicinal plants as curatives or palliatives of main health problems according to their cultural background. The notable use and commercialization of medicinal plants to alleviate and cure health problems and ailments in all cities of the country, points out the importance of these natural resources in the folk medicine and culture of the Iranian people (Emami et al., 2012 ▶). Despite the vast knowledge of medicinal plants existed in Iran, a few attempts have been carried out to document ethnobotanical knowledge. Some researchers have investigating the traditional pharmacopoeia and medicinal plants in different areas of the country (Amin, 2006 ▶; Amiri, 2012 ▶; Emami et al., 2012 ▶; Ghorbani, 2005 ▶; Hooper and Field, 1937 ▶; Miraldi et al., 2001 ▶; Mosaddegh et al., 2012 ▶; Naghibi et al., 2005 ▶; Rajaei, 2012 ▶; Safa et al., 2013 ▶; Zargari, 1989-1992 ▶;).

The objective of this work was to elicit data on the traditional uses of medicinal plants marketed in Mashhad city and preserve it to be used by the next generations. In addition, the present paper provides baseline data for future pharmacological and phytochemical studies.

Materials and Methods

Study area

Mashhad is located in the northeast of Iran. It is the second largest city in Iran and one of the holiest cities in the world. Its approximate geographic location is to  north latitude and to  east longitude, in the valley of the Kashaf River near Turkmenistan, between the two mountain ranges of Binalood and Hezar-masjed. It is located in the center of the Razavi Khorasan Province close to the borders of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan. The total area of the Mashhad is 270 km² and the population of the city is about 3 million people. There are also over 20 million pilgrims who visit the city every year.

The vast majority of the Mashhad people are ethnic Persians who form over 95% of the city's population. Other ethnic groups include Kurdish and Turkmen people who have immigrated recently to the city from the North Khorasan province. Among the non-Iranians, there are small immigrants from Afghanistan, Iraq, and Pakistan.

Methods

In order to gather information on medicinal species that were found in the markets of Mashhad, a survey was carried out during the years 2011-2012. Ethnobotanical interview was used as the basis for data gathering. A questionnaire was administered only to people who had knowledge of medicinal plants, through face to face interviews. Totally, more than 100 informants (Attar) with in the age of 37 to 82 were interviewed; these included males and females. Ethnobotanical information, including the various data such as name and age of informants, local names, purpose of usage, preparation procedure, and duration of the treatment were obtained through interviews and discussions. After collecting the specimens, we represented these specimens to different people to confirm the accuracy of the results. Subsequently, specimens of the reported medicinal plants were identified by specialist with the help of available Floras (Rechinger, 1963-2005 ▶; Assadi et al., 1988-2008 ▶) and consulting with different herbal literature (Amin, 1991 ▶; Hooper, 1937 ▶; Zargari, 1989-1992 ▶) at the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad Herbarium (FUMH). In this paper, scientific and author names of plant species were checked for accuracy according to the plant list (www.theplantlist.org).

Results

Markets have long been recognized as places that reflect regional trade and culture, and have been used to study the commercialization and utilization of natural products (Hooper and Field, 1937 ▶). During the present study, it was observed that 269 medicinal plant species distributed in 224 genera, belonging to 88 different families were sold in the markets of Mashhad which were used by the local inhabitants for curing various diseases. From the point of view of Taxonomy, plants that are being used for therapeutic purpose in this region belong to divisions of Pteridophyta (one species from Equisetaceae, Polypodiaceae, and Pteridaceae) and Spermatophyta with its two subdivisions: Coniferophytina (one species from Cupressaceae, Ephedraceae, and Pinaceae) and Magnoliophytina (with two classes Magnoliopsida and Liliopsida, including 81 families all together). Domination of Magnoliopsida has been very noticeable with its 69 families comprised of 232 species that are used in therapeutic purposes. Maximum number of medicinal plant species belongs to family Lamiaceae (26 species) followed by Asteraceae (23 species), Fabaceae (20 species), and Apiaceae (19 species). Class Liliopsida is represented by twelve families which the most important family was Zingiberaceae with 7 species, followed by Orchidaceae, Poaceae with 4 and Amaryllidaceae, Asparagaceae each with 3 species. The rest of the families are represented by one or two species only.

According to Table 1, Astragalus belonging to family Fabaceae was found to be the largest genus in the market samples in the research area. The most important species of Astragalus which produce katira is Astragalus gummifer Labill and this popular herbal drug can also be obtained from other species of this genus (i.e., Astragalus cerasocrena, Astragalus echidna, Astragalus floccosus, Astragalus eriosphaerus, Astragalus hypsogeton, Astragalus turkmenorum, and Astragalus verus). The plants used for medicinal purposes in the various markets of Mashhad are arranged in alphabetical order of their family and botanical names, with the relevant information (Table 1).

Table 1.

Medicinal plants used by the traditional healers for the treatment of various ailments in the markets of Mashhad, Iran.

NO	Family	Scientific name	Local name	Part used	Status	Medicinal uses
1	Acoraceae	Acorus calamus L.	Agir Torki	Root	Im1	Treatment of Urinary Incontinence, Diuretic, Carminative, Stimulant, Hematinic
2	Amaranthaceae	Amaranthus caudatus L.	Taj Khorus	Aerial parts	In1	Disinfectant Treatment of Enteritis, Febrifuge, Antitussive, Antidiarrhea, Laxative,
3	Amaranthaceae	Dysphania botrys (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants	Dermaneh Torki	Aerial parts	In1	Diabetes, Treatment of Sinusitis, Respiratory disorders, Anthelmintic, Antacid, Antidiarrhea, Carminative, Urinary Antiseptic
4	Amaryllidaceae	Allium altissimum Regel	Musir	Bulb	In1	Antiseptic, Appetizer, Digestive
5	Amaryllidaceae	Allium cepa L.	Piaz	Seed	In1	Treatment of Trichoptlosis
6	Amaryllidaceae	Allium sativum L.	Sir	Bulb	In1	Hypoglycemic, Cardiac Diseases, Antiseptic, Toothache, Antihyperlipidemia, Anthelmintic, Antihypertensive
7	Anacardiaceae	Mangifera indica L	Anbeh	Leaves	Im1	Lung Cancer
8	Anacardiaceae	Pistacia atlantica Desf. ssp. kurdica	Saghez	Oleoresin	In1	Appetizer, Digestive, Antacid,
9	Anacardiaceae	Pistacia atlantica Desf. ssp. mutica	Baneh	Fruit	In1	Laxative, Tonic Stimulant,Treatment of Anaemia
10	Anacardiaceae	Pistacia lentiscus L.	Mastaki	Gum	Im1	Strengthening of Memory, Strengthening of Teeth Gum, Antihalitosis
11	Anacardiaceae	Rhus coriaria L.	Somagh	Fruit	In1	Jaundice, Cholesterol Lowering, Diabetes, Antihypertensive, Antidiarrhea, Anti-hemorrhage, Flavoring
12	Anacardiaceae	Semecarpus anacardium L.f.	Belador	Fruit	Im1	Tonic, Removal of Bad Foot's Odour
13	Apiaceae	Anethum graveolens L.	Shevid	Fruit	In1	Abortion, Anti-Dysmenorrhea, Galactogogue, Antihyperlipidemia, Carminative
14	Apiaceae	Apium graveolens L.	Karafs	Fruit	In1	Emmenagogue, Diuretic, Carminative
15	Apiaceae	Bunium cylindricum (Boiss. & Hohen.) Drude	Zireh Siah	Fruit	In2	Carminative
16	Apiaceae	Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B.Fedtsch.	Zireh Siah	Fruit	In1	Obesity, Galactogogue, Flavoring , Carminative, Calmative, Appetizer, Indigestion
17	Apiaceae	Coriandrum sativum L.	Geshniz	Fruit	In1	Acne, Treatment of Flatulence, Appetizer, Aphrodisiac, Calmative, Jaundice, Antiseptic, Aromatic
18	Apiaceae	Conium maculatum L.	Shokaran	Root	In1	Cholagogue, Depilator, Treatment of Dermal Allergies
19	Apiaceae	Cuminum cyminum L.	Zireh Sabz (Keravieh)	Fruit	In1	Treatment of Colic, Galactogogue, Obesity, Digestive, Favoring, Antiasetic
20	Apiaceae	Daucus carota L.	Havij	Fruit	In1	Diuretic, Emmenagogue
21	Apiaceae	Dorema ammoniacum D.Don	Kandal	Gum- Root	In1	Cystitis, Digestive, Treatment of Colic, Treatment of Furuncles, Expectorant, Anthelmintic, Emmenagogue, Anticovulsion
22	Apiaceae	Falcaria vulgaris Bernh.	Ghaz Yaghi	Leaves- Fruit	In1	Treatment of Vitiligo, Cut, Wound
23	Apiaceae	Foeniculum vulgare Mill.	Razianeh	Fruit	In1	Galactogogue, Digestive, Bronchitis, Appetizer, Antacid, Flatulence
24	Apiaceae	Ferula foetida (Bunge) Regel	Anghuzeh	Gum	In1	Anthelmintic, Treatment of Colic, Emmenagogue
25	Apiaceae	Ferula gummosa Boiss.	Barijeh	Gum- Root	In1	Anthelmintic Anticatarrhal, Antiallergic, Dyspepsia, Appetizer, Emmenagogue
26	Apiaceae	Heracleum persicum Desf.	Golpar	Fruit	In1	Treatment of Hiccup, Appetizer, Flavoring, Carminative, Anthelmintic, Stomach Tonic
27	Apiaceae	Levisticum officinale W.D.J.Koch	Angedane roomi	Fruit	In1	Nerve Diseases, Heart Tonic, Indigestion
28	Apiaceae	Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Nyman ex A. W. Hill	Jafari	Fruit	In1	Emmenagogue, Diuretic, Carminative, Kidney Disorders
29	Apiaceae	Pimpinella anisum L.	Anison (Badian roomi)	Fruit	In1	Treatment of Flatulence, Anthelmintic,Treatment of Colic, Antacid, Stomachache, Antidiarrhea
30	Apiaceae	Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague	Zenyan (Khordaneh)	Fruit	In1	Carminative, Anthelmintic, Antidiarrhea, Treatment of Colic, Antacid, Galactogogue
31	Apiaceae	Zosima orientalis Hoffm.	Angedane roomi	Fruit	In2	Nerve Diseases, Indigestion
32	Araliaceae	Panax ginseng C.A.Mey.	Jin Sing	Root	Im1	Aphrodisiac, Nerve Tonic, Treatment of Dyspepsia
33	Arecaceae	Areca catechu L.	Fufal	Seed	Im1	Treatment of premature Ejaculation, Aphrodisiac,Tonic, Anti-hemorrhage, Antidiarrhea, Treatment of Postpartum Bleeding, Stomach Tonic
34	Arecaceae	Cocos nucifera L.	Nargil	Fruit	Im1	Tonic, Hair Tonic, Treatment of Anaemia
35	Aristolochiaceae	Aristolochia rotunda L.	Zaravand	Root	Im1	Emmenagogue, Diuretic, Anti-Atherosclerosis, Tonic, Treatment of Rheumatism
36	Aristolochiaceae	Asarum europaeum L.	Asarun	Root	Im1	Tonic, Stimulant
37	Asparagaceae	Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.	Sabre Zard	Leaves- Latex	Im1	Obesity, Antihemorrhoids, Purgative, Antihistaminic,Treatment of burn
38	Asparagaceae	Drimia maritima (L.) Stearn	Onsol	Bulb	In1	Arthrodynia, Emmenagogue, Hair Tonic
39	Asparagaceae	Polygonatum orientale Desf.	Shaghaghol	Root	In1	Tonic, Diuretic, Nerve Tonic, Aphrodisiac
40	Asteraceae	Achillea santolinoides subsp. wilhelmsii (K.Koch) Gruter	Bumadaran	Aerial parts	In1	Antihemorrhoids, Antidiarrhea, Hypoglycemic, Anthelmintic, Mastitis, Antacid, Dyspepsia, Nerve Tonic, Treatment of Osteoarthritis, Treatment of Blood Flooding, Appetizer
41	Asteraceae	Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) Lag.	Aghergherha	Root	Im1	Treatment of Sciatica, Treatment of Stuttering
42	Asteraceae	Arctium lappa L.	Baba Adam	Leaves- Root	In1	Duretic Cholagogue, Depurative, Hypoglycemic,
43	Asteraceae	Artemisia absinthium L.	Afsantin	Aerial parts	In1	Anthelmintic, Appetizer, Indigestion
44	Asteraceae	Artemisia dracunculus L.	Tarkhun	Leaves	In1	Appetizer, Dyspepsia , Anthelmintic, Antacid, Carminative
45	Asteraceae	Artemisia vulgaris L.	Baranjasef	Flower	In1	Nerve Tonic, Sexual Impotency, Menstrual Regulator
46	Asteraceae	Calendula officinalis L.	Hamishe Bahar	Flower	Im1	Eczema, Treatmen of Dermal Disorders, Sudorific, Blood cleanser
47	Asteraceae	Carthamus tinctorius L.	Golrang (kajireh)	Flower- Seed	In1	Emmenagogue, Flavoring Luxative, Treatment of Rheumatism,
48	Asteraceae	Centaurea behen L.	Bahman Sefid	Root	In1	Aphrodisiac, Anti-lithiasis
49	Asteraceae	Centaurea depressa M.Bieb.	Gole Gandom	Aerial parts	In1	Digestive, Febrifuge, Cholagogue, Blood Cleanser, Antigout
50	Asteraceae	Cichorium intybus L.	Kasni	Aerial parts	In1	Treatment of Palpitation, Appetizer, Depurative, Treatment of Furuncles, Jaundice, Febrifuge, Antiallergic
51	Asteraceae	Cynara scolymus L.	Kangar Farangi	Aerial parts	Im1	Liver Tonic, Digestive, Jaundice, Hepatitis
52	Asteraceae	Doronicum pardalianches L.	Daroanj Aghrabi	Root	Im1	Diuretic, Treatment of Snake and Scorpion bites, Nerve Tonic
53	Asteraceae	Echinops cephalotes DC.	Shekar Tighal	Manna	In1	Antitussive, Anti-asthmatic, Pharyngitis, Febrifuge
54	Asteraceae	Gundelia tournefortii L.	Kangar	Aerial parts	In1	Liver Tonic Treatment of Hepatitis
55	Asteraceae	Helichrysum graveolens (M.Bieb) Sweet	Afsantin	Aerial parts	In2	Anodyne, Anthelmintic, Appetizer, Nerve Tonic
56	Asteraceae	Lactuca sativa L.	Kahu	Seed	In1	Anti-thirst, Hypnotic
57	Asteraceae	Matricaria chamomilla L.	Gole babooneh	Flower	In1	Eczema, Antitussive, Anticatarrhal, Hair Tonic, Treatment of Colic, Menstrual Pains
58	Asteraceae	Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.	Khare Maryam	Seed	In1	Jaundice, Febrifuge, Antihepatitis, Liver Tonic
59	Asteraceae	Tagetes erecta L.	Gol Jafari	Flower	Im1	Febrifuge, Treatment of Cut
60	Asteraceae	Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip.	Gole babooneh	Flower	In2	Antitussive, Anticatarrhal, Hair Tonic, Treatment of Colic, Menstrual Pains
61	Asteraceae	Tripleurospermum disciforme (C. A. Mey.) Sch.Bip.	Gole babooneh	Flower	In2	Treatment of Cough, Febrifuge
62	Asteraceae	Tussilago farfara L.	Pa Khari	Aerial parts	In1	Expectorant, Antitussive, Mouth Wounds, Treatment of Furuncles
63	Berberidaceae	Berberis integrrima Bunge	Zereshk Kuhi	Fruit	In1	Hypoglycemic, Antihypertensive, Blood and Liver Cleanser, Jaundice, Febrifuge, Antigout
64	Berberidaceae	Berberis sp.	Zereshk	Fruit	In1	Antigout, Blood and Liver Cleanser, Febrifuge, Anthelmintic,Treatment of Dysentery
65	Betulaceae	Corylus avellana L.	Fandogh	Fruit	In1	Treatment of Anaemia, Depurative, Appetizer
66	Boraginaceae	Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I.M.Johnst.	Havachoobeh	Root	In1	Treatment of Dermal Disorders, Hair Tonic
67	Boraginaceae	Caccinia macranthera (Banks & Sol.) Brand	Gavzaban sabz	Aerial parts	In1	Sedative, Treatment of Cough, Expectorant
68	Boraginaceae	Cordia myxa L.	Sepestan	Fruit	In1	Pharyngitis, Antitussive, Febrifuge, Laxative
69	Boraginaceae	Echium amoenum Fisch. & C.A.Mey.	Gole Gavzaban	Flower	In1	Antihypertensive, Nerve Tonic, Diuretic, Antistress, Blood Cleanser Cardiac Tonic
70	Boraginaceae	Trichodesma incanum (Bunge) A.DC.	Alaf-e- simkesh	Aerial parts	In1	Treatment of Bone Fracture
71	Brassicaceae	Alyssum alyssoides (L.) L.	Ghodumeh	Seed	In1	Pharyngitis, Antitussive, Febrifuge, Laxutive, Treatment of Hoarseness
72	Brassicaceae	Anastatica hierochuntica L.	Change maryam	Aerial parts	In1	Bring Luck to Pregnant Women, Menstrual Regulator
73	Brassicaceae	Brassica napus L.	Shalgham	Seed	In1	Antiseptic, Treatment of Cold, Tonic
74	Brassicaceae	Brassica nigra (L.) K.Koch	Khardal	Seed	In1	Laxative
75	Brassicaceae	Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.	Kiseh Keshish	Seed	In1	Period Regulator, Anti-hemorrhage, Antidiarrhea
76	Brassicaceae	Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl	Khakshir	Seed	In1	Blood and Liver Cleanser, Jaundice, Febrifuge, Treatment of Furuncles, Anti-thirst, Laxative
77	Brassicaceae	Eruca sativa (L.) Mill.	Mandab (Roghan cheragh)	Seed	In1	Sedative, Laxative Diuretic, Stomach Tonic,
78	Brassicaceae	Lepidium sativum L.	Shahi (Tartizak)	Seed	In1	Appetizer, Anthelmintic, Laxative, Sore Throat
79	Brassicaceae	Nasturtium officinale R. Br.	Alafe cheshmeh	Aerial parts	In1	Diabetes, Dyspepsia
80	Burseraceae	Boswellia sacra Fluek.	Kondor	Gum	Im1	Memory Tonic Treatment of Premature Ejaculation,
81	Burseraceae	Commiphora mukul (Hook. Ex Stocks) Engl.	Moghle Azragh	Gum	Im1	Treatment of Joints Pain, Carminative
82	Burseraceae	Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl.	Morre makki	Gum	Im1	Obesity, Hematinic,Carminative Antibacterial, Laxative, Stomachache
83	Cannabinaceae	Cannabis sativa L.	Shahdaneh	Seed	In1	Sedative, Tonic Treatment of Osteoarthritis, Treatment of Ear Pain
84	Cannabinaceae	Humulus lupulus L.	Razak	Hops	In1	Duretic, Treatment of Sleeplessness, Kidney Tonic, Calming, Sedative for Digestion
85	Capparaceae	Capparis spinosa L.	Kavar	Fruit- Root	In1	Liver Tonic, Hepatitis, Appetizer, Anthelmintic, Stomach Tonic, Emmenagogue, Antigout
86	Caprifoliaceae	Nardostachys jatamansi (D.Don) DC.	Sonboletib	Root	Im2	Nerve Tonic, Cardiac Tonic, Hypnotic, Anti-Stress, Antimigraine, Treatment of Incontinence
87	Caryophylaceae	Acanthophyllum sordidum Bunge ex Boiss.	Choobak	Root	In1	Warts, Washing
88	Colchicaceae	Colchicum autumnale L.	Suranjan	Root	In1	Antigout, Calmative, Arthrodynia
89	Combretaceae	Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.	Balileh	Fruit	Im1	Laxative, Appetizer
90	Combretaceae	Terminalia chebula Retz.	Halileh Siah	Fruit	Im1	Purgative, Treatment of Constipation, Liver Tonic, Antihemorrhoids
91	Combretaceae	Terminalia citrina Roxb. ex Fleming	Halileh Zard	Fruit	Im1	Antidiarrhea, Anthelmintic, Digestive
92	Convolvolaceae	Cuscuta epithymum Murray	Aftimun	Aerial parts	In1	Laxative, Antihemorrhoids
93	Convolvolaceae	Operculina turpethum (L.) Silva Manso	Torbod	Root	Im1	Treatment of Osteoarthritis, Duretic, Laxative, Febrifuge
94	Cornaceae	Cornus mas L.	Zoghal Akhteh	Fruit	In1	Prostatichypertropy, Antihemorrhage, Antidiarrhea, Febrifuge
95	Cucurbitaceae	Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.	Hanzal	Fruit- Seed	In1	Purgative, Anodyne, Hypoglycemic
96	Cucurbitaceae	Cucumis sativus L.	Khiar	Seed	In1	Diuretic, Antilithiasis, Blood-cleansing, Febrifuge
97	Cucurbitaceae	Cucurbita pepo L.	Kadu Tokhm Kaghazi	Seed	Im1	Prostatichypertrophy
98	Cupressaceae	Juniperus sabina L.	Abhal	Fruit	In1	Diuretic, Antilithiasis, Food digestion, Urinary Antiseptic
99	Cyperaceae	Cyperus rotundus L.	Soade Kufi	Root	In1	Strengthening of Memory
100	Elaeagnaceae	Elaeagnus angustifolia L.	Senjed	Fruit	In1	Arthrodynia, Antidiarrhea, Treatment of Rheumatism, Female Aphrodisiac
101	Ephedraceae	Ephedra major Host	Khakestar Koshtar	Aerial parts	In1	Treatment of Joints Pain
102	Equisetaceae	Equisetum arvense L.	Dome Asb	Aerial parts	In1	Obesity, Antilithiasis, Antihypertensive, Prostate Disorders, Treatment of kidney Disorders
103	Ericaceae	Vaccinium arctostaphylos L.	Ghareh Ghat	Fruit	In1	Diabetes, Depurative, Antihypertensive, Calmative
104	Euphorbiaceae	Ricinus communis L.	Karchak	Seed	In1	Purgative
105	Fabaceae	Abrus precatorius L.	Cheshm Khorus	Seed	Im1	Contraceptive
106	Fabaceae	Chamaecrista absus (L.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby	Cheshom	Seed	Im1	Pharyngitis, Antitussive, Obesity, Carminative
107	Fabaceae	Acacia senegal (L.) Willd.	Samgh Arabi	Gum	Im1	Cystitis, Antitussive, Gastric ulcer, Anti-inflammatory, Hoarseness
108	Fabaceae	Alhagi graecorum Boiss.	Taranjabin	Manna	In1	Jaundice, Laxative, Febrifuge, Thirst, Aphthous Ulcers
109	Fabaceae	Alhagi maurorum Medik.	Khar Shotor- Taranjabin	Aerial parts - Manna	In1	Appetite Suppressant, Diuretic, Jaundice, Febrifuge
110	Fabaceae	Astragalus adscendens Boiss. & Hausskn. ex Boiss.	Gazangabin	Manna	In1	Laxative, Febrifuge Digestive
111	Fabaceae	Astragalus fasciculifolius subsp. arbusculinus (Bornm. & Gauba)Tietz	Anzerut	Gum	In1	Antitussive, Jaundice, Laxative, Anthelmintic
112	Fabaceae	Astragalus hamosus L.	Nakhonak	Fruit	In1	Anodyne, Repel of Kidney Stone, Diuretic, Arthrodynia, Carminative
113	Fabaceae	Astragalus sieversianus Pall.	Gol Sefid	Fruit	In1	Menstrual Disorders
114	Fabaceae	Astragalus spp.	Katira	Gum	In1	Mouth Wounds, Aphrodisiac, Cystitis, Hair Tonic
115	Fabaceae	Cassia fistula L.	Folus	Fruit	Im1	Treatment of Leishmaniasis, Infant Colic, Febrifuge, Purgative, Jaundice
116	Fabaceae	Entada gigas (L.) Fawc. & Rendle	Ghorse Kamar	Seed	Im1	Washing, Aphrodisiac, Hair Tonic
117	Fabaceae	Glycyrrhiza glabra L.	Shirin Bayan	Root	In1	Antitussive, Antacid, Tonic, Gastric ulcer, Treatment of Hypotension, Treatment of Anaemia
118	Fabaceae	Indigofera argentea Burm.f.	Rang	Leaves	In1	Anti Fungal, Hair color, Hair Tonic
119	Fabaceae	Lupinus luteus L.	Baghelaye Mesri	Seed	Im1	Anthelmintic, Emmenagogue, Carminative, Liver Tonic
120	Fabaceae	Medicago sativa L.	Yunjeh	Aerial parts	In1	Appetizer, Tonic, Osteomalacia, Anti hemorrhage
121	Fabaceae	Securigera securidaca (L.) Degen & Dorfl.	Gandeh Talkheh	Seed	In1	Diabetes, Antihyperlipidemia
122	Fabaceae	Senna italica subsp. italica Mill.	Sena	Leaves	Im1	Purgative, Obesity, Treatment of Hemorrhoids
123	Fabaceae	Tamarindus indica L.	Tamr Hendi	Fruit	Im1	Jaundice, Depurative, Pimples
124	Fabaceae	Trigonella foenum-graecum L.	Shanbalileh (Holbeh)	Seed	In1	Diabetes,Bronchitis, Osteomalacia, Antihyperlipidemia, Tonic, Treatment of Anaemia
125	Fagaceae	Quercus infectoria Oliv.	Mazuye sabz	Insect gull	In1	Nose-Bleed, Anti-Hemorrhage, Uterus Aailments, Mouth Wounds, Antihemorrhoids
126	Fagaceae	Quercus spp.	Balut (Mazu)	Fruit	In1	Antidiarrhea, Anti-hemorrhage
127	Gentianaceae	Gentiana lutea L.	Jentiana	Root	Im1	Aphrodisiac, Blood Tonic
128	Gentianaceae	Gentiana olivieri Griseb.	Suloo	Flower	In1	Cardiac Ailments
129	Grossulariaceae	Ribes khorasanicum Saghafi & Assadi	Ghareh Ghat	Fruit	In2	Antihypertensive, Diabetes, Depurative
130	Hypericaceae	Hypericum scabrum L.	Hufarighun	Flower	In1	Antimigraine, Gastric ulcer, Aanti hemorrhage, Urinary Incontinence, Treatment of Headache
131	Iridaceae	Crocus sativus L.	Zaffaron	Style	In1	Tonic, Dysmenorrheal, Emmenagogue, Nerve Tonic, Premature ejaculation, Gastric ulcer, Aphrodisiac
132	Iridaceae	Iris spuria L.	Zanbagh	Root	In	Arthrodynia, Diuretic
133	Juglandaceae	Juglans regia L.	Gerdu	Fruit- Leaves	In1	Eczema, Antidiarrhea, Hair color
134	Lamiaceae	Clinopodium graveolens (M.Bieb.) Kuntze	Faranjmeshk	Seed	In1	Pharyngitis, Gastric Ulcer, Nerve Tonic
135	Lamiaceae	Hymenocrater spp.	Badranjbuyeh	Aerial parts	In2	Cardiac Tonic, Hypnotic, Antitussive, Carminative, Dyspnoea, Anti-stress Convulsion
136	Lamiaceae	Hyssopus officinalis L.	Zufa	Aerial parts	Im1	Pulmonary Infections, Treatment of Cold, Expectorant
137	Lamiaceae	Lallemantia iberica (M.Bieb.)Fisch. & C.A.Mey.	Tokhm Sharbati	Seed	In1	Gastric Ulcer, Antitussive, Laxative, Hoarseness, Anti-thirst
138	Lamiaceae	Lavandula angustifolia Mill.	Lavand	Aerial parts	Im1	Treatment of Insomnia, Treatment of cold, Nerve Tonic, Cardiac Tonic
139	Lamiaceae	Marrubium vulgare L.	Ferasion	Aerial parts	In1	Liver Tonic, Antitussive
140	Lamiaceae	Melissa officinalis L.	Badranjbuyeh	Aerial parts	In1	Nerve Tonic, Cardiac Tonic, Hypnotic, Antitussive, Carminative, Anti-tress, Convulsion
141	Lamiaceae	Mentha longifolia (L.) Hudson	Puneh	Aerial parts	In1	Herpes, Anthelmintic, Antacid, Carminative, Antidiarrhea, Digestive
142	Lamiaceae	Mentha spicata L.	Naana	Aerial parts	In1	Appetizer, Antacid, Carminative, Antidiarrhea, Digestive, Anodyne ,Anthelmintic
143	Lamiaceae	Nepeta binaloudensis Jamzad	Ostokhodus	Aerial parts	In2	Treatment of Cold, Carminative, Nerve Tonic, Treatment of Sinusitis, Pulmonary infections, Treatment of Rheumatism, Antiasthmatic, Aantitussive, Cardiac Tonic
144	Lamiaceae	Nepeta bracteata Benth.	Zufa	Aerial parts	In2	Pulmonary Infections, Antiasthmatic, Treatment of cold, Febrifuge, Treatment of Colic, Antitussive
145	Lamiaceae	Nepeta menthoides Boiss. & Buhse	Ostokhodus	Aerial parts	In1	Treatment of Cold, Nerve Tonic, Expectorant
146	Lamiaceae	Ocimum basilicum L.	Reyhan (Tokhm sharbati)	Seed	In1	Aphthous Ulcers, Antiseptic, Antidiarrhea, Antitussive, Carminative, Laxative, Digestive, Antacid
147	Lamiaceae	Origanum vulgare L.	Marzanjush	Aerial parts	In1	Treatment of Colic, Treatment of Sinusitis, Sedative, Cardiac Tonic, Nerve Tonic, Treatment of Dyspnoea
148	Lamiaceae	Perovskia abrotanoides Kar.	Gol Kabud	Aerial parts	In1	Treatment of Sinusitis, Treatment of Toothache, Antitussive, Nerve Tonic, Carminative, Sedative, Antiseptic, Anthelmintic, Treatment of Colic
149	Lamiaceae	Rosmarinus officinalis L.	Rozmari	Leaves- Flower	Im1	Treatment of Joints Pain, Hair Loss, Depression, Nerve Tonic, Appetizer, Hypnotic
150	Lamiaceae	Salvia leriifolia Benth.	Noruzak	Aerial parts	In1	Diabetes, Period Regulator
151	Lamiaceae	Salvia macrosiphon Boiss.	Kenocheh	Seed	In1	Jaundice, Antitussive, Febrifuge , Gastric ulcer, Pharyngitis, Laxative
152	Lamiaceae	Salvia officinalis L.	Maryam Goli	Aerial parts	Im1	Female Fertility, Hypoglycemic, Menopause, Stomach Tonic
153	Lamiaceae	Satureja hortensis L.	Marzeh	Aerial parts	In1	Indigestion, Anthelmintic, Appetizer, Antacid, Antidiarrhea
154	Lamiaceae	Stachys lavandulifolia Vahl	Chai Kuhi	Flower	In1	Nerve Tonic, Treatment of cold, Cardiac Tonic, Treatment of Colic
155	Lamiaceae	Teucrium polium L.	Kalpureh	Aerial parts	In1	Antacid, Indigestion, Diabetes, Treatment of Colic, Antidiarrhea
156	Lamiaceae	Vitex negundo L.	Felfel Kuhi	Fruit	In1	Menstrual regulator, Obesity, Treatment of Sinusitis
157	Lamiaceae	Zataria multiflora Boiss.	Avishan Shirazi	Aerial parts	In1	Treatment of Sinusitis, Menstrual Pains, Dysmenorrheal, Anthelmintic, Antacid, Treatment of Colic, Antiasthmatic, Dyspnoea, Arthrodynia, Carminative
158	Lamiaceae	Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam.	Avishan kuhi	Aerial parts	In1	Kidney Pain, Antacid, Carminative,Treatment of Colic, Anthelmintic, Antitussive, Antidiarrhea, Digestive
159	Lamiaceae	Ziziphora teniuor L.	Kakuti	Aerial parts	In1	Digestive, Treatment of Colic, Calefacient, Antacid, Antiseptic
160	Lauraceae	Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl	Kafur	Gum	Im1	Antiaphrodisiac, Anodyne, Treatment of Toothache
161	Lauraceae	Cinnamomum zeylanicum Nees	Darchin	Bark	Im1	Treatment of Headache, Calmative, Urinary Incontinence, Digestive, Flavor, Hypoglycemic, Carminative
162	Lauraceae	Laurus nobilis L.	Barg Bu	Leaves	In1	Carminative Appetizer, Flavor
163	Liliaceae	Fritillaria imperialis L.	Laleh Sarnegun	Root	In1	Treatment of Joints Pain
164	Linaceae	Linum usitatissimum L.	Katan	Seed	In1	Cholesterol Lowering, Antitussive, Laxative, Obesity
165	Loganiaceae	Strychnos nux-vomica L.	Kachuleh	Seed	Im1	Antiallergic, Eczema, Sedative
166	Lythraceae	Lawsonia inermis L.	Hana	Leaves	In1	Hair color Treatment of headache, Hair Tonic, Washing, , Anti Fungal, Antiseptic
167	Malvaceae	Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench	Bamieh	Seed	In1	Anti-inflammatory, Diuretic, Laxative
168	Malvaceae	Alcea spp.	Gole Khatmi	Flower	In1	Antitussive, Febrifuge, Treatment of pimples, Laxative, Depurative, Treatment of gum swelling
169	Malvaceae	Althaea officinalis L.	Charme giah	Root	In1	Mouth Wounds, Bone Fracture, Treatment of Bruises, Treatment of Dysuria
170	Malvaceae	Helicteres isora L.	Bahman pich	Fruit	Im1	Antidiarrhea, Antispasmodic
171	Malvaceae	Hibiscus sabdariffa L.	Chai Makkeh	Flower	Im1	Hypoglycemic, Antihypertensive, Obesity, Blood-cleansing, Calmative, Cardiac Tonic
172	Malvaceae	Hibiscus syriacus L.	Gole Khatmi	Flower	In2	Febrifuge, Antitussive
173	Malvaceae	Malva neglecta Wallr.	Nan Kalagh	Flower- Fruit	In1	Sore Throat, Antitussive, Febrifuge
174	Malvaceae	Malva sylvestris L.	Panirak (Khatmi khabbzi)	Flower- Fruit	In1	Pharyngitis, Furuncles, Aphthous Ulcers , Febrifuge, Antitussive, Jaundice, Laxative, Gastric ulcer, Treatment of Wounds
175	Malvaceae	Theobroma cacao L.	Kakao	Fruit	Im1	Tonic, Flavoring
176	Malvaceae	Tilia cordata Mill.	Zirfun	Leaves- Fruit	In1	Nerve Tonic, Sudorific, Duretic, Calmative
177	Menispermaceae	Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn.	Mass Mahi	Fruit	Im1	Fishering
178	Moraceae	Ficus carica L.	Anjir	Fruit	In1	Anti-hemorrhoids, Laxative, Tonic
179	Moraceae	Morus nigra L.	Shatut	Root	In1	Abortion
180	Myristicaceae	Myristica fragrans Houtt.	Joze Buya	Seed	Im1	Anti-Hemorrhage, Tonic, Appetizer, Treatment of Colic
181	Myrtaceae	Eucalyptus sp.	Okaliptus	Leaves- Fruit	Im1	Treatment of Sinusitis, Treatment of Cold, Treatment of Headache
182	Myrtaceae	Myrtus communis L.	Murd	Leaves- Fruit	In1	Psoriasis, Treatment of Sinusitis, Mouth Ulcers, Anti Fungal, Treatment of Cold, Strengthening of Hair, Herpes
183	Myrtaceae	Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry	Mikhak	Flower	Im1	Toothache, Antiseptic, Digestive, Aphrodisiac, Carminative, Stimulant
184	Nitrariaceae	Peganum harmala L.	Espand	Seed	In1	Diabetes, Antiseptic,Hypnotic, Treatment of Rheumatism and Sciatica Disorders, Anthelmintic, Emmenagogue
185	Nymphaeaceae	Nymphaea alba L.	Nilufar Abi	Flower	In1	Expectorant, Hypnotic, Antitussive, Calmative
186	Oleaceae	Fraxinus excelsior L.	Zaban Gonjeshk	Fruit	In1	Aphrodisiac, Treatment of Stammering
187	Oleaceae	Olea europaea L.	Zeytun	Fruit- Leaves	Im1	Anti-hemorrhoids, Antihyperlipidemia, Hypoglycemic, Laxative, Treatment of Dermal Allergic
188	Orchidaceae	Anacamptis morio (L.) R. M. Bateman	Saalab gholveh	Root	In1	Tonic
189	Orchidaceae	Dactylorhiza umbrosa (Kar. & Kir.) Nevski	Saalab panjeh	Root	In1	Treatment of Sexual Impotency, Tonic
190	Orchidaceae	Orchis morio L.	Buzidan	Root	Im1	Cardiac Tonic, Arthrodynia, Tonic, Hypnotic, Insecticide
191	Orchidaceae	Vanilla planifolia Jacks. ex Andrews	Vanil	Fruit	Im1	Stimulant, Tonic, Carminative, Flavoring
192	Paeoniaceae	Paeonia officinalis L.	Ude Salib	Root	Im1	Antiepileptic, Carminative, Treatment of Colic
193	Papaveraceae	Fumaria vaillantii Loisel.	Shatareh	Aerial parts	In1	Pimples, Febrifuge, Blood-cleansing Psoriasis, Appetizer, Antiacid, Jaundice,
194	Papaveraceae	Papaver rhoeas L.	Shaghayegh	Flower	In1	Treatment of Addiction , Calmative, Sleeplessness, Sedative, Expectorant, Antitussive, Antiasthmatic
195	Papaveraceae	Papaver somniferum L.	Khashkhash	Fruit- Seed	In1	Anodyne, Laxative, Tonic, Hypnotic
196	Passifloraceae	Passiflora caerulea L.	Gol Saati	Flower	Im1	Treatment of Insomnia, Anti-Stress, Calmative
197	Pedaliaceae	Sesamum indicum L.	Konjed	Seed	In1	Blood Tonic, Hair Loss, Strengthening of Memory, Increase Sperm Count, Treatment of Skin’s Split, Laxative
198	Phyllanthaceae	Phyllanthus emblica L.	Agheleh Moghashar	Fruit	Im1	Jaundice, Forgetfulness, Cardiac Tonic Appetizer, Hair Tonic,
199	Pinaceae	Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex D.Don	Chalghooz	Fruit	Im1	Aphrodisiac, Blood Tonic
200	Piperaceae	Piper cubeba L.	Kababeh Chini	Fruit	Im1	Appetizer, Tonic, Carminative
201	Piperaceae	Piper longum L.	Darfelfel	Fruit	Im1	Carminative, Tonic, Food Digestion
202	Piperaceae	Piper nigrum L.	Felfel Siah	Fruit	Im1	Stimulant, Tonic, Appetizer, Falvoring
203	Plantaginaceae	Plantago major L.	Barhang	Seed- Leaves	In1	Eczema, Antiallergic, Febrifuge, Jaundice, Antitussive, Antidiarrhea, ToothacheDepurative, Gastric ulcer
204	Plantaginaceae	Plantago ovata Forssk.	Esfarzeh	Seed	In1	Obesity, Depilator, Tonsillitis, Antacid, Antitussive, Gastric ulcer, Febrifuge, Laxative, Jaundice, Antihemorrhoids
205	Platanaceae	Platanus orientalis L.	Chenar	Fruit	In1	Prostate Diseases
206	Poaceae	Arundo donax L.	Tabashir ghalam	Latex	In1	Aphthous Ulcer, Anti Thirst, Depurative, Treatment of Pimples, Febrifuge
207	Poaceae	Avena sativa L.	Jo dosar	Seed	In1	Treatment of Acne
208	Poaceae	Oryza sativa L.	Chaltooke Berenj	Seed coat	In1	Hair Tonic, Treatment of Anaemia
209	Poaceae	Zea mays L.	Kakole Zorat	Style	In1	Obesity, Anti-inflammatory, Aantilithiasis, Kidney Disorders, Prostate Disorders, Duretic
210	Polygonaceae	Persicaria bistorta (L.) Samp.	Anjebar	Root	Im1	Antidiarrhea, Anti-hemorrhage, Vulnerary
211	Polygonaceae	Polygonum aviculare L.	Alaf Haftband	Aerial parts	In1	Diabetes, Treatment of Colic, Antidiarrhea
212	Polygonaceae	Rheum palmatum L.	Rivand Chini	Root	Im1	Liver Diseases, Cardiac Tonic, Antilithiasis, Backache, Appetizer, Purgative
213	Polygonaceae	Rheum ribes L.	Rivas	Fruit- Petiole	In1	Jaundice, Urinary Antiseptic, Diuretic, Depurative, Liver Tonic, Antiseptic, Hair Tonic
214	Polygonaceae	Rheum turkestanicum Janisch.	Eshghan	Root	In1	Diabetes, Antihypertensive, Anticancer, Depurative
215	Polygonaceae	Rumex acetosella L.	Sagh Torshak	Root	In1	Jaundice, Febrifuge
216	Polypodiaceae	Polypodium vulgare L.	Baspayak	Root	In1	Expectorant, Jaundice, Digestive
217	Polyporaceae	Polyporus officinalis Fries	Gharighun	Fruiting body	Im1	Anti-hemorrhage, Laxative
218	Portulacaceae	Portulaca oleracea L.	Khorfeh	Seed- Leaves	In1	Antitussive, Febrifuge, Anti-Thirst, Food digestion, Depurative, Duretic, Anti-hemorrhoids
219	Primulaceae	Embelia ribes Burm.f.	Barang Kaboli	Fruit	Im1	Jaundice, Anthelmintic, Antidiarrhea
220	Pteridaceae	Adiantum capillus-veneris L.	Parsiavashan	Aerial parts	In1	Antitussive, Antihemorrhoid, Treatment of Sore Throat, Febrifuge, Jaundice, Laxative, Antithirst, Treatment of Orchitis,
221	Punicaceae	Punica granatum L.	Gole Anar	Flower- Root	In1	Anti-hemorrhage, Blood flux, Anthelmintic
222	Ranunculaceae	Delphinium semibarbatum Bien. ex Boiss.	Zarir	Flower	In1	Treatment of Dermal Allergies, Coloring
223	Ranunculaceae	Nigella sativa L.	Siah Daneh	Seed	In1	Kidney Stone, Carminative, Antacid, Galactogogue, Anthelmintic, Food Digestion, Antitussive, Treatment of Colic
224	Ranunculaceae	Thalictrum sultanabadense Stapf	Parsiavashan	Aerial parts	In2	Antitussive, Febrifuge
225	Rhamnaceae	Ziziphus jujuba Miller	Annab	Fruit	In1	Depurative, Febrifuge, Laxative, Jaundice, Antitussive, Treatment of Thirst
226	Rhamnaceae	Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd.	Sedr	Leaves	In1	Eczema, Hair Tonic, Anti Fungal, Antipruritic, Washing
227	Rosaceae	Cerasus avium (L.) Moench	Dome Gilas	Pedicel	In1	Antilithiasis, Prostate Disorders Kidney Stone, Anti-inflammatory,
228	Rosaceae	Crataegus sp.	Sorkhe Valik	Fruit- Leaves	In1	Depurative, Repairs Blood Vessel
229	Rosaceae	Cotoneaster nummularius Fisch. & C.A.Mey.	Shir Khesht	Manna	Im1	Jaundice, Febrifuge
230	Rosaceae	Cydonia oblonga Mill.	Beh Daneh	Seed- Leaves	In1	Cardiac Diseases, Antitussive, Sore Throat, Laxative, Febrifuge
231	Rosaceae	Rosa beggeriana Schrenk	Nastaran	Fruit	In1	Antihypertensive, Diuretic, Kidney Stone
232	Rosaceae	Rosa damascena Mill.	Gole Mohammadi	Flower	In1	Antihemorrhoid, Laxative, Calmative
233	Rosaceae	Rosa foetida Herrm.	Gole Zard	Flower	In1	Ovary Tonic, Emmenagogue
234	Rubiaceae	Coffea arabica L.	Ghahveh	Seed	Im1	Obesity, Sleeplessness, Antidiarrhea
235	Rubiaceae	Cinchona officinalis L.	Ganeh Ganeh	Bark	Im1	Treatment of Joints Pain, Febrifuge, Antimalaria
236	Rubiaceae	Rubia tinctorum L.	Ronas	Root	In1	Strengthening of Hair, Hair color
237	Rutaceae	Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle	Limu Amani	Fruit	In1	Antihypertensive, Calmative
238	Rutaceae	Citrus aurantium L.	Bahar Naranj	Flower	In1	Anti-Stress, Cardiac Tonic, Food Digestion, Antihypertensive
239	Rutaceae	Ruta graveolens L.	Sodab	Aerial parts	In1	Abortion, Sedative, Emmenagogue
240	Rutaceae	Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam.	Dahan baz-Dahan basteh	Fruit	Im1	Diabetes, Febrifuge, Blood flux
241	Salicaceae	Salix alba L.	Bid	Leaves- Bark	In1	Menstrual Pains, Anodyne, Jaundice, Antitussive
242	Salicaceae	Salix aegyptiaca L.	Bidmeshk	Flower	In1	Calmative, Cardiac Tonic, Painful Menstruation
243	Salicaceae	Salix excelsa J.F.Gmel.	Bidkhesht	Manna	In1	Febrifuge, Jaundice, Laxative
244	Santalaceae	Santalum album L.	Sandal	Wood	Im1	Aromatic, Duretic Antidiarrhea,
245	Schisandraceae	Illicium verum Hook.f.	Badian Khatai	Fruit	Im1	Carminative, Galactogogue, Appetizer
246	Scrophulariaceae	Digitalis purpurea L.	Gol Angoshtaneh	Flower	Im1	Cardiac Tonic
247	Scrophulariaceae	Scrophularia striata Boiss.	Mokhallaseh	Aerial parts	In1	Kidney Troubles, Antidiarrhea, Treatment of Colic, Carminative, Treatment of Joints Pain
248	Scrophulariaceae	Verbascum cheiranthifolium Boiss.	Dome Gav	Aerial parts	In1	Dyspepsia, Antidiarrhea, Expectorant, Antiacid, Stomach Tonic
249	Solanaceae	Atropa belladonna L.	Beladon	Leaves	In1	Antispasmodic, Sedative
250	Solanaceae	Capsicum annuum L.	Felfel Ghermez	Fruit	In1	Appetizer, Spice, Treatment of Osteoarthritis, Tonic, Stimulant, Aphrodisiac
251	Solanaceae	Datura stramonium L.	Tatureh	Seed	In1	Sedative, Treatment of Addiction, Treatment of Colic
252	Solanaceae	Hyoscyamus niger L.	Bangdaneh	Seed	In1	Sedative, Treatment of Addiction, Treatment of Toothache, Treatment of Headache, Antigout
253	Solanaceae	Physalis alkekengi L.	Arusak Posht Pardeh	Fruit	In1	Emmenagogue Treatment of Kidney Stones, Blood Cleanesing,
254	Solanaceae	Solanum americanum Mill.	Tajrizi	Fruit	In1	Treatment of Osteoarthritis, Mastitis, Expectorant, Hypnotic, Sedative, Treatment of Gastritis
255	Theaceae	Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze	Chai Sabz	Leaves	In1	Obesity, Anticancer, Antihypertensive, Hepatitis, Antihyperlipidemia
256	Urticaceae	Urtica dioica L.	Gazaneh	Whole plant	In1	Hypoglycemic, Enlarged Prostate, Anaemia, Anti-inflammatory, Digestive
257	Urticaceae	Urtica pilulifera L.	Anjareh	Seed	In1	Laxative, Treatment of Cough
258	Verbenaceae	Aloysia citriodora Palau	Beh Limu	Leaves	Im1	Dyspepsia, Nerve Tonic, Appetizer, Carminative, Calmative
259	Verbenaceae	Verbena officinalis L.	Shahpasand	Aerial parts	In1	Appetizer, Indigestion
260	Violaceae	Viola odorata L.	Banafsheh	Flower	In1	Eczema, Febrifuge, Antiallergic, Blood Cleansing, Jaundice, Treatment of Cold, Expectorant
261	Xanthorrhoeaceae	Eremurus spectabilis M.Bieb.	Serish	Root	In1	Dermal infection, Sticking, Antihyperlipidemia
262	Zingiberaceae	Alpinia galanga Willd.	Ghost Shirin	Root	Im1	Treatment of Bloody Diarrhea, Treatment of Osteoarthritis
263	Zingiberaceae	Alpinia officinarum Hance	Kholanjan	Root	Im1	Treatment of Rheumatism, Tonic, Carminative, Digestive, Aphorodisiac
264	Zingiberaceae	Amomum subulatum Roxb.	Hele bad	Fruit	Im1	Carminative, Flavoring, Treatment of Colic, Flavoring
265	Zingiberaceae	Curcuma longa L.	Zard Chubeh	Root	Im1	Treatment of Gall Stones, Treatment of Bruises, Digestive, Emmenagogue
266	Zingiberaceae	Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe	Zorombad	Root	Im1	Liver Tonic, Carminative, Tonic, Indigestion , Obesity, Flavoring
267	Zingiberaceae	Elettaria cardamomum Maton	Hel	Fruit	Im1	Flavoring, Treatment of Flatulence, Appetizer, Tonic
268	Zingiberaceae	Zingiber officinale Roscoe	Zanjafil	Root	Im1	Increase of Sperm Count , Obesity, Carminative, Tonic, Flavoring, Treatment of Joints Pain, Treatment of Toothache
269	Zygophyllaceae	Tribulus terrestris L.	Kharkhasak	Aerial parts	In1	Duretic, Kidney Stone, Tonic, Treatment of Prostate Hypertrophy, Anthelmintic, Jaundice, Treatment of Flooding, Treatment of Dysuria, Urinary Antiseptic

Status: (Im: Imported sample, In: Indigenous sample, 1: Authentic sample, 2: Adulterated or Substituted sample).

Discussion

The survey indicated that the study area has plenty of medicinal plants to treat a wide spectrum of human ailments. Herbal medicine uses reported by herbalists can be classified into 132 different uses. Traditional knowledge of phytotherapy of this region provides excellent results in the treatment of jaundice, diarrhea, kidney stones, eczema, obesity, psoriasis, arthritis, diabetes, bone fracture, stomachache, cancer, migraine, joints pains, asthma, headache, skin problems, urinary troubles, wound, toothache, purification of blood, constipation, intestinal worms, pimples, and many other ailments. The highest number of species and applications were reported for digestive system disorders (38.4 %). Significant results are noticed in terms of treatments of respiratory system disorders such as sinusitis, asthma, and bronchitis.

The most efficient medicinal plants are Perovskia abrotanoides, Dysphania botrys, Coriandrum sativum, Vitex negundo, and Ziziphora clinopodioides. Diseases such as jaundice, diarrhea, anemia, rheumatism, joints pains, and dysmenorrheal were obviously easily diagnosed by the old herbalists. General physical condition and tongue or eyes color of the patient are used as indicators of the patient’s problem. Through the analysis of records of plant-based medicinal treatments (Table 1), it becomes obvious that some of the plants are being used more frequently than others (Achillea santolinoides, Astragalus gummifer, Bunium persicum, Cichorium intybus, Echium amoenum, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Malva sylvestris, Nardostachys jatamansi, Plantago ovate, and Ziziphora clinopodioides). Aerial parts (stem, leaves, and flowers) are the most frequently used parts in medicinal purposes. Present investigation showed that the traditional drugs sold in herbal shops in the city of Mashhad may be adulterated or substituted with quite unrelated plant materials. Due to some morphological similarities of the plant parts and their improper identification by the consumers and herbal plant sellers and lack of a standard identification system, the crude medicinal plants and their parts are often adulterated or substituted in commerce which may result in the loss of their efficacy. For instance, Alcea spp. especially (Alcea rosea, Alcea aucheri, Alcea angulata, Alcea rhyticarpa, and Alcea lavateriflora) are known as Gol-e-khatmi in different parts of study area and Hibiscus syriacus L. adulterated or substituted instead of them and also Thalictrum sultanabadense Stapf are sold instead of Adiantum capillus-veneris L. in some market samples.

Distinction and identification of medicinal plants are very important because the adulterants, although belonging to the same genus as the drug, does not possess the medicinal properties of the drug. For example, Bunium cylindricum are mixed with real Zire-e-siah (Bunium persicum) and are sold in the market resulting in the degrading of the quality and efficacy of the drug. Correct identification of herbal drugs is the foundation of safe use of herbal medicines and products. Therefore, in order to ensure safety, therapeutic potency and efficacy of herbal medicines, correct identification, authentication, and elimination of adulteration are essential and the drugs should only be authenticated by a panel of experts including taxonomists (Joharchi and Amiri, 2012 ▶).

This investigation indicated that 269 medicinal plant species belonging to 88 families were found in the research area. Among them, 193 species were indigenous of Iran and 76 species were imported from other countries. These plants are used in the treatment of many diseases. Market survey revealed that there are more than 600 herbalist shops trading natural medicinal products in the Mashhad markets. By comparing present applications of medicinal plants with available literature reported from other regions of Iran, it appears that there are many medicinal uses for the treatment of various ailments in the study area which were rarely demonstrated before this. To our knowledge, the use of Anastatica hierochuntica, Gentiana olivieri, Helichrysum graveolens, Mangifera indica, Platanus orientalis, Rheum turkestanicum, Strychnos nux-vomica, and Trichodesma incanum to cure different illnesses, have never been reported before. Further research should be carried out in the field of pharmacology, phytochemistry, and biotechnology of these resources which may lead to the development of new plant-based medicines. From this study, it is concluded that although the people in research area have access to modern medical facilities, a lot of them still use traditional medicine for their healthcare problems. This represents a medicinal alternative for healing health problems which remains closer to the cultural and social context of this society.

Conflict of interest

There is not any conflict of interest in this study.