U.S. health expenditure performance: An international comparison and data update

Abstract

In this article, the authors present the most recently available data on the health care financing and delivery systems of the 24 industrialized member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). U.S. health expenditure performance is compared with the performance of other OECD countries. Thirty-six tables of data from 1960-90 are presented on health expenditures, health care prices, availability and utilization of health care services, health outcomes, and basic economic and demographic factors.

Introduction

In this article, we examine expenditure trends and the economic performance of the health systems of the 24 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries with special emphasis on 6: Canada, France, Germany (the former Federal Republic of Germany), Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Because current data on availability and use of services and health outcomes were recently analyzed (Schieber, Poullier, and Greenwald, 1991), we focus on health expenditure performance, emphasizing U.S. performance relative to that of other countries. First, recent revisions to the OECD data are discussed. Second, the various expenditure measures to be analyzed are described. Third, levels and trends are analyzed in the ratios of health care expenditures to gross domestic product (GDP), per capita health spending and GDP in U.S. dollars, and the public share of total health spending for the 24 OECD countries for 1980-90. Next, the expenditure performances of Canada, France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States are analyzed on the basis of a range of different measures of health sector performance. Fifth, some concluding observations are made on the implications of the analysis for U.S. health care reform. The 36 tables of data contained in the appendix provide detailed information for the 1960-90 period for the 24 countries.

Recent data revisions

The OECD data base has been extensively described elsewhere, with the most recent revisions fully described in the OECD publication OECD Health Systems: Facts and Trends (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1992b; Schieber and Poullier, 1991). In addition to new data for 1990, the health expenditure series for Australia, Belgium, Canada, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, and Sweden have been substantially revised.¹ In several other countries (including Denmark, Finland, France, Greece, and the United Kingdom), minor adjustments to the historical data have been made. More comprehensive information on Turkey has also been obtained.

Underlying economic data series have also been revised—most notably the GDP and GDP deflators for the United States. The generally upward revision of the U.S. GDP has resulted in a lowering of previously reported ratios of health expenditures to GDP for the United States by as much as 0.3 percentage points for the more recent years. (For example, based on the new GDP series, the U.S. ratio in 1990 is 12.1 percent instead of 12.4.) Similarly, the GDP series for Germany, Luxembourg, Spain, and the United Kingdom have been revised.

Another major and important revision concerns the purchasing power parities (PPPs), the rate used to convert different national currencies into one numeraire currency. The PPPs for all countries have been recalculated on the basis of a new 1990 survey, and the historical data have been revised.² Previous PPPs were based on a 1985 benchmark.

The population figures for a number of countries have also been revised. The censuses conducted in many countries in 1990 and 1991, including the United States, affect the per capita figures for the past decade as countries adjust population estimates based on these most recent census tabulations.

Expenditure performance measures

There are many ways to measure the expenditure performance of health systems (Schieber, 1990). Expenditure levels and rates of growth³ can be measured in each country's national currency or converted into one numeraire currency (e.g., U.S. dollars). Expenditures can be adjusted for population and inflation. Health expenditure levels and growth can be compared with the level and growth in the overall economy as measured by GDP, national income, or some other macroeconomic aggregate. Comparing expenditures in one numeraire currency is more problematic than comparisons in national currencies because of the assumptions and underlying data that go into the construction of purchasing power parities and the lack of reliable PPPs for health. Yet, as imperfect as they may be, PPPs are the best available measure for comparing absolute levels of health spending in one numeraire currency. Similarly, adjusting the health care spending of individual countries for health care inflation to obtain a measure of volume and intensity growth is also difficult because of methodological problems in developing appropriate medical care price deflators as well as a still-high degree of heterogeneity in medical care price deflators across countries.

The most widely used measure of health sector performance is the percentage of each country's total output devoted to the health sector, which we refer to in this article as the health-to-GDP ratio. Countries can be compared both at a point in time and over time. In temporal analyses of this ratio, it is important to analyze both components—the growth in health spending and the growth in GDP. As discussed later, much of the growth in the U.S. ratio relative to those in other countries is the result of much higher growth in U.S. health spending relative to U.S. GDP.

Some have argued that the health-to-GDP ratio is the most appropriate measure for cross-national comparisons, because the health sector functions within the general economy, and one would expect that countries with more rapidly growing economies would both purchase relatively more health care and generate increased health spending through increased real wage levels (Barer, Welch, and Antioch, 1991). Although this argument is generally valid, it does not obviate the need to look at other measures of health sector performance, such as increases in nominal and real per capita health spending in national currencies as well as absolute comparisons on the basis of one numeraire currency.

Although one would expect greater economic growth to result in greater health spending for the reasons previously stated, other factors (such as differential productivity of labor and capital in the health sector and a myriad of additional factors operative in an industry with significant aspects of market failure) suggest the need to use a range of measures in addition to simply monitoring the health-to-GDP ratio and its two component parts. For example, deflating health expenditures by the GDP deflator for each country provides a measure of the opportunity cost of resources going into the health sector. Similarly, if valid medical care input price indexes are available, deflating health expenditures by this measure provides information on the growth in volume and intensity of services in the health sector. Both of these measures provide additional useful information about health sector performance within individual countries and for international comparative purposes. Nevertheless, one must keep in mind that all these analyses are limited by fundamental methodological problems in measuring economic efficiency and health outcomes, as well as the sensitivity of the results to the time periods chosen.

It is difficult to put all these diverse measures into a simple conceptual framework. For the 24 OECD countries, only the health-to-GDP ratios, per capita health spending and GDP in U.S. dollars, and the public share of total health spending are analyzed here. For six of the major countries, a far more intensive analysis follows.

For these six, the health-to-GDP ratio, nominal health expenditures, and nominal GDP are analyzed to understand which factors are driving the health-to-GDP ratio. Second, nominal health expenditure growth in national currencies is analyzed in terms of a decomposition methodology, whereby nominal health expenditure growth is the product of population growth, increases in health care prices, and increases in the volume and intensity of services per person (Schieber and Poullier, 1989). Health care expenditure growth, health care price growth, and population growth can be measured from established statistical information, while volume and intensity growth is calculated as a residual factor. In other words, nominal health care expenditure growth is adjusted for population growth to get nominal per capita expenditures; nominal per capita expenditures are adjusted for health care inflation to get real per capita expenditures, which, in effect, represent the growth in volume and intensity of services (as well as any other factors not adequately accounted for by the price and population adjustments).

Within this framework, other performance measures can be analyzed. For example, health care price increases can be disaggregated into increases in overall prices times the amount by which health care prices exceed overall prices; this latter concept is referred to as “excess health care inflation.” Another measure of policy interest derivable from these data is health expenditures per capita deflated by the GDP deflator. This provides a measure of the consumption and investment opportunities forgone in non-health sectors to accommodate health expenditure growth. In analyzing such opportunity costs, it is important to consider both the base year spending levels as well as the rate of growth. Thus, in the third part of this framework, absolute levels of health spending denominated in one numeraire currency are measured in order to contrast both base year and end year per capita health spending across countries. Similarly, given the strong relationship between health spending and GDP, it is important to analyze absolute levels and rates of growth in nominal and real per capita GDP as well as the absolute levels and rates of growth in per capita GDP in one numeraire currency.

Expenditure performance in 24 countries

Tables 1 through 4 contain information on the health-to-GDP ratios, the public share of total health spending, per capita health spending in U.S. dollars, and per capita GDP in U.S. dollars, respectively, for the 24 OECD countries for the period 1980-90. In 1980, the share of health in GDP averaged 7.0 percent for the OECD countries, ranging from 4.0 in Turkey to 9.4 in Sweden.⁴ The United States and Ireland had the second-highest shares, at 9.2 percent. In 1990, the average had increased to 7.6 percent, but the range widened to 4.0 in Turkey to 12.1 in the United States. Most countries have stabilized their health-to-GDP ratios, as evinced by the fact that the average ratio has barely changed since 1983. The dispersion in the health-to-GDP ratio, as measured by the coefficient of variation (i.e., the standard deviation divided by the mean), has been relatively stable, 0.19 in 1980 and 0.20 in 1990.

Table 1. Total health expenditures as a percent of gross domestic product for 24 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries: 1980-90.

Country	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	Compound growth rate1
Australia	7.3	7.5	7.7	7.7	7.7	7.7	8.0	7.8	7.7	7.7	8.2	1.1
Austria	7.9	8.2	8.0	8.0	7.9	8.1	8.3	8.4	8.4	8.4	8.4	0.6
Belgium	6.7	7.3	7.4	7.5	7.4	7.4	7.4	7.5	7.5	7.4	7.5	1.2
Canada	7.4	7.5	8.4	8.6	8.5	8.5	8.8	8.8	8.7	8.8	9.3	2.3
Denmark	6.8	6.8	6.8	6.6	6.4	6.3	6.0	6.3	6.5	6.4	6.3	−0.8
Finland	6.5	6.6	6.7	6.9	6.9	7.2	7.4	7.4	7.2	7.2	7.8	1.9
France	7.6	7.9	8.0	8.2	8.5	8.5	8.5	8.5	8.6	8.7	8.8	1.6
Germany	8.4	8.7	8.6	8.5	8.7	8.7	8.7	8.7	8.9	8.2	8.1	−0.4
Greece	4.3	4.5	4.4	4.6	4.5	4.9	5.4	5.2	5.0	5.3	5.5	2.4
Iceland	6.5	6.6	6.9	7.6	7.0	7.1	7.8	7.9	8.5	8.7	8.6	2.9
Ireland	9.2	8.8	8.4	8.5	8.2	8.2	8.1	7.9	7.3	6.9	7.0	−2.6
Italy	6.9	6.7	6.9	7.0	6.8	7.0	6.9	7.4	7.6	7.6	7.7	1.2
Japan	6.4	6.6	6.8	6.8	6.6	6.5	6.6	6.7	6.6	6.6	6.5	0.1
Luxembourg	6.8	7.1	6.9	6.8	6.6	6.8	6.7	7.3	7.2	6.9	7.2	0.5
Netherlands	8.0	8.2	8.4	8.4	8.1	8.0	8.1	8.3	8.2	8.1	8.2	0.2
New Zealand	7.2	6.9	6.7	6.6	6.2	6.6	6.8	7.3	7.3	7.3	7.4	0.2
Norway	6.6	6.6	6.8	6.8	6.5	6.4	7.1	7.4	7.7	7.4	7.4	1.1
Portugal	5.9	6.4	6.3	6.2	6.3	7.0	6.6	6.8	7.1	7.2	6.7	1.2
Spain	5.6	5.8	5.9	6.0	5.8	5.7	5.6	5.7	6.0	6.3	6.6	1.7
Sweden	9.4	9.5	9.7	9.6	9.4	8.8	8.5	8.6	8.6	8.6	8.6	−0.9
Switzerland	7.3	7.3	7.5	7.8	7.8	7.6	7.6	7.7	7.8	7.8	7.7	0.5
Turkey	4.0	4.4	3.6	3.6	3.5	2.8	3.5	3.6	3.8	3.9	4.0	0.0
United Kingdom	5.8	6.0	5.9	6.1	6.1	6.0	6.0	6.1	6.1	6.1	6.2	0.7
United States	9.2	9.6	10.4	10.5	10.3	10.5	10.7	10.9	11.1	11.5	12.1	2.7
OECD average	7.0	7.2	7.2	7.3	7.2	7.2	7.3	7.4	7.5	7.5	7.6	0.8

¹Compound growth rate expressed as a percentage point.

SOURCE: Tables 1 and 33 of the Appendix to this article.

Table 4. Per capita gross domestic product (GDP) in U.S. dollars¹ for 24 Organization for Economic Cooperation-and Development (OECD) countries: 1980-90.

Country	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	Compound growth rate2
Australia	$9,538	$10,596	$10,868	$11,599	$12,383	$13,110	$13,653	$14,496	$15,335	$15,896	$15,983	5.3
Austria	9,081	9,893	10,629	11,241	11,796	12,407	12,807	13,393	14,357	15,402	16,620	6.2
Belgium	9,075	9,832	10,621	11,022	11,658	12,067	12,502	13,148	14,233	15,233	16,363	6.1
Canada	10,479	11,794	11,968	12,717	13,902	14,832	15,560	16,529	17,658	18,552	19,063	6.2
Denmark	9,083	9,866	10,827	11,476	12,425	13,290	14,055	14,507	15,061	15,801	16,756	6.3
Finland	8,342	9,232	10,120	10,712	11,381	12,031	12,492	13,344	14,492	15,815	16,451	7.0
France	9,742	10,737	11,616	12,060	12,621	13,147	13,662	14,290	15,276	16,390	17,364	5.9
Germany	10,174	11,109	11,765	12,348	13,250	13,896	14,462	15,088	16,089	17,029	18,317	6.1
Greece	4,426	4,804	5,103	5,265	5,577	5,883	6,087	6,216	6,670	7,145	7,349	5.2
Iceland	9,447	10,640	11,388	11,168	11,878	12,512	13,628	15,081	15,218	15,412	15,851	5.3
Ireland	5,193	5,788	6,197	6,389	6,837	7,283	7,402	7,945	8,564	9,473	10,630	7.4
Italy	8,743	9,607	10,225	10,636	11,279	11,856	12,447	13,197	14,161	15,126	16,021	6.2
Japan	8,409	9,361	10,200	10,793	11,602	12,428	12,902	13,832	15,083	16,371	17,994	7.9
Luxembourg	9,610	10,404	11,202	11,926	13,117	13,826	14,677	15,440	16,714	18,294	19,340	7.2
Netherlands	9,224	9,987	10,434	10,869	11,562	12,125	12,570	12,979	13,666	14,683	15,747	5.5
New Zealand	7,848	8,968	9,491	9,971	10,833	11,177	11,572	11,964	12,169	12,729	13,258	5.4
Norway	8,621	9,492	10,093	10,886	11,891	12,813	13,609	14,206	14,526	15,085	15,919	6.3
Portugal	4,503	4,683	5,365	5,494	5,540	5,806	6,017	6,526	7,013	7,665	8,345	6.4
Spain	6,125	6,624	7,097	7,430	7,801	8,166	8,580	9,309	10,090	10,952	11,792	6.8
Sweden	9,515	10,416	11,194	11,788	12,669	13,293	13,854	14,609	15,360	16,224	16,813	5.9
Switzerland	12,197	13,462	14,131	14,704	15,467	16,387	16,905	17,650	18,625	19,864	21,280	5.7
Turkey	1,673	1,869	2,043	2,143	2,270	2,391	2,590	2,810	2,948	3,018	3,316	7.1
United Kingdom	8,212	8,863	9,679	10,348	10,825	11,647	12,266	13,174	14,094	15,103	15,682	6.7
United States	11,890	13,169	13,545	14,502	15,937	16,879	17,666	18,611	19,894	21,079	21,933	6.3
OECD average	8,381	9,216	9,825	10,312	11,021	11,635	12,165	12,848	13,637	14,514	15,341	6.2

¹Measured in GDP purchasing power parities.

²Compound growth rate expressed as a percentage point.

SOURCE: Tables 28, 33, and 36 of the Appendix to this article.

The United States exhibits the largest absolute growth in its health-to-GDP ratio. The U.S. ratio has increased by 2.9 percentage points since 1980, compared with an average OECD increase of 0.6 percentage points. Iceland, which had the second-largest absolute increase, had an increase of 2.1 percentage points. The U.S. ratio grew at 2.7 percent a year (second only to Iceland), compared with an OECD average of 0.8-percent growth.

The public share of total health spending for 1980-90 (Table 2) has been fairly stable since the mid-1970s. In 1980, the public share ranged from 27 percent in Turkey to 98 percent in Norway, with an OECD average of 76 percent. The United States, with a ratio of 42 percent, was the second lowest. In 1990, the average ratio for the OECD was 74 percent, ranging from 36 percent in Turkey to 95 percent in Norway. Once again, the United States, at 42 percent, has the second-lowest ratio and is the only country other than Turkey with a ratio below 60 percent. The dispersion in public shares as measured by the coefficient of variation has been relatively stable, 0.20 in 1980, compared with 0.18 in 1990.

Table 2. Public health expenditures as a percent of total health expenditures for 24 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries: 1980-90.

Country	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
Australia	63	62	61	65	72	72	71	70	69	69	68
Austria	69	70	68	67	66	67	68	67	66	67	67
Belgium	83	80	86	83	83	82	81	83	83	83	83
Canada	75	76	76	76	75	75	74	74	74	73	73
Denmark	85	85	85	85	85	84	85	84	84	83	83
Finland	79	80	80	79	79	79	79	80	79	80	81
France	79	79	79	78	77	77	76	76	75	75	74
Germany	75	75	75	73	73	74	73	74	73	73	73
Greece	82	84	91	88	88	81	81	80	83	76	76
Iceland	88	89	89	90	87	91	87	87	87	87	87
Ireland	82	83	82	80	78	77	76	73	73	73	75
Italy	81	79	79	79	78	77	76	78	78	77	76
Japan	71	70	70	72	72	73	73	73	72	71	72
Luxembourg	93	93	93	89	89	89	89	92	92	91	91
Netherlands	75	75	76	75	76	75	72	74	73	72	71
New Zealand	84	88	84	86	86	85	86	85	85	82	82
Norway	98	98	97	98	97	96	96	98	96	96	95
Portugal	72	71	62	56	55	56	58	58	58	58	62
Spain	80	79	79	84	82	81	79	78	78	78	78
Sweden	93	92	92	92	92	90	90	90	89	89	90
Switzerland	68	68	68	69	68	69	69	67	68	68	68
Turkey	27	—	—	—	41	50	42	40	38	37	36
United Kingdom	90	89	88	88	87	87	86	86	85	85	84
United States	42	42	41	41	41	41	42	42	42	42	42
OECD average	76	79	78	78	76	76	75	75	75	74	74

SOURCE: Tables 1 and 2 of the Appendix to this article.

In terms of absolute levels of 1980 per capita health spending converted to U.S. dollars using GDP PPPs, as shown in Table 3, average OECD health spending was $604, ranging from $67 in Turkey to $1,064 in the United States. By 1990, average OECD health spending had increased to $1,204, ranging from $132 in Turkey to $2,566 in the United States. Spending in U.S. dollars for the OECD countries increased during the past decade at an average annual rate of 7.1 percent, with growth rates ranging from 4.6 percent in Ireland to 9.2 percent in the United States. As with the other distributions, the dispersion in the distribution of per capita health spending as measured by the coefficient of variation has been relatively stable: 0.37 in 1980 and 0.40 in 1990. Growth in per capita spending in national currency units for six of the largest countries is analyzed later in this article.

Table 3. Per capita health spending in U.S. dollars¹ for 24 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries: 1980-90.

Country	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	Compound growth rate2
Australia	$696	$791	$838	$892	$948	$1,014	$1,088	$1,127	$1,178	$1,225	$1,304	6.5
Austria	716	813	853	901	938	1,005	1,062	1,123	1,205	1,286	1,393	6.9
Belgium	607	721	786	831	866	898	928	986	1,067	1,130	1,227	7.3
Canada	773	889	1,003	1,091	1,175	1,264	1,374	1,449	1,531	1,627	1,770	8.6
Denmark	618	673	738	754	791	834	841	914	981	1,015	1,053	5.5
Finland	539	611	683	734	780	869	920	988	1,048	1,142	1,284	9.1
France	736	845	925	983	1,073	1,111	1,159	1,214	1,309	1,422	1,532	7.6
Germany	856	967	1,007	1,050	1,148	1,208	1,258	1,305	1,432	1,403	1,486	5.7
Greece	192	215	225	243	253	286	326	324	335	377	402	7.7
Iceland	611	707	789	845	834	884	1,065	1,196	1,298	1,340	1,358	8.3
Ireland	477	509	520	542	562	595	598	625	629	652	748	4.6
Italy	600	644	706	746	770	833	864	970	1,070	1,152	1,236	7.5
Japan	540	615	689	734	762	804	848	926	998	1,087	1,171	8.1
Luxembourg	657	738	774	808	871	938	982	1,130	1,211	1,259	1,393	7.8
Netherlands	742	821	876	915	938	968	1,024	1,078	1,121	1,187	1,286	5.7
New Zealand	568	622	638	658	673	741	788	869	887	928	976	5.6
Norway	573	624	682	743	775	826	960	1,052	1,115	1,120	1,184	7.5
Portugal	265	299	339	339	347	405	397	441	498	550	555	7.7
Spain	342	382	419	447	452	464	482	531	605	686	777	8.5
Sweden	897	994	1,082	1,128	1,187	1,175	1,184	1,258	1,314	1,393	1,451	4.9
Switzerland	886	982	1,054	1,146	1,201	1,253	1,284	1,351	1,448	1,542	1,633	6.3
Turkey	67	83	73	78	80	67	91	101	111	118	132	6.9
United Kingdom	474	536	573	636	660	695	741	798	853	914	972	7.4
United States	1,064	1,222	1,359	1,480	1,592	1,711	1,823	1,961	2,146	2,346	2,566	9.2
OECD average	604	679	735	780	820	869	920	988	1,058	1,121	1,204	7.1

¹Measured in gross domestic product purchasing power parities.

²Compound growth rate expressed as a percentage point.

SOURCE: Tables 1, 28, and 36 of the Appendix to this article.

There is a well-established relationship between health spending and GDP, with richer countries tending to spend relatively more on health care than poorer countries (Schieber, Poullier, and Greenwald, 1991). As shown in Table 4, 1980 per capita GDP in U.S. dollars ranged from $1,673 in Turkey to $12,197 in Switzerland. The United States had the second-highest per capita GDP at $11,890; the OECD average was $8,381. By 1990, per capita GDP had increased on average to $15,341, ranging from $3,316 in Turkey to $21,933 in the United States.⁵ On average, per capita GDP grew during the decade at an annual rate of 6.2 percent across the OECD countries, ranging from 5.2 percent in Greece to 7.9 percent in Japan. The U.S. increase of 6.3 was just slightly above the average. The dispersion in the distribution of per capita GDP is somewhat lower than the dispersion in the distribution of per capita health spending; however, as with per capita health spending, the distribution has been stable, with a coefficient of variation of 0.28 in both 1980 and 1990. Growth in per capita GDP in national currency units for six of the largest countries is analyzed in the next section.

The relationship between per capita health spending and per capita GDP for the 24 countries is shown in Figure 1. The relationships between per capita health spending and per capita GDP are shown for 1980, 1985, and 1990. The cross-sectional OECD elasticity of per capita health spending to per capita GDP (percentage difference in per capita health spending relative to the percentage difference in per capita GDP) was 1.2 in 1980, 1.3 in 1985, and 1.3 in 1990.⁶ Differences between the structural models are not statistically significant. Of particular interest is the increasing amount by which U.S. per capita health expenditures exceed the amount predicted based on the average relationships for the 24 countries. In 1980, U.S. per capita health expenditures were $150 above the trend line. In 1985, the United States was $350 above the trend line and, by 1990, was $700 above the trend line. In other words, U.S. spending is not only the highest in the world, but the absolute level of its spending appears to be increasingly out of line when the gauge is the average relationship between health spending and GDP in other countries.

Figure 1. Per capita health spending and per capita GDP for the United States and other Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countries: 1980, 1985, and 1990.

Performance of six major countries

In this section, the expenditure performance of the U.S. health sector is compared with the health sector performances of Canada, France, Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom on the basis of the framework and different measures already discussed: level and rate of growth in the health-to-GDP ratio; growth in nominal GDP and nominal total health spending; growth in nominal and real (health deflator-adjusted) per capita health spending; growth in real (GDP deflator-adjusted) per capita health spending; levels and rates of growth of per capita health spending in U.S. dollars; growth in nominal and real per capita GDP; levels and rates of growth in per capita GDP in U.S. dollars; growth in health care and overall prices (e.g., GDP deflator), as well as excess health care inflation (i.e., rate of growth in health care prices relative to the rate of growth in the GDP deflator); and growth in population.

Tables 1, 3, and 4 contain the health-to-GDP ratios, per capita health spending, and per capita GDP in U.S. dollars. Table 5 displays for Canada, France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States the 1980-90 rates of growth in: nominal health spending in national currency units (NCUs); nominal and real (both health and GDP deflator-adjusted) per capita health spending in NCUs; nominal GDP in NCUs; nominal and real per capita GDP in NCUs; health care prices, GDP deflator, and excess health care inflation; and population.⁷ Table 6 contains the nominal and real elasticities of per capita health spending relative to per capita GDP, respectively, for 1980-90, and the 1980-85 and 1985-90 subperiods. (The elasticities are calculated on a per capita instead of total basis in order to compare health expenditure relative to GDP growth after controlling for differential population growth.) The comparative performance of each country is discussed in turn, and where rankings are mentioned, we are referring to a nation's rank within these 6 countries, even when the data are displayed in one of the tables describing all 24 countries.

Table 5. Annual compound growth in health sector components (in percent), 1980-90.

Component	Canada	France	Germany	Japan	United Kingdom	United States
Nominal health spending	10.5	10.4	4.6	6.0	9.8	10.3
Nominal per capita health spending	9.4	9.9	4.4	5.4	9.6	9.2
Real (health deflator) per capita health spending	2.3	4.5	1.1	3.0	1.9	2.1
Real (GDP deflator) per capita health spending	4.3	3.3	1.5	3.7	3.1	4.4
Health deflator	6.9	5.2	3.3	2.4	7.6	6.9
GDP deflator	4.9	6.4	2.9	1.7	6.3	4.6
Excess health care inflation	1.9	−1.1	0.4	0.7	1.2	2.2
Nominal gross domestic product	8.0	8.7	5.0	5.9	9.0	7.4
Nominal per capita gross domestic product	6.9	8.2	4.8	5.3	8.8	6.3
Real per capita gross domestic product	1.9	1.7	1.8	3.6	2.4	1.6
Population	1.0	0.5	0.2	0.6	0.2	1.0

NOTES: Measurements are in national currency units. GDP is gross domestic product.

SOURCE: Tables 1, 3, 28, 33, and 34 of the Appendix to this article.

Table 6. Elasticity of per capita health spending relative to per capita gross domestic product (GDP).

Country	Nominal			Real
	1980-85	1985-90	1980-90	1980-85	1985-90	1980-90
Canada	1.40	1.16	1.26	0.70	0.87	0.89
France	1.23	1.14	1.18	4.52	1.65	2.35
Germany	1.09	0.70	0.95	0.60	0.56	0.82
Japan	1.01	1.00	1.00	0.75	0.87	0.68
United Kingdom	1.08	1.06	1.04	0.70	0.57	0.62
United States	1.34	1.53	1.36	0.65	1.14	0.88

NOTES: Health spending is deflated by the health care price deflator. GDP is deflated by the GDP deflator.

SOURCE: Tables 1, 3, 28, 33, and 34 of the Appendix to this article.

Canada

The Canadian system has been characterized as a provincial government health insurance model, in which each of the 10 provinces runs its own health system under general Federal rules and with a fixed Federal contribution. Entitlement to benefits is linked to residency, and the system is financed through general taxation. Private insurance is prohibited from covering the same benefits covered by the public system. However, more than 60 percent of Canadians are covered by complementary private policies. Seventy-three percent of all health expenditures are public, and an estimated 20 percent of health care expenditures are paid out of pocket.⁸ Hospitals are funded on the basis of global budgets, and physicians in both inpatient and outpatient settings are paid on a negotiated fee-for-service basis. The systems vary somewhat from province to province, and certain provinces such as Quebec have established global budgets for physician services. The Federal Government share of spending has progressively declined from the historic 50-percent share of all costs to 38 percent in 1990. The delivery system is composed largely of non-profit community hospitals and self-employed physicians. Only about 5 percent of Canadian hospital beds are not public; private hospitals do not participate in the public insurance program (Iglehart, 1986; Neuschler, 1990).

As shown in Table 1, the 1980 Canadian health-to-GDP ratio (7.4 percent) ranked fourth, below those of the United States, Germany, and France. By 1990, Canada (at 9.3 percent) had the second-highest ratio after the United States. Canada had the second-highest rate of growth in its health-to-GDP ratio, 2.3 percent per year, compared with 2.7 percent in the United States. The growth of this ratio is the result of more rapid growth in health spending relative to GDP. Over this period, nominal health spending (Table 5) increased at an annual rate of 10.5 percent, while nominal GDP increased at a rate of 8.0 percent. This 2.5-percentage-point differential is the second largest after the 2.9-percentage-point differential for the United States, illustrating how Canadian nominal health spending increases surpassed growth in the Canadian economy.

Table 5 also illustrates that from 1980 through 1990, the Canadian population increased at an annual rate of 1.0 percent, exhibiting a rate of growth matched only by the United States. As a result, nominal health spending per capita increased at an annual rate of 9.4 percent, the third-highest rate of increase. Real (health deflator-adjusted) per capita health spending, a proxy for increases in the volume and intensity of services per person, increased at an annual rate of 2.3 percent, and was the third-highest rate of increase after France and Japan. However, as shown later in the comparisons of absolute spending levels, Canada's 1980 base year spending was the third highest. Clearly, low rates of volume and intensity growth from a high base have very different implications than low rates of growth from a low base.

In terms of the opportunity costs of health sector spending, GDP deflator-adjusted per capita health spending increased at an annual rate of 4.3 percent, second only to the United States. Given Canada's relatively high base year spending level, Canadians are giving up a substantial amount of non-health spending in order to accommodate their health sector. The substantial difference between the rates of growth in health deflator-adjusted and GDP deflator-adjusted health spending is the result of excess health care inflation—the rate of growth in health prices relative to the rate of growth in the GDP deflator. Canada has the second-largest excess health care inflation problem after the United States, with health prices increasing at an annual rate of 1.9 percent faster than overall inflation.

Canada's nominal and real per capita GDP growth were in the middle of the six-country range. Canada's nominal per capita GDP increased at an annual rate of 6.9 percent and ranked third, after the United Kingdom and France. Real per capita GDP increased at an annual rate of 1.9 percent, the third-highest after Japan and the United Kingdom.

As shown in Table 6, for the entire 1980-90 period, nominal per capita health spending increased 26 percent faster than nominal per capita GDP (i.e., the elasticity of 1.26 indicates that every 10-percent increase in nominal per capita GDP was associated with a 12.6-percent increase in nominal per capita health spending). Canada had the second-highest rate of growth in nominal per capita health spending relative to nominal per capita GDP after the United States. Real per capita health expenditures increased 11 percent more slowly than real per capita GDP (i.e., the estimated real elasticity of 0.89 indicates that every 10-percent increase in real per capita GDP was associated with an 8.9-percent increase in real per capita health spending). Canada had the second-highest real elasticity after France⁹.

In terms of absolute comparisons of per capita health spending in U.S. dollars, Table 3 shows that in 1980, Canada (at $773) ranked third after the United States ($1,064), and Germany ($856). In 1990, Canadian expenditures of $1,770 ranked second to those of the United States ($2,566), and substantially exceeded those of France ($1,532), the third-ranked country. Over the 10-year period, Canada had the second-highest annual rate of growth in per capita health spending in U.S. dollars, 8.6 percent, compared with 9.2 percent for the United States and 8.1 percent for Japan, the third-ranked country.

In terms of per capita GDP denominated in U.S. dollars, in 1980, Canada (at $10,479) ranked second after the United States ($11,890), and was higher than Germany ($10,174), the third-ranked country. In 1990, Canada ($19,063) still ranked second after the United States, ($21,933), with Germany third ($18,317). With an annual rate of growth of 6.2 percent, Canada ranked fourth after Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

In summary, Canada's health-to-GDP ratio increased sharply from 7.4 percent in 1980 to 9.3 in 1990; the rate of growth was second only to that of the United States. Canadian nominal health expenditures have grown faster relative to GDP than in the other five countries, with the exception of the United States.

France

The French health care system is based on the social insurance or Bismarck model. Virtually the entire population is covered by a statutorily based compulsory health insurance plan financed through the social security system. There are three major programs and several smaller ones (although the principal one, Caisse Nationale d'Assurance Maladie des Travailleurs Salaries, covers about 70 percent of the population) that are quasi-autonomous non-governmental bodies. The system is financed through employee and employer payroll tax contributions. There is significant cost sharing and more than 80 percent of the population supplements their public benefits by purchasing insurance from private non-profit mutuels. About 2 percent of the population has private commercial insurance.

The public share of total health spending is 74 percent, and about 17 percent of expenditures represent direct out-of-pocket payments. Physicians practicing in public hospitals are salaried, but physicians in private hospitals and in ambulatory care settings are typically paid on a negotiated fee-for-service basis. Public hospitals are paid by means of prospective global budgets, and private hospitals are paid on the basis of negotiated per diem payment rates. In terms of the delivery system, about 65 percent of hospital beds are public, with the remaining 35 percent private (and equally divided between profit and nonprofit). Ambulatory care physicians and those practicing in private hospitals are generally self-employed, while those practicing in municipal health centers and public hospitals are salaried employees (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, to be published; Schneider et al., 1992; Glaser, 1991; U.S. General Accounting Office, 1991).

For the 1980 base year, France (at 7.6 percent) had the third-highest health-to-GDP ratio, after the United States and Germany. By 1990, France's ratio had increased to 8.8 percent, ranking third after the United States and Canada. France's health-to-GDP ratio grew at an annual rate of 1.6 percent, the third-highest rate of growth, after the United States and Canada. Over this period, nominal health spending increased at an annual rate of 10.4 percent, while nominal GDP increased at an annual rate of 8.7 percent, 1.7 percentage points slower. This illustrates that France's spending on health, unadjusted for inflation or population growth, outstripped growth in the economy. France's was the third-largest percentage-point differential, after the United States and Canada.

From 1980 to 1990, France's population increased at an annual rate of 0.5 percent, the fourth-highest rate of growth, but still only one-half the rate of growth of Canada and the United States. As a result, nominal per capita health spending increased at an annual rate of 9.9 percent, the highest of the six countries. Real (health deflator-adjusted) health spending increased at an annual rate of 4.5 percent, 50 percent higher than the rate of the next-highest country, Japan, with 3.0 percent. This would suggest an exceptionally large annual increase in the volume and intensity of services provided to the French population. However, as discussed below, France's substantial negative excess health care inflation over sustained periods of time raises questions about the validity of the French health care price deflators (Schieber, 1990).

In terms of the opportunity cost of health sector expenditure growth, GDP-deflated per capita health expenditures increased at an annual rate of 3.3 percent, ranking France fourth after the United States, Canada, and Japan. France is the only country in which health deflator-adjusted per capita health expenditure growth exceeded GDP deflator-adjusted per capita health spending growth. This is because France is the only country with negative excess health care inflation. From 1980 to 1990, health care prices grew 1.1 percent per year less rapidly than the GDP deflator. Whether this reflects stringent control over health care prices or methodological issues (e.g., excessive productivity adjustments) concerning the health care price index is difficult to say.

France's nominal per capita GDP growth was among the highest of the six countries, while its real per capita growth was among the lowest. Nominal per capita GDP grew at an annual rate of 8.2 percent and ranked second after the United Kingdom. Real per capita GDP grew at an annual rate of only 1.7 percent, just slightly above the last-ranked United States, 1.6. As shown in Table 6, for the entire 1980-90 period, nominal per capita health spending increased 18 percent faster than nominal per capita GDP, giving France the third-highest rate of growth in nominal per capita health spending relative to nominal per capita GDP, after the United States and Canada. France far and away had the highest growth in real per capita health spending relative to real per capita GDP, with real per capita health spending increasing 135 percent more rapidly than real per capita GDP. These results must be interpreted with caution, given the questionable validity of the French health care price deflators.

In terms of comparisons of per capita health spending in U.S. dollars (shown in Table 3), France's per capita spending of $736 in 1980 ranked it fourth behind the United States, Germany, and Canada. By 1990, France (at $1,532) had surpassed Germany and ranked third. With an annual rate of growth of 7.6 percent, France ranked fourth behind the United States, Canada, and Japan.

In terms of per capita GDP in U.S. dollars (Table 4), France's 1980 level of $9,742 ranked fourth after the United States, Canada, and Germany. In 1990, France (at $17,364) ranked fifth, exceeding only the United Kingdom. Over the 1980-90 period, France's annual rate of growth of 5.9 percent was the lowest of the six countries.

In summary, France's health-to-GDP ratio increased from 7.6 percent in 1980 to 8.8 percent in 1990 and exhibited the third-highest rate of growth after the United States and Canada. France (like the United States and Canada) demonstrated nominal health spending growth that significantly exceeded growth in GDP.

Germany

The German health care system is also based on the social insurance model. Virtually the entire population is covered by statutory sickness funds and private insurance. There are some 1,200 sickness funds that cover about 88 percent of the population. These sickness funds are financed through payroll-based contributions by the employee and employer. About 9 percent of sickness fund members purchase complementary private insurance. Another 10 percent of the population chooses not to participate in the public system and is fully covered by private insurance. Seventy-three percent of all health expenditures are public, and about 11 percent are direct out-of-pocket payments.

Ambulatory and inpatient care are completely separate, and German hospitals generally do not have outpatient departments. Ambulatory care physicians are paid on the basis of fee schedules negotiated between the organizations of sickness funds and organizations of physicians. There is a separate fee schedule for private patients that uses the same relative value scale. Hospitals are paid on the basis of negotiated per diem payments that include the physician's remuneration, except for private patients, for whom private insurers make separate fee-for-service payments for inpatient physician services. Individual hospitals negotiate payment rates with the sickness funds.

With regard to the delivery system, public (Federal, State, and local) hospitals account for about 51 percent of the beds; private voluntary hospitals, often run by religious organizations, account for 35 percent of the beds; and private for-profit hospitals, generally owned by physicians, account for 14 percent of the beds. Ambulatory care physicians are generally self-employed professionals, and most hospital-based physicians are salaried employees of the hospital (Schneider, 1991, 1992; Hurst, 1991; Wicks, 1992).

Germany is the only one of the six countries to experience a decline in its health-to-GDP ratio. This ratio (Table 1) declined from 8.4 percent in 1980 to 8.1 percent in 1990, falling at an annual rate of 0.4 percent. Unlike any of the other countries, German nominal GDP grew faster than nominal health spending. From 1980 to 1990, nominal GDP grew at an annual rate of 5.0 percent, compared with a rate of 4.6 percent for nominal health spending. The fact that Germany's growth in nominal health spending is slower than the growth in the overall economy may be the result of a deliberate national policy to tie health care expenditure growth to growth in the wage base.

Germany's low rates of growth for health spending are preserved when considered on a per capita basis, despite the fact that Germany had the lowest population growth. From 1980 to 1990, Germany's population grew at an annual rate of only 0.2 percent, with the United Kingdom having the lowest growth rate for the six countries. German health spending per capita increased at an annual rate of 4.4 percent, the lowest of the six countries. Germany also had the lowest annual increase in real (health deflator-adjusted) per capita spending, 1.1 percent. This is substantially less than the 1.9 percent for the United Kingdom, the second-lowest country. In terms of the opportunity costs of health expenditure growth (GDP deflator-adjusted per capita spending), Germany's rate of 1.5 percent was substantially below the rates for the other five countries. Rates for the other countries all exceeded 3 percent. After France, Germany had the lowest excess health care inflation, with health care prices increasing only 0.4 percent per year faster than the GDP deflator.

Germany's nominal and real per capita GDP growth were among the lowest of the six countries. From 1980 to 1990, nominal per capita GDP increased at an annual rate of 4.8 percent, the lowest of the six countries. At 1.8 percent, Germany had the third-lowest rate of growth in real per capita GDP after the United States (1.6 percent) and France (1.7 percent). As shown in Table 6, for the entire 1980-90 period, nominal per capita health spending increased 5 percent less rapidly than nominal per capita GDP, giving Germany the distinction of being the only one of the six countries in which nominal per capita health spending increased less rapidly than nominal per capita GDP. Real per capita health spending increased 18 percent less rapidly than real per capita GDP, giving Germany the fourth-highest real elasticity.

In terms of absolute U.S. dollar comparisons of per capita health spending, German spending of $856 in 1980 was the second highest after the United States (Table 3). By 1990, German spending of $1,486 per person ranked fourth. With a 1980-90 annual growth rate of 5.7 percent, Germany had the lowest rate of growth of per capita health spending denominated in U.S. dollars, substantially below the 7.4-percent rate for the United Kingdom, the second-lowest growth country.

In terms of per capita GDP denominated in U.S. dollars (Table 4), Germany ranked third after the United States and Canada in both 1980 and 1990, with per capita GDP of $10,174 in 1980 and $18,317 in 1990. With an annual increase of 6.1 percent, Germany had the second-lowest rate of increase after France at 5.9 percent.

In summary, Germany's health-to-GDP ratio declined over the 1980-90 period, from 8.4 percent in 1980 to 8.1 percent in 1990. Germany was the only country of the six examined in which growth in nominal health spending did not exceed growth in the overall economy.

Japan

Japan's health care financing is also based on the social insurance model and, in particular, on the German health care system. The entire population is covered by three general schemes: Employee Health Insurance, Community Health Insurance, and Health and Medical Services for the Aged. About 62 percent of the population receives coverage through some 1,800 employer-sponsored plans. Small businesses, the self-employed, and farmers are covered through Community Health Insurance, which is administered by a conglomeration of local governmental and private bodies. The elderly are covered by a separate plan that largely pools funds from the other plans.

The system is financed through employer and employee income-related premiums. There are different levels of public subsidization of the three different schemes. Limited private insurance exists for supplemental coverage. Public expenditures account for 72 percent of total health spending, while out-of-pocket expenses account for about 12 percent. Physicians and hospitals are paid on the basis of national negotiated fee schedules. Physicians practicing in public hospitals are salaried, while those practicing in physician-owned clinics and private hospitals are reimbursed on a fee-for-service basis. Physicians prescribe and dispense pharmaceuticals. About 80 percent of Japan's hospitals are privately operated (and often physician-owned), with the remaining 20 percent being public. For-profit hospitals are prohibited (Ikegami, 1991; Iglehart, 1988; U.S. General Accounting Office, 1991; (Powell and Anesaki, 1990).

Japan's 1980 health-to-GDP ratio of 6.4 percent was the second-lowest after the United Kingdom's 5.8 percent. In 1990, Japan, with a ratio of 6.5 percent, still ranked second after the United Kingdom. Over this 10-year period, Japan had the second-slowest growth, after Germany, in its health-to-GDP ratio, 0.1 percent per year. Also over this period, nominal health expenditures grew at an annual rate of 6.0 percent per year, only slightly faster than the 5.9-percent rate for its nominal GDP.

Population increased at an annual rate of 0.6 percent, the third-highest rate of growth after the United States and Canada. Nominal per capita health spending increased 5.4 percent, the second-lowest rate after Germany. However, real (health deflator-adjusted) health spending increased 3.0 percent, the second-highest rate after France. This can perhaps be attributed to Japan's relatively low 1980 base year spending as well as the strong growth in its economy.

In terms of the opportunity cost of health care spending, GDP deflator-adjusted per capita health spending increased 3.7 percent, the third-highest rate of growth after the United States and Canada. In terms of excess health care inflation, Japan ranked fourth, with health care prices increasing 0.7 percent per year faster than the GDP deflator.

Japan's nominal per capita GDP increased at an annual rate of 5.3 percent, second-lowest after Germany, perhaps reflecting the lower absolute inflation rates in these two countries relative to the other four. However, Japan had by far the largest growth in its real per capita GDP, with its 3.6-percent rate substantially above the 2.4 percent for the United Kingdom and the 1.6-1.9 percent for the other four countries. As shown in Table 6, for the entire 1980-90 period, nominal per capita health spending increased at the same rate as nominal per capita GDP, giving Japan the second-lowest nominal elasticity after Germany. Real per capita health spending increased 32 percent less rapidly than real per capita GDP, resulting in Japan having the second-lowest real elasticity after the United Kingdom.

In terms of per capita health spending in U.S. dollars (Table 3), Japan had the second-lowest spending after the United Kingdom in both 1980 and 1990. In 1980, Japan spent $540 per capita, about one-half the U.S. level. By 1990, health spending per person had increased to $1,171, less than one-half of the U.S. level. However, the 8.1-percent rate of growth was the third-highest after the United States and Canada.

Per capita GDP in U.S. dollars increased from $8,409 in 1980 to $17,994 in 1990, 7.9 percent, substantially higher than the other five countries. This resulted in Japan's per capita GDP moving from the second-lowest in 1980, after the United Kingdom, to the third-lowest in 1990, after the United Kingdom and France.

In summary, Japan's health-to-GDP ratio remained relatively stable, increasing slightly from 6.4 percent in 1980 to 6.5 percent in 1990. In both 1980 and 1990, Japan consistently had the second-lowest health-to-GDP ratio behind the United Kingdom. Over this 10-year period, Japan's nominal health spending increased at about the same rate as nominal GDP.

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom employs the National Health Service or Beveridge model to finance and deliver health care. The entire population is covered under a system that is financed mainly from general taxation. There is minimal cost sharing. Some 15 percent of the population buys private insurance either as a supplement to the public system or as an alternative. Eighty-four percent of all health spending is public and about 4 percent of all spending represents direct out-of-pocket payments. Services are organized and managed by regional and local public authorities. General practitioners serve as gatekeepers and are reimbursed on the basis of a combination of capitation payments, fees, and other allowances. Hospitals receive global budgets from district health authorities, and hospital-based physicians are salaried. Private insurance reimburses both physicians and hospitals on a fee-for-service basis.

With regard to the delivery system, self-employed general practitioners are considered independent contractors, and salaried hospital-based physicians are public employees. Ninety percent of the United Kingdom's hospital beds are public and generally owned by the National Health Service. As of 1991, it became possible for large physician practices to become “budget holders,” receiving a larger capitation payment and being placed at risk for a defined list of inpatient and outpatient services. Similarly, individual hospitals may become “self-governing trust hospitals,” whereby they can compete for patients and sell their services (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, to be published; Schneider, 1992; Day and Klein, 1991).

The United Kingdom devotes the smallest percentage of its GDP to health care of the six countries. In 1980, the United Kingdom devoted 5.8 percent of its GDP to health, compared with 6.4 percent for Japan, the second-lowest, and 9.2 percent for the United States, the highest. In 1990, the United Kingdom still ranked last, devoting 6.2 percent, compared with second-lowest-ranked Japan (at 6.5 percent) and the United States (12.1 percent). Over this period, the United Kingdom's health-to-GDP ratio increased at an annual rate of 0.7 percent, the third-lowest rate of growth after Germany and Japan. Also during this time, nominal health spending increased 9.8 percent annually, while nominal GDP increased only slightly less rapidly, at 9.0 percent. This resulted in the United Kingdom having the third-lowest differential in growth between health and GDP after Germany and Japan.

Over the 1980-90 period, population increased at an annual rate of 0.2 percent, the lowest rate of growth along with Germany. Nominal health spending per capita increased at an annual rate of 9.6 percent, which was the second-highest, after France. However, real (health deflator-adjusted) per capita health spending increased at an annual rate of 1.9 percent, the second-lowest after Germany. This indicates that the United Kingdom's growth in health care resulting from volume and intensity increases was relatively low.

In terms of the opportunities forgone in non-health sectors, GDP deflator-adjusted per capita health spending increased at an annual rate of 3.1 percent, ranking the United Kingdom fifth of the six countries. Because the relatively low volume and intensity and opportunity cost growth are based on a low 1980 level of spending, the growth and costs forgone are, in total, relatively small when compared with other countries. In terms of excess health care inflation, the United Kingdom was third-highest, with health care prices exceeding the GDP deflator by 1.2 percent per year.

In terms of nominal per capita GDP growth, the United Kingdom ranked first, with an annual rate of 8.8 percent, slightly above second-ranked France's 8.2. In terms of real per capita GDP growth, the United Kingdom's 2.4-percent annual growth ranked second after Japan's 3.6. As shown in Table 6, for the entire 1980-90 period, nominal per capita health spending increased 4 percent faster than nominal per capita GDP, resulting in the United Kingdom having the third-lowest nominal elasticity after Germany and Japan. Real per capita health spending increased 38 percent less rapidly than real per capita GDP, resulting in the lowest real elasticity.

In terms of absolute comparisons of health spending in U.S. dollars, as in the case of the health-to-GDP ratio, the United Kingdom had the lowest levels in both 1980 and 1990. Per capita spending of $474 in 1980 was well below that of Japan (the second-lowest, at $540) and the United States ($1,064), the highest. In 1990, United Kingdom spending was $972, compared with second-lowest Japan (at $1,171) and first-ranked United States ($2,566). Over this period, per capita health spending grew at an annual rate of 7.4 percent, the second-lowest rate of increase after Germany, at 5.7 percent.

In terms of per capita GDP in U.S. dollars, the United Kingdom had the lowest level in both 1980 and 1990, $8,212 and $15,682, respectively. However, the United Kingdom's annual growth rate of 6.7 percent was the second-highest growth after Japan, at 7.9 percent.

In summary, the United Kingdom consistently had the lowest-ranking health-to-GDP ratio, devoting 5.8 percent in 1980 and 6.2 percent in 1990. Nominal health spending grew at 9.8 percent, increasing only slightly faster than GDP at 9.0 percent, giving the United Kingdom the third-lowest differential in growth between health and GDP after Germany and Japan.

United States

The U.S. health care financing system is based on the consumer sovereignty or private insurance model. About three-quarters of the population is covered by private insurance obtained through employers or individually purchased. Nineteen percent of the population is covered by public programs, while some 14 percent of the population has no coverage. These percentages total more than 100 percent because 13 percent of the population has multiple health insurance coverage (e.g., public and private coverage). There are more than 1,000 private insurance companies. Employer-based health insurance is tax-subsidized, as health insurance premiums are a tax-deductible business expense, but are not taxed as employee compensation. Benefits, premiums, and provider reimbursement methods differ among private insurance plans and differ among public programs as well. Public spending accounts for 42 percent of total health expenditures, and direct out-of-pocket payments account for 20 percent.

Physicians, providing both ambulatory and inpatient care, are generally reimbursed on a fee-for-service basis, and payment rates vary among insurers. Hospitals are paid on the basis of charges, costs, negotiated rates, or diagnosis-related groups, depending on the patient's insurer. There are no overall global budgets or expenditure limits.

There are some 6,700 hospitals in the United States: 340 Federal hospitals, 880 specialty hospitals, and 5,500 community hospitals. Of the community hospitals, 27 percent are public; 59 percent are private non-profit; and 14 percent are private for-profit. Physicians are generally self-employed professionals (Levit et al., 1991; DeLew, Greenberg, and Kinchen, to be published).

The United States had the highest health-to-GDP ratio in both 1980 and 1990 and also the fastest rate of growth. The health-to-GDP ratio increased from 9.2 percent in 1980 to 12.1 percent in 1990, for a 2.7-percent annual rate of growth. This rate of increase far exceeded the 2.3-percent rate of growth in Canada, the second-fastest growing country, as well as the 1.6-percent rate for France, the third-fastest. This rapid growth in the health-to-GDP ratio is primarily the result of the substantially faster rate of growth in U.S. health spending relative to GDP. Nominal health spending increased at an annual rate of 10.3 percent, 2.9 percentage points faster than the 7.4-percent rate of growth of nominal GDP. This 2.9-percentage point differential was the largest of the six countries and substantially exceeded the 2.5-percentage point differential in Canada, the country with the second-fastest-growing health-to-GDP ratio.

The United States, with an annual population growth of 1.0 percent, had (along with Canada) the most rapidly growing population. Nominal per capita health expenditures increased 9.2 percent annually from 1980 to 1990, ranking the United States fourth after France (at 9.9 percent), the United Kingdom (9.6 percent), and Canada (9.4 percent). In terms of real (health deflator-adjusted) per capita health spending, a measure of the volume and intensity growth per person, the U.S. rate of growth of 2.1 percent was the third-lowest after Germany (at 1.1 percent) and the United Kingdom (1.9 percent) and was just below Canada (2.3 percent).

With regard to the opportunity costs of health care spending, the GDP deflator-adjusted growth in per capita spending of 4.4 percent per year is the highest of the six countries. The United States' 4.4-percent annual growth rate exceeded Canada's 4.3 percent, Japan's 3.7 percent, France's 3.3 percent, the United Kingdom's 3.1 percent, and Germany's 1.5 percent. This high rate of growth is even more imposing, because, as we discuss later, the United States' 1980 base year spending level is 57 percent higher than the average for the other five countries. In other words, substantial amounts of non-health sector consumption and investment opportunities are being forgone because of the high rate of growth in U.S. health spending.

One of the major factors causing large opportunity costs, while volume and intensity growth per person is relatively low, is excess health care inflation. The United States had the highest excess health care inflation of the six countries. Over the 1980-90 period, U.S. health care prices increased at an annual rate that was 2.2 percent faster than overall prices compared with 1.9 percent in Canada, 1.2 percent in the United Kingdom, 0.7 percent in Japan, 0.4 percent in Germany, and -1.1 percent in France. Interestingly, the two countries with the highest rates of excess health care inflation are those that rely the most on fee-for-service payment for outpatient and inpatient physician services.

In terms of nominal per capita GDP growth, the U.S. annual rate of 6.3 percent ranked it fourth after the United Kingdom (at 8.8 percent), France (8.2 percent), and Canada (6.9 percent). However, after adjusting for inflation, U.S. real per capita GDP growth of 1.6 percent was the lowest of the six countries.

As shown in Table 6, over the entire 1980-90 period, U.S. nominal per capita health spending increased 36 percent faster than nominal per capita GDP, giving the United States the highest rate of growth in nominal per capita health spending relative to nominal per capita GDP of the six countries. The U.S. nominal elasticity of 1.36 substantially exceeded the nominal elasticities of 1.26 in Canada, 1.18 in France, 1.04 in the United Kingdom, 1.00 in Japan, and 0.95 in Germany. Perhaps even more troubling is the 1.53 U.S. nominal elasticity for the 1985-90 time period. No other country even came close, with Canada at 1.16, France 1.14, the United Kingdom 1.06, Japan 1.00, and Germany 0.70. Thus, over this most recent 5-year period, nominal per capita U.S. health spending grew 53 percent faster than nominal per capita GDP—still more evidence of a worsening U.S. health cost problem. Concerning real elasticities, real per capita U.S. health spending increased 12 percent less rapidly than real per capita GDP, giving the United States the third-highest real elasticity after France and Canada. Once again, the more recent 1985-90 period paints an even worse picture, with the real elasticity of 1.14 substantially higher than the real elasticities of all countries except France.

In terms of absolute per capita health spending in U.S. dollars, U.S. spending was the highest in both 1980 and 1990 and the United States had the highest rate of growth. Per capita spending of $1,064 in 1980 was 24 percent higher than Germany, 38 percent higher than Canada, 45 percent higher than France, 97 percent higher than Japan, and 124 percent higher than the United Kingdom. By 1990, U.S. spending of $2,566 exceeded that of Canada by 45 percent, France by 67 percent, Germany by 73 percent, Japan by 119 percent, and the United Kingdom by 164 percent. The 9.2-percent annual rate of growth in the United States compared with 8.6 percent in Canada, 8.1 percent in Japan, 7.6 percent in France, 7.4 percent in the United Kingdom, and 5.7 percent in Germany. This higher U.S. rate of growth is especially significant given the fact that U.S. 1980 base year spending was 57 percent above the average for the other five countries. By 1990, U.S. spending was 85 percent above the average for these five countries.

In terms of per capita GDP denominated in U.S. dollars, relative to the other five countries, the United States had the highest levels in both years. In 1980, U.S. per capita GDP of $11,890 exceeded that of Canada by 13 percent, Germany by 17 percent, France by 22 percent, Japan by 41 percent, and the United Kingdom by 45 percent. By 1990, U.S. per capita GDP of $21,933 exceeded that of Canada by 15 percent, Germany by 20 percent, Japan by 22 percent, France by 26 percent, and the United Kingdom by 40 percent. The U.S. annual growth rate of 6.3 percent was lower than that of Japan (at 7.9 percent) and the United Kingdom (6.7 percent), but slightly above that of Canada (6.2 percent), Germany (6.1 percent), and France (5.9 percent). Thus, the gaps between the United States and Japan and the United Kingdom narrowed, but increased very slightly between Canada, Germany, and France. U.S. per capita GDP exceeded the average for the other five countries by 26 percent in 1980 and 24 percent in 1990.

Conclusion

By virtually all measures, U.S. health spending is the highest in the world. Over the past 10 years, whether in absolute dollar terms or relative to its GDP, U.S. health care expenditures have increased faster than spending in other countries, and the gap between the United States and other major industrialized countries has increased. The opportunity costs of U.S. health expenditure growth are the largest of the six major countries. Excess health care inflation in the United States exceeds excess health care inflation in other major countries. Health spending relative to GDP is increasing more rapidly in the United States than in other countries.

Although one cannot draw definitive conclusions about overall health sector performance in the absence of better measures of underlying morbidity and outcomes, the cost-containment measures of the past have done little to slow the growth of U.S. health care expenditures. This is not surprising because virtually all incentives (e.g., tax subsidies, fee-for-service reimbursement, non-price competition among providers, consumer expectations, malpractice risks) promote increased spending. In a system in which no one is in charge—neither empowered consumers nor powerful regulatory bodies—and in which major new technological breakthroughs abound, it is not surprising that costs are out of control while millions of people lack insurance coverage. Moreover, unlike other countries, the United States has not found an equitable way to spread over its entire population the costs of insuring its health risks.

For health care reform to succeed, the United States must solve at least three problems that have been dealt with by the other major industrialized countries:

• The poor and disadvantaged must be provided with health services, health insurance, or the financial means to purchase health insurance.

• For the non-poor, a mechanism must be found to pool health risks while reforming private health insurance (e.g., having guaranteed issue, eliminating pre-existing conditions and non-renewability clauses).

• Mechanisms must be found to control costs.

All other major industrialized countries cover their entire populations either through guaranteed entitlement or as an earned right. There are special provisions to cover the poor and disadvantaged andthose outside the labor force. All the major U.S. reform bills deal with this problem either through tax credits or direct entitlement. However, underlying all these reforms is the need for the United States to find a way to finance this enhanced coverage. Other countries have been willing to accept higher aggregate tax burdens (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1990). What will emerge from the current U.S. debate is unclear (Enthoven, 1992; Reinhart, 1992), although the financing mechanisms under discussion include: higher taxes, administrative efficiencies, insurance market reform, coordinated care, managed competition, all-payer ratesetting, expenditure limits, cost-sharing, beneficiary premiums, reduction of tax subsidies, effectiveness research, and medical malpractice reform.

Other countries have dealt with pooling health risks in a more equitable manner either through universal entitlement to a single system or by forcing financial transfers across sickness funds to adjust for differential risk selection. For example, in the United Kingdom, everyone is guaranteed access to the National Health Service. In both Germany and Japan, interfund transfers are required to adjust for the favorable health risk selection of some plans over others. Ability to pay is dealt with either through a progressive national tax structure as in the United Kingdom or through subsidies by social assistance programs and local governments as in Germany and Japan. Making the plausible assumption that private health insurance will remain the principle form of health insurance for the non-poor and non-aged in the United States, it is essential to develop policies that either prohibit or counteract the mechanisms used to achieve favorable risk selection (Light, 1992).

Perhaps most difficult is the need to control costs. Other major industrialized countries have tended to rely on regulatory mechanisms such as expenditure caps, global budgets for hospitals, salary and capitation payments for physicians, and health planning. Nevertheless, these countries have also learned that capping spending does not necessarily lead to efficient provision or consumption within the cap. As a result, numerous countries are attempting to eliminate micro-inefficiencies by experimenting with diagnosis-related groups and other market-oriented payment incentives.

Effective cost containment is a necessary condition for health care reform. Successful cost containment in this country will require a fundamental commitment to a major market-oriented and/or serious regulatory approach. As Altman and Rodwin (1988) have argued, the halfway measures of the past have not worked. The basic questions are: Do Americans and their elected representatives have the desire and political will to change a worsening status quo? Are Americans interested in value for money and equity? Is there a willingness to redistribute income in the current social and economic climate? These are important questions to ponder as the United States approaches the 21st century with the prospect of a $1.6 trillion health sector consuming one out of every six dollars of total output.

Appendix: List of tables¹

Expenditures on health and health care pricing trends

Table 1. Total expenditure on health, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	National currency in millions
Australia	752	824	843	909	1,006	1,095	1,126	1,321	1,476	1,668	1,992	2,310	2,619	3,148	4,232	5,719	6,603	7,469	8,240	9,078	10,224	11,798	13,241	14,975	16,541	18,575	21,091	23,276	26,096	28,673	30,974
Austria	7,200	8,400	9,050	10,000	10,800	11,600	13,500	15,300	16,700	18,300	20,473	22,797	25,814	30,159	35,222	48,100	54,600	59,600	66,322	72,219	78,390	86,790	90,986	96,335	101,486	109,273	117,923	124,210	131,083	138,970	150,000
Belgium	19,150	19,950	21,550	23,850	27,500	32,700	35,000	38,000	41,267	44,645	51,496	57,682	67,110	81,471	96,973	133,999	158,000	172,100	190,900	203,700	230,700	262,400	287,811	310,663	329,089	352,553	370,080	390,550	415,550	446,450	482,150
Canada	2,142	2,376	2,561	2,802	3,060	3,415	3,838	4,324	4,912	5,505	6,254	7,119	7,788	8,699	10,224	12,268	14,120	15,500	17,248	19,412	22,704	26,650	31,150	34,512	37,310	40,408	44,286	47,935	52,003	56,440	61,753
Denmark	1,500	1,930	2,280	2,530	2,840	3,410	4,164	4,930	5,732	6,681	7,197	8,416	9,506	11,166	13,747	13,976	17,126	18,348	20,542	22,791	25,426	27,836	31,658	33,655	35,968	38,589	39,897	44,096	47,932	49,845	50,947
Finland	674	720	808	911	1,087	1,302	1,469	1,753	2,099	2,374	2,608	2,948	3,508	4,177	5,217	6,617	7,861	8,915	9,724	10,912	12,448	14,452	16,580	18,823	21,124	24,183	26,333	28,979	31,923	35,886	40,979
France	12,742	14,750	16,974	19,771	22,976	25,568	28,906	32,065	34,247	41,349	46,184	53,361	60,951	70,215	81,902	102,046	119,057	134,552	158,927	183,934	212,198	248,968	288,902	326,600	370,783	397,358	429,889	453,369	491,400	534,300	572,900
Germany	14,530	16,002	17,964	18,640	20,542	23,520	26,840	28,020	31,000	34,540	39,720	46,930	53,500	62,740	72,830	83,530	90,390	96,600	103,790	113,070	123,890	133,560	135,870	141,820	151,660	158,450	167,410	172,210	186,520	182,000	195,000
Greece	3,036	3,607	4,044	4,563	5,305	5,640	7,122	7,841	8,846	10,457	12,072	13,337	14,799	18,176	22,301	27,382	33,399	39,808	47,966	62,244	74,172	91,956	113,756	142,199	172,798	224,526	295,517	325,775	378,085	462,902	572,000
Iceland	3	3	4	5	8	9	11	13	16	19	23	30	40	52	82	126	170	247	407	626	1,002	1,618	2,643	4,980	6,141	8,411	12,398	16,505	21,720	26,142	29,231
Ireland	25	26	30	33	37	42	49	58	62	75	90	122	149	184	220	305	370	432	544	651	859	999	1,123	1,254	1,348	1,453	1,525	1,595	1,602	1,673	1,808
Italy	895,000	988,000	1,084,000	1,318,000	1,569,000	1,810,000	2,053,000	2,329,000	2,573,000	2,928,000	3,481,000	4,027,000	4,746,000	5,720,000	7,288,000	8,434,000	10,511,000	12,007,000	14,746,000	18,345,000	26,624,000	31,114,000	37,650,000	44,457,000	49,554,000	56,966,000	62,498,000	72,346,000	82,480,000	90,819,000	100,860,000
Japan	480,000	665,000	797,000	980,000	1,046,000	1,465,000	1,739,000	2,091,000	2,482,000	2,892,000	3,339,000	3,768,000	4,416,000	5,235,000	6,858,00	8,378,000	9,410,000	10,748,000	12,235,000	13,542,000	15,760,000	17,130,000	18,463,000	19,430,000	20,040,000	21,040,000	22,230,000	23,703,000	24,930,000	26,742,500	28,300,000
Luxembourg	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	2,250	2,600	2,900	3,250	3,900	4,900	5,705	6,373	7,370	8,075	9,082	10,056	10,977	11,832	12,861	13,918	14,945	16,680	18,000	19,200	21,000
Netherlands	1,731	1,914	2,116	2,340	2,717	3,154	3,662	4,252	4,937	5,729	7,255	8,737	10,335	12,025	14,189	16,677	18,889	20,823	22,892	24,016	27,075	28,999	30,961	32,069	32,472	33,402	34,900	35,737	36,888	38,423	41,499
New Zealand	124	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	231	–	300	–	–	493	605	744	846	991	1,200	1,386	1,660	1,923	2,090	2,267	2,408	2,956	3,670	4,344	4,718	5,090	5,277
Norway	1,093	1,254	1,448	1,628	1,829	1,993	2,276	2,514	2,802	3,225	4,001	4,772	5,836	6,851	7,987	9,959	11,693	13,595	16,364	16,480	18,940	21,548	24,488	27,446	29,482	32,231	36,308	41,569	44,791	46,243	49,255
Portugal	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	5,600	–	–	–	15,862	24,219	29,000	35,123	45,955	56,427	73,821	95,683	117,075	142,000	176,223	245,725	291,753	350,000	426,500	511,850	566,000
Spain	10,574	12,766	16,671	20,931	27,874	36,646	45,456	55,678	64,213	80,459	97,657	124,257	153,470	180,181	239,024	295,326	388,010	516,022	631,084	728,119	859,055	991,354	1,167,061	1,352,083	1,472,355	1,601,260	1,816,428	2,062,095	2,410,000	2,820,000	3,300,000
Sweden	3,396	3,737	4,120	4,864	5,505	6,328	7,483	8,618	9,820	10,734	12,419	14,116	15,453	16,853	19,558	24,007	28,228	33,967	38,158	42,076	49,784	55,262	61,238	67,907	74,412	76,530	80,839	87,765	94,972	105,294	116,200
Switzerland	1,223	1,350	1,650	1,870	2,090	2,301	3,000	3,450	3,850	4,250	4,697	5,730	6,450	7,520	8,760	9,810	10,240	10,570	10,909	11,408	12,373	13,482	14,619	15,893	16,555	17,424	18,484	19,488	20,874	22,500	24,300
Turkey	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	9,600	12,660	17,960	22,300	34,090	54,820	92,060	174,420	284,740	307,750	419,760	644,710	772,590	1,379,000	2,100,450	3,780,970	6,544,860	11,240,000
United Kingdom	1,010	1,093	1,148	1,250	1,368	1,485	1,625	1,787	1,946	2,051	2,323	2,637	3,014	3,444	4,398	5,784	6,851	7,776	8,923	10,409	13,344	15,405	16,461	18,637	19,769	21,261	23,140	25,448	28,244	30,860	34,033
United States	27,135	29,057	31,600	34,431	38,050	41,615	45,860	51,655	58,478	65,739	74,377	82,331	92,307	102,467	116,070	132,944	152,168	172,037	193,654	217,229	250,126	290,219	326,085	358,593	389,637	422,619	454,814	494,098	546,014	602,792	666,187

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File.

Table 2. Public expenditure on health, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	National currency in millions
Australia	358	400	462	492	543	591	638	632	772	900	1,129	1,342	1,530	1,909	2,703	4,166	4,415	4,624	5,149	5,597	6,426	7,364	8,060	9,662	11,860	13,284	14,882	16,266	18,064	19,739	21,200
Austria	5,000	5,600	6,050	6,700	7,200	8,150	9,000	10,300	10,700	12,400	12,900	14,550	16,350	19,250	22,950	33,500	38,000	41,600	46,300	49,350	53,950	60,330	61,634	64,212	67,406	72,937	79,880	83,340	87,074	92,476	99,800
Belgium	11,800	12,750	13,800	15,900	18,350	24,629	27,010	28,364	32,759	38,861	44,777	49,622	57,953	68,015	79,957	106,700	127,100	154,500	170,100	181,500	191,100	209,100	246,795	256,500	273,047	288,344	300,213	322,850	342,900	368,400	397,800
Canada	915	1,045	1,173	1,339	1,527	1,779	2,129	2,551	3,074	3,650	4,390	5,214	5,784	6,434	7,653	9,371	10,881	11,907	13,119	14,689	16,967	20,139	23,633	26,247	28,072	30,182	32,948	35,567	38,400	41,250	44,800
Denmark	1,330	1,663	1,953	2,172	2,440	2,928	3,514	4,218	4,952	5,829	6,208	7,204	8,196	9,072	11,165	12,841	14,629	15,543	17,416	19,425	21,666	23,659	27,026	28,555	30,396	32,588	34,109	37,163	40,084	41,457	42,209
Finland	344	394	461	535	659	863	990	1,259	1,504	1,749	1,924	2,144	2,580	3,179	4,038	5,203	6,155	7,021	7,577	8,540	9,837	11,514	13,265	14,887	16,583	19,012	20,874	23,048	25,332	28,695	33,171
France	7,361	8,990	11,027	13,312	15,747	17,414	19,811	22,085	23,206	28,928	34,505	39,908	46,057	52,841	62,208	78,787	90,348	103,570	123,242	143,768	167,163	197,887	228,367	254,573	286,978	305,721	328,203	346,237	366,856	401,210	426,390
Germany	9,600	10,802	12,114	13,080	14,322	16,660	19,460	20,480	23,020	25,700	27,630	33,780	38,950	47,130	55,940	64,480	69,170	73,050	78,430	84,580	92,970	100,220	101,460	103,910	110,760	116,590	122,040	126,860	136,900	133,440	142,800
Greece	1,950	2,100	2,379	2,658	3,317	4,011	4,601	4,834	5,060	5,751	6,443	7,575	8,644	10,532	13,416	16,485	22,526	29,341	36,480	45,543	60,957	77,578	103,858	125,080	151,340	181,880	238,448	259,270	312,204	352,269	435,000
Iceland	2	3	4	4	6	7	9	11	13	16	19	25	33	43	72	110	149	217	367	559	884	1,439	2,355	4,458	5,329	7,629	10,729	14,413	18,919	22,620	25,404
Ireland	19	20	22	25	30	32	37	44	46	56	74	88	113	146	176	241	291	344	428	539	706	827	919	1,000	1,052	1,124	1,165	1,161	1,164	1,222	1,352
Italy	744,000	851,000	956,000	1,192,000	1,392,000	1,590,000	1,790,000	2,050,000	2,263,000	2,541,000	3,006,000	3,581,000	4,218,000	5,062,000	6,412,000	7,260,000	9,114,000	10,487,000	13,193,000	16,183,000	21,603,000	24,707,000	29,603,000	35,016,000	38,709,000	43,934,000	47,421,000	56,143,000	64,192,000	69,724,000	76,587,000
Japan	290,000	400,000	480,000	590,000	730,000	900,000	1,045,000	1,263,000	1,493,000	1,724,000	2,331,000	2,477,000	2,988,000	3,603,000	5,083,600	6,035,400	7,068,500	7,823,900	9,304,200	10,062,700	11,154,800	12,074,000	12,987,500	14,065,300	14,521,100	15,283,900	16,261,600	17,213,600	18,043,200	19,045,000	20,361,000
Luxembourg	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	4,500	5,239	5,828	6,792	7,487	8,426	9,344	10,205	10,550	11,453	12,421	13,367	15,284	16,500	17,500	19,200
Netherlands	576	782	1,061	1,440	1,766	2,166	2,656	3,257	3,944	4,941	6,113	6,688	7,277	8,543	10,178	12,234	13,868	15,412	17,083	18,504	20,238	21,809	23,544	24,144	24,537	25,155	25,265	26,314	26,766	27,737	29,587
New Zealand	100	107	116	123	135	150	164	170	181	202	241	296	352	410	503	624	728	855	1,033	1,216	1,387	1,695	1,762	1,953	2,072	2,519	3,169	3,681	3,997	4,160	4,312
Norway	850	980	1,132	1,292	1,469	1,612	1,950	2,194	2,435	2,855	3,664	4,285	5,562	6,477	7,573	9,583	11,386	13,362	15,172	16,708	18,628	21,204	23,798	26,871	28,711	31,092	34,988	40,543	42,920	44,223	46,917
Portugal	657	731	789	809	925	1,304	1,529	1,749	2,475	3,141	3,306	3,880	5,704	7,580	9,953	14,270	19,136	24,572	30,828	39,083	53,438	68,146	72,951	79,816	96,828	138,384	168,623	202,250	246,550	295,850	349,000
Spain	6,203	6,854	9,004	10,476	13,620	18,634	23,899	34,182	39,837	50,961	63,841	80,265	104,024	137,376	173,209	228,510	285,983	390,262	495,151	576,681	686,561	780,045	926,741	1,141,915	1,202,339	1,295,412	1,434,485	1,615,168	1,890,000	2,207,000	2,588,000
Sweden	2,467	2,745	3,051	3,734	4,314	5,032	6,047	7,025	8,201	9,016	10,682	12,249	13,383	14,509	17,582	21,652	25,452	31,014	34,915	38,565	46,068	50,762	56,094	62,136	68,140	69,024	72,715	78,737	84,843	93,922	104,000
Switzerland	750	880	1,010	1,140	1,270	1,400	1,900	2,150	2,400	2,650	3,000	3,660	4,270	4,980	5,800	6,763	6,985	7,169	7,328	7,691	8,354	9,211	10,008	10,887	11,288	11,945	12,703	13,076	14,232	15,350	16,550
Turkey	–	–	586	672	771	843	1,086	1,230	1,451	1,810	1,863	1,830	3,580	–	–	8,796	–	8,175	10,170	21,330	47,600	-	–	–	267,400	387,800	576,300	831,449	1,444,000	2,400,000	4,000,000
United Kingdom	861	930	971	1,035	1,130	1,274	1,407	1,558	1,693	1,770	2,020	2,295	2,646	3,017	3,946	5,268	6,233	6,997	8,033	9,325	11,953	13,744	14,474	16,366	17,293	18,496	19,862	21,782	24,062	26,214	28,741
United States	6,658	7,313	7,988	8,735	9,369	10,295	13,568	19,153	21,770	24,638	27,674	31,243	35,109	39,300	46,639	55,145	62,386	70,080	79,769	90,357	105,159	121,751	134,763	147,632	159,612	174,768	190,228	208,364	227,140	252,555	282,620

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 3. Medical care and health service price index, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
Australia	11.3	11.5	11.8	12.6	13.3	14.0	14.5	15.3	15.8	18.2	22.0	22.0	24.0	26.0	30.0	38.0	45.0	51.0	55.0	58.0	64.0	72.0	80.0	88.0	94.0	100.0	107.0	117.0	124.0	132.3	137.7
Austria	15.3	16.3	18.2	19.5	20.8	22.1	23.8	26.0	28.4	31.0	30.6	33.9	37.4	41.1	46.8	52.1	56.4	61.1	66.6	70.7	74.2	80.0	86.0	89.8	94.6	100.0	104.4	109.5	113.6	119.4	122.2
Belgium	22.0	22.3	22.5	23.2	24.6	29.2	31.4	33.0	33.7	34.5	35.7	37.4	39.9	42.7	48.4	54.3	58.9	62.9	66.7	69.7	73.3	76.9	83.1	89.6	95.2	100.0	105.0	107.7	109.4	112.4	117.8
Canada	19.1	19.7	20.3	20.5	21.0	21.8	22.8	24.4	25.5	27.3	29.7	30.9	32.3	34.1	38.1	42.6	47.7	51.1	54.2	59.4	66.0	75.1	84.0	91.2	96.0	100.0	104.9	109.2	117.0	122.5	128.7
Denmark	14.9	15.5	16.5	17.5	18.3	19.7	21.0	22.8	24.1	25.8	29.3	32.5	35.1	37.0	43.2	49.8	52.5	55.3	60.4	63.9	68.5	76.7	85.6	91.5	96.2	100.0	102.4	109.0	115.7	119.6	123.5
Finland	15.2	15.8	15.6	15.8	17.3	18.0	18.7	19.3	21.4	22.0	21.3	22.1	23.6	27.5	31.6	37.9	42.4	46.0	48.9	53.5	60.0	67.2	73.6	81.9	91.4	100.0	104.4	109.2	116.3	126.5	139.5
France	19.0	19.4	20.5	22.1	23.1	23.7	24.6	25.4	26.5	28.9	29.9	32.2	34.8	37.6	40.5	43.8	48.2	53.1	58.5	61.9	68.6	76.5	83.7	91.1	96.2	100.0	103.0	105.4	108.6	112.1	113.7
Germany	27.5	28.0	28.8	29.6	30.4	32.6	35.7	36.9	41.3	42.6	45.6	49.3	52.6	56.2	60.2	64.6	67.6	70.3	72.8	75.6	80.1	84.1	90.0	95.8	97.2	100.0	100.8	102.2	103.8	106.8	110.4
Greece	8.8	9.2	9.9	10.5	10.1	10.6	10.7	10.8	10.8	10.9	11.1	11.4	12.1	13.9	15.5	19.5	23.4	26.5	28.4	36.2	42.2	50.0	61.5	70.0	82.3	100.0	118.3	130.6	145.9	166.5	201.4
Iceland	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.3	0.3	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.5	0.6	0.7	0.8	1.0	1.2	1.8	2.5	3.2	4.5	6.7	10.0	15.3	22.4	34.3	57.9	74.4	100.0	125.7	155.6	192.9	222.4	262.2
Ireland	10.3	10.5	11.0	11.3	12.2	12.7	13.3	13.7	15.2	15.4	16.0	19.8	21.4	23.0	24.5	26.7	31.9	35.8	41.0	47.3	58.8	68.7	77.2	86.4	92.9	100.0	104.1	112.4	121.6	125.5	131.7
Italy	7.7	7.8	8.1	9.0	10.5	11.1	11.5	11.9	12.0	12.4	13.2	14.3	15.2	17.0	19.7	23.1	26.3	30.0	34.9	40.8	53.0	62.4	72.0	82.0	90.0	100.0	105.3	116.0	128.0	136.3	146.2
Japan	22.7	23.7	25.5	27.1	28.2	30.3	32.2	33.3	34.9	36.5	43.5	44.2	48.7	49.4	58.0	64.8	71.3	74.5	83.4	85.4	86.6	88.2	90.5	90.7	92.7	100.0	102.0	105.3	105.7	107.5	109.3
Luxembourg	–	–	–	–	–	17.5	28.1	29.0	30.4	31.8	37.9	38.4	46.1	46.1	51.0	57.0	63.3	65.4	66.7	70.0	74.0	79.3	84.2	89.5	93.7	100.0	105.8	110.4	112.7	122.7	124.9
Netherlands	15.4	15.9	16.4	17.2	18.6	19.8	20.9	21.9	22.8	24.2	29.0	32.7	39.7	44.6	51.3	59.7	65.9	71.2	76.6	81.2	86.6	91.2	96.2	98.0	98.5	100.0	101.6	102.1	104.0	105.4	110.9
New Zealand	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	13.2	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	41.1	48.6	57.8	69.1	81.1	88.9	92.1	100.0	123.8	147.4	159.7	165.2	172.4
Norway	13.5	15.5	15.9	17.0	18.9	20.2	22.1	24.4	25.3	26.9	28.1	30.2	32.3	35.9	38.1	44.6	48.0	52.5	56.8	58.7	68.3	75.7	82.2	87.7	93.1	100.0	108.0	119.0	123.1	128.5	135.1
Portugal	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	6.5	–	–	–	–	–	–	16.7	21.8	27.2	34.2	41.4	52.5	65.1	81.9	100.0	111.9	122.1	134.0	151.5	172.2
Spain	6.3	6.4	6.8	7.4	7.8	8.4	9.2	10.2	10.2	11.2	13.0	14.7	16.7	18.7	21.9	24.2	26.3	34.3	40.8	48.0	54.1	62.4	73.4	83.8	93.9	100.0	107.3	112.6	118.4	122.8	131.9
Sweden	16.8	17.2	17.9	18.2	18.9	19.4	21.0	22.4	22.2	22.1	24.3	26.5	28.8	31.3	33.9	39.9	45.1	52.7	56.1	60.5	69.8	75.1	81.5	89.0	95.0	100.0	103.8	110.4	117.5	127.2	138.0
Switzerland	21.0	21.6	22.7	23.9	25.4	27.5	29.2	31.2	33.0	35.1	37.0	41.2	45.9	51.6	57.3	64.5	69.1	70.5	72.3	74.9	77.3	81.9	88.0	92.3	95.9	100.0	104.3	108.5	112.7	115.0	119.0
Turkey	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	36.8	48.0	67.8	100.0	140.2	206.2	356.4	684.8	1091.0
United Kingdom	14.3	15.0	15.2	15.2	22.7	25.7	16.3	16.7	17.6	18.3	19.7	21.5	22.4	23.7	26.9	33.8	39.0	43.5	48.4	54.5	69.2	76.6	82.5	91.0	94.8	100.0	105.3	114.0	124.7	132.5	144.0
United States	22.1	22.5	23.0	23.5	24.0	24.7	25.9	27.4	28.9	30.5	32.4	34.3	35.8	37.4	40.7	45.0	48.9	52.8	57.0	61.9	68.8	76.4	83.5	89.4	94.9	100.0	105.0	110.9	118.3	126.3	134.4

NOTE: 1985 = 100.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Utilization of medical services and available personnel resources

Table 4. Use of inpatient care, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Bed days per person
Australia	–	–	2.4	2.5	2.5	2.6	2.6	2.7	2.7	3.5	–	–	–	–	3.5	–	–	–	–	3.5	–	–	–	–	3.2	3.2	–	3.0	–	2.9	–
Austria	3.5	3.5	3.6	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.4	3.4	3.4	3.5	3.4	3.4	3.4	3.4	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.4	3.4	3.4	3.3	3.3	3.3	3.3	3.2	3.0
Belgium	–	–	–	–	–	1.6	1.7	1.7	1.8	1.9	2.3	2.4	2.5	2.5	2.6	2.6	2.6	2.7	2.6	2.7	2.7	2.8	2.9	2.8	2.8	2.8	2.8	2.8	2.6	2.6	2.6
Canada	1.8	1.8	1.9	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.2	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.0	2.0
Denmark	2.6	2.6	2.6	2.8	2.6	2.6	2.6	2.6	2.6	2.6	2.6	2.6	2.6	2.6	2.6	2.6	–	2.5	2.5	2.4	2.3	2.3	2.2	2.2	2.1	2.1	2.1	1.9	1.8	1.8	1.7
Finland	4.2	4.3	4.3	4.4	4.5	4.6	4.7	4.7	4.8	4.9	5.0	5.0	5.1	5.1	5.0	4.9	4.8	4.8	4.8	4.8	4.9	4.8	4.8	4.8	4.4	4.4	4.2	4.2	4.5	4.3	4.1
France	2.6	3.0	3.2	3.3	3.5	3.1	2.9	3.0	3.2	3.3	3.4	3.4	3.6	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.4	3.4	3.1	3.1	3.0	3.0	2.9	2.9
Germany	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.5	3.4	3.4	3.4	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.4	3.4
Greece	1.3	1.3	1.4	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.5	1.6	1.5	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.5	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.3	1.1
Iceland	3.4	3.5	3.5	3.6	3.9	3.9	3.8	3.9	4.3	4.4	4.6	4.6	4.7	4.7	4.8	4.9	5.0	5.0	5.1	5.1	5.1	5.0	5.0	5.1	5.1	5.2	5.3	5.1	5.2	5.2	–
Ireland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	3.1	3.0	2.8	2.8	2.8
Italy	2.5	2.6	2.7	2.7	2.8	2.8	2.9	2.9	2.9	3.0	3.0	3.0	3.0	3.1	3.0	3.0	2.9	2.7	2.6	2.5	2.5	2.4	2.3	2.2	2.1	2.1	2.0	2.0	1.9	1.8	1.8
Japan	2.1	2.2	2.3	2.5	2.6	2.6	2.7	2.8	2.9	3.0	3.0	3.0	3.0	3.0	3.0	3.0	3.1	3.1	3.2	3.3	3.4	3.5	3.6	3.7	3.8	3.8	3.9	4.0	4.1	4.1	4.1
Luxembourg	3.4	3.5	3.5	3.5	3.3	3.6	3.5	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.6	3.5	3.4	3.4	3.4	3.4	3.4	3.6	3.7	3.9	3.9	3.8	3.7	3.7	3.7	3.7	3.7	3.7	3.7	3.7
Netherlands	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	3.8	3.8	3.8	3.8	3.8	4.0	4.0	4.0	4.1	4.1	4.1	4.1	4.1	4.0	4.0	4.0	4.0	3.9	3.9	3.8	3.8	3.8	3.7
New Zealand	3.3	3.2	3.2	3.2	3.2	3.2	3.1	3.1	3.2	3.0	3.0	2.9	2.9	2.7	2.9	2.6	2.6	2.6	2.6	2.7	2.7	2.6	2.7	2.7	–	–	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.1
Norway	3.1	3.1	3.1	3.1	3.1	3.1	3.1	3.1	3.1	3.1	2.8	2.6	2.6	2.5	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.3	5.3	5.3	5.3	5.2	5.2	5.2	5.2	5.2	5.2	5.1	5.1	–	5.0
Portugal	–	1.5	–	1.7	1.6	1.7	1.7	–	–	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.4	1.3	1.3	1.2	1.3	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.1	1.2	1.1	1.1	1.1	1.1
Spain	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.8	–	–	–	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.1
Sweden	4.3	4.3	4.3	4.2	4.2	4.3	4.3	4.3	4.4	4.5	4.5	4.5	4.6	4.7	4.6	4.7	4.6	4.5	4.6	4.6	4.7	4.8	4.8	4.8	4.8	4.5	4.4	4.2	4.0	3.6	3.5
Switzerland	3.9	–	–	–	–	3.7	–	–	–	–	3.4	–	2.6	2.7	2.8	2.8	2.9	3.0	3.0	3.0	3.0	3.0	3.1	3.0	3.1	3.1	3.0	3.0	3.0	2.9	2.9
Turkey	–	–	–	–	–	0.4	–	–	–	–	0.4	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.3	0.3	0.4	0.3	0.3	0.4	0.3	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.4
United Kingdom	3.4	3.3	3.2	3.2	3.2	3.1	3.1	3.1	3.0	3.0	2.9	2.7	2.8	2.7	2.7	2.6	2.6	2.5	2.5	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.3	2.3	2.2	2.2	2.1	2.1	2.0	2.0	2.0
United States	2.8	2.8	2.8	2.8	2.7	2.6	2.6	2.5	2.5	2.4	2.3	2.2	2.1	2.0	2.0	1.9	1.8	1.8	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.6	1.5	1.4	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.2

NOTE: The Belgian series has been revised, starting in 1986, and uses new sectoring Inconsistent with pre–1988 data.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 5. Use of acute inpatient care, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Bed days per person
Australia	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.6	–	–	–	–	1.7	–	–	–	–	1.6	–	–	–	–	1.4	1.4	–	1.3	–	1.2	–
Austria	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	2.5	2.5	2.5	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.3	2.1
Belgium	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.7	1.7	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.8	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.7
Canada	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.5	1.5	1.5
Denmark	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.7	1.7	1.6	1.6	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.4	1.4	1.3
Finland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.4	1.3	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.1
France	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.5	1.5	1.5
Germany	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.3	2.3	2.3	2.3	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.3	2.3	2.3	2.3	2.4	2.4	2.3	2.3	2.3	2.3
Greece	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Iceland	–	–	–	2.2	2.2	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.2	2.3	2.5	2.6	2.7	2.8	2.9	2.9	3.0	3.0	3.1	3.0	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.4	1.3	1.2	–
Ireland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.7	1.8	2.1	1.7	1.7	1.8	1.7	1.8	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.6	1.6	1.5	1.5	1.3	1.3	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2
Italy	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Japan	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Luxembourg	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.6	1.5	1.8	1.9	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.0
Netherlands	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.4	1.4	1.3	1.3	1.2	1.2	1.2
New Zealand	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Norway	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.8	–	–	–	–	1.7	–	–	–	–	1.6	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.4	1.4	1.3	1.1	1.1
Portugal	–	0.9	–	0.9	1.0	1.0	1.0	–	–	1.0	1.0	1.0	1.0	1.0	1.0	1.0	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9
Spain	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	–
Sweden	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.6	–	–	–	–	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2
Switzerland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.0	1.9	1.9	1.9	1.9
Turkey	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
United Kingdom	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9
United States	1.0	1.0	1.0	1.0	1.0	1.1	1.1	1.1	1.3	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.1	1.0	1.0	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9

NOTE: The Belgian series has been revised, starting in 1986, and uses new sectoring inconsistent with pre–1986 data.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 6. Inpatient care admission rates, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Percent of population
Australia	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	21.6	–	21.8	–	–	–
Austria	14.1	14.4	14.3	14.4	14.6	14.5	14.5	14.7	14.8	15.4	15.5	15.8	15.7	15.9	16.6	17.0	17.4	17.8	18.4	18.9	19.5	19.6	20.2	20.7	21.1	21.6	22.2	22.6	22.8	22.6	25.2
Belgium	–	–	–	–	–	8.0	8.1	8.2	8.6	9.1	9.3	9.7	10.2	10.5	10.8	11.8	11.7	12.0	13.0	13.1	13.6	13.8	14.0	14.3	14.6	14.9	17.3	17.5	17.7	18.0	–
Canada	15.0	15.2	15.5	15.9	16.0	15.9	15.8	15.7	15.9	16.0	16.5	16.8	16.8	16.8	16.8	16.5	16.3	15.9	15.6	15.3	15.1	15.0	15.2	15.0	15.0	15.0	15.0	14.8	14.5	14.2	–
Denmark	–	–	–	12.7	12.3	12.7	12.8	13.1	13.6	13.9	14.4	14.9	15.9	16.4	16.4	17.7	–	18.2	18.5	18.2	18.3	18.2	18.7	19.2	19.5	19.9	20.3	20.5	20.9	21.1	21.1
Finland	13.1	13.2	13.5	13.8	14.3	15.0	15.4	15.7	16.0	17.4	18.2	19.2	19.5	19.5	19.2	18.9	19.4	20.1	20.4	20.7	21.0	21.4	21.7	20.9	21.6	22.6	22.3	22.6	22.8	23.3	–
France	–	–	–	–	–	–	6.7	6.9	7.1	7.1	7.4	7.9	14.9	15.3	15.8	16.5	17.2	17.9	18.8	19.3	19.3	19.8	20.0	20.0	20.5	21.1	21.6	21.7	22.3	22.8	22.9
Germany	13.3	13.3	13.2	13.4	13.6	13.8	14.0	14.3	14.7	15.0	15.4	15.7	15.9	16.1	16.6	16.9	17.3	17.8	18.3	18.5	18.8	18.7	18.7	18.8	19.4	19.9	20.6	21.1	21.5	21.5	–
Greece	–	7.0	7.8	8.0	8.5	8.9	9.2	9.7	10.2	10.4	10.5	10.8	10.9	10.9	10.7	10.8	11.3	11.1	11.3	11.5	11.8	11.8	11.9	11.9	12.0	11.9	8.3	8.3	8.0	7.9	–
Iceland	–	–	–	12.7	13.0	12.8	12.4	12.4	13.4	14.3	16.4	17.0	17.6	17.7	18.2	19.0	20.0	20.4	21.4	22.2	22.2	22.2	21.6	23.1	24.4	24.5	24.6	25.5	28.1	27.5	–
Ireland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	12.4	13.2	14.8	13.7	14.3	15.6	15.9	16.2	16.7	16.7	17.2	17.6	17.6	17.3	17.1	17.0	17.0	16.8	15.2	–	–
Italy	9.4	10.0	10.7	11.5	12.0	12.8	13.3	14.0	14.9	15.8	15.7	16.2	16.9	17.3	17.4	18.1	18.2	18.1	17.9	18.1	18.1	17.8	17.7	17.0	17.2	17.0	16.7	16.7	16.6	15.3	–
Japan	3.7	3.9	4.1	4.3	4.5	4.6	4.7	5.0	5.2	5.3	5.4	5.5	5.6	5.6	5.6	5.5	5.6	5.7	5.7	5.8	6.0	6.2	6.4	6.7	7.0	7.0	7.2	7.5	7.8	8.1	8.3
Luxembourg	11.6	11.9	12.0	12.1	12.6	12.8	12.4	12.8	12.8	13.0	13.4	13.9	13.6	13.5	13.8	13.7	14.3	14.9	15.9	16.1	16.6	17.0	17.8	18.1	18.5	18.8	19.0	–	19.9	20.9	19.9
Netherlands	–	–	–	8.6	8.8	9.0	9.2	9.4	9.6	9.9	10.0	10.1	10.5	10.7	10.8	11.0	11.3	11.3	11.5	11.6	11.7	11.8	11.9	11.8	11.5	11.4	11.2	11.0	10.9	11.0	10.9
New Zealand	7.9	7.9	8.1	8.3	8.5	8.7	8.7	8.8	9.1	9.0	9.3	9.2	9.6	9.9	12.2	12.5	12.8	13.0	13.1	13.1	13.3	14.3	15.6	15.7	–	–	13.0	13.0	13.7	–	–
Norway	–	–	–	11.7	12.0	12.1	12.2	12.6	13.0	13.2	13.2	13.5	13.6	13.6	14.0	14.7	14.1	15.0	15.1	15.6	15.5	15.4	15.6	15.8	16.3	16.6	16.6	16.3	16.7	–	–
Portugal	4.2	5.1	4.6	5.6	5.8	5.7	5.9	–	–	6.5	6.9	7.3	7.4	7.9	8.1	8.3	8.4	8.6	8.7	8.7	8.9	9.0	9.0	9.3	9.5	8.5	8.7	9.4	9.7	10.6	10.8
Spain	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	7.1	7.3	7.7	8.1	8.5	8.9	9.0	9.2	9.3	9.2	9.1	9.1	9.4	9.3	9.2	9.4	9.7	9.2	–
Sweden	13.4	13.4	13.6	14.0	14.3	14.5	14.8	15.2	16.3	16.3	16.6	16.8	17.0	17.2	18.1	18.1	18.4	18.2	18.1	18.4	18.3	18.6	18.9	19.2	19.1	20.0	19.7	20.0	20.0	19.6	19.5
Switzerland	12.4	–	–	–	–	13.5	–	–	–	–	13.1	–	10.4	10.8	11.3	11.4	11.8	12.0	12.1	12.2	12.6	12.6	12.8	12.8	12.9	13.1	13.3	13.2	13.6	12.0	13.9
Turkey	3.4	–	–	–	3.5	3.6	3.8	3.8	3.9	4.0	4.2	4.3	4.4	4.5	4.5	4.2	4.4	4.6	4.5	4.1	3.9	6.5	4.1	4.3	4.7	4.7	5.1	5.5	5.4	5.6	5.6
United Kingdom	9.1	9.3	9.4	9.7	10.0	10.1	10.2	10.4	10.6	10.8	10.9	11.1	12.0	11.9	12.0	11.6	12.3	12.6	12.7	12.8	13.6	13.8	13.7	14.6	15.1	15.5	15.7	15.8	15.9	–	–
United States	13.9	13.9	14.2	14.5	14.7	14.8	14.8	14.8	14.8	15.2	15.5	15.7	15.8	16.2	16.6	16.7	16.9	16.8	16.7	16.8	17.1	17.0	16.5	16.2	16.0	15.2	14.6	14.1	13.8	13.7	13.7

NOTE: The Belgian and Greek series have been revised, starting in 1986, and use new sectoring inconsistent with pre–1986 data.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 7. Acute inpatient care admission rate, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Percent of population
Australia	12.5	–	–	12.8	–	–	15.9	16.4	16.8	17.6	–	–	–	–	19.4	–	19.7	20.0	20.3	20.4	–	–	–	–	20.5	20.9	–	21.2	–	22.3	–
Austria	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	17.3	18.3	18.6	19.0	19.3	19.8	20.6	20.8	20.5
Belgium	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	14.2	14.5	15.7	14.8	15.3	16.3	16.6	16.8	17.0	–
Canada	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	16.0	15.7	15.4	15.1	14.8	14.7	14.7	14.6	14.6	14.6	14.5	14.4	13.9	14.3	–
Denmark	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	14.3	–	–	–	–	16.8	–	17.5	17.8	17.5	17.6	17.4	18.0	18.5	18.8	19.2	19.6	19.8	20.2	20.4	20.5
Finland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	16.4	15.9	16.0	16.4	16.5	16.3
France	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	17.5	18.0	18.0	18.0	18.4	19.0	19.4	19.6	20.1	20.6	20.7
Germany	11.9	11.9	11.7	11.8	12.0	12.1	12.3	12.5	12.9	13.2	13.4	13.8	13.9	14.1	14.5	14.7	15.2	15.6	16.0	16.0	16.3	16.2	16.4	16.6	17.0	17.4	18.0	18.3	18.7	18.7	–
Greece	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Iceland	–	–	–	10.9	11.0	10.7	10.5	10.4	10.8	11.5	13.4	14.3	14.8	15.0	15.5	16.3	17.2	17.6	17.9	18.6	18.8	18.9	18.2	19.6	20.4	20.3	20.4	22.0	25.3	–	–
Ireland	–	–	–	–	–	12.2	11.8	11.8	12.8	13.7	15.6	16.4	17.0	17.2	17.7	18.5	19.5	16.2	16.7	16.7	17.2	17.6	17.6	17.4	17.1	16.1	16.0	14.5	13.9	14.4	14.9
Italy	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Japan	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Luxembourg	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	11.8	12.1	12.6	14.1	14.9	15.3	15.1	16.5	16.8	17.2	17.5	18.1	18.3	18.5	19.5	18.4
Netherlands	8.0	8.1	8.2	8.3	8.5	8.6	8.7	9.0	9.3	9.6	9.7	10.0	10.2	10.3	10.5	10.6	10.8	11.1	11.1	11.1	11.2	11.3	11.3	11.3	11.0	10.9	10.7	10.4	10.4	10.4	10.3
New Zealand	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Norway	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	14.3	14.2	14.3	14.5	14.8	15.2	15.1	14.8	14.9	14.4	–
Portugal	–	5.0	–	5.4	5.7	5.6	5.7	–	–	6.3	6.7	7.1	7.2	7.6	7.9	8.1	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	8.2	8.5	9.2	9.6	10.4	10.6
Spain	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	9.1	9.1	9.0	9.2	9.5	9.0	–
Sweden	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	14.4	–	–	–	–	14.9	15.3	15.2	15.4	15.4	15.5	15.8	16.0	16.2	16.5	16.9	16.4	16.8	16.8	16.4	16.3
Switzerland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	13.0	12.9	13.1	13.0	13.1	13.3	13.5	13.4	13.6	–	–
Turkey	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
United Kingdom	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	9.7	9.7	10.6	11.1	11.0	11.0	11.6	12.2	12.7	12.9	–	–	–	–
United States	12.7	12.7	13.0	13.4	13.5	13.6	13.7	13.6	13.6	13.9	14.3	14.4	14.7	15.0	15.4	15.5	15.6	15.6	15.5	15.6	15.9	15.9	15.7	15.4	14.9	14.0	13.4	13.0	12.8	12.5	12.4

NOTE: The Belgian series has been revised, starting in 1986, and uses new sectoring inconsistent with pre–1986 data.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 8. Average length–of–stay in inpatient care institutions, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Patient days per admission
Australia	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	15.0	–	13.9	–	12.9	–
Austria	24.8	24.4	24.8	24.0	24.2	24.0	23.8	23.3	24.3	22.5	22.2	21.5	21.6	21.1	21.0	20.4	20.1	19.8	19.0	18.6	17.9	17.6	15.2	14.8	14.6	14.1	13.7	13.4	12.9	12.4	11.9
Belgium	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	20.7	20.0	19.6	19.5	18.9	18.5	17.8	17.2	16.9	16.3	15.7	14.9	14.4	–
Canada	11.1	11.1	11.3	11.5	11.5	11.6	11.7	11.5	11.7	11.7	11.5	11.3	11.1	10.8	11.0	11.2	12.6	13.4	13.0	13.1	13.4	13.6	13.6	13.4	13.7	13.8	13.9	13.9	13.9	13.9	–
Denmark	–	–	–	22.2	20.6	20.1	20.0	19.4	19.0	18.5	18.1	17.3	16.9	15.8	15.9	14.6	–	13.8	13.5	13.1	12.7	12.4	11.9	11.5	11.0	10.7	10.2	9.1	8.6	8.2	8.0
Finland	31.7	32.5	32.1	32.2	31.8	30.1	30.7	30.0	29.9	28.1	27.3	26.2	26.3	26.1	25.9	26.0	24.7	23.7	23.3	23.2	23.2	22.5	22.2	20.5	20.3	19.3	18.9	18.4	19.9	19.2	18.2
France	–	22.8	22.6	22.0	21.7	21.1	20.7	20.1	19.6	18.9	18.3	17.3	16.2	16.0	15.6	15.0	14.4	14.0	13.8	13.8	16.8	16.5	16.3	15.8	15.2	14.6	14.0	13.5	13.1	12.8	12.4
Germany	28.7	28.6	28.7	28.2	27.7	27.4	26.8	26.4	25.9	25.3	24.9	24.3	23.9	23.4	22.7	22.2	21.5	20.8	20.3	20.1	19.7	19.2	18.7	18.6	18.4	18.0	17.5	17.1	16.6	16.2	–
Greece	–	18.8	18.5	18.9	17.6	17.0	15.9	15.2	15.2	14.4	15.0	15.2	14.6	14.4	14.5	14.5	14.5	13.4	13.7	13.3	13.3	13.2	13.0	12.2	12.1	12.0	11.6	11.3	10.7	10.8	–
Iceland	–	–	–	28.4	30.0	30.0	30.4	31.3	32.3	31.1	28.3	27.1	26.6	26.7	26.6	25.9	25.9	24.3	23.9	22.8	23.0	22.7	22.9	22.1	20.7	21.4	21.4	20.0	18.4	19.0	–
Ireland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	13.3	14.0	13.9	12.4	11.3	11.4	10.8	10.9	10.3	10.4	9.7	9.4	9.0	8.6	9.0	8.6	8.0	8.3	8.1	8.0	–
Italy	27.0	25.8	24.9	23.8	23.0	22.0	21.5	20.7	19.8	19.0	19.1	18.6	18.1	18.7	17.2	16.3	15.8	15.1	14.5	13.9	13.5	13.3	12.3	12.7	12.4	12.2	12.1	11.8	11.7	11.7	–
Japan	57.3	56.9	57.7	57.9	57.3	56.7	58.1	56.5	56.7	56.3	55.3	54.1	53.9	54.0	54.4	54.8	55.0	55.3	55.8	55.9	55.9	56.4	56.1	55.1	54.6	54.2	54.0	52.9	52.1	51.4	50.5
Luxembourg	29.0	29.0	29.0	29.0	26.0	28.0	28.0	28.0	28.0	28.0	27.0	26.0	26.0	25.0	24.0	25.0	24.0	23.1	22.7	23.1	23.2	23.0	21.0	21.0	20.0	20.4	19.8	19.0	18.4	17.4	17.6
Netherlands	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	39.4	38.5	38.2	37.8	37.7	37.4	37.1	36.8	35.9	35.9	35.3	35.2	34.7	34.4	34.1	33.9	34.3	34.3	34.4	34.8	34.8	34.3	34.1
New Zealand	18.9	18.8	18.3	17.4	17.4	17.0	16.7	16.4	16.5	16.1	–	15.4	14.7	13.9	14.5	13.2	12.9	13.2	13.3	14.1	13.8	12.6	12.3	12.4	12.0	12.7	12.9	9.5	9.8	9.8	–
Norway	–	–	–	26.3	26.0	25.7	25.3	24.8	24.0	23.6	21.0	19.4	19.0	18.3	17.4	16.9	16.7	16.3	15.7	15.0	14.3	13.8	12.9	12.6	12.2	11.6	11.3	11.1	10.1	9.1	–
Portugal	–	29.8	–	29.6	28.1	29.6	28.4	–	–	24.9	23.8	22.0	20.7	19.3	18.3	17.6	16.0	14.4	15.4	14.9	14.4	14.4	13.6	12.2	12.0	13.9	13.5	12.4	12.2	11.2	10.8
Spain	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	18.0	18.0	17.0	16.8	16.0	15.5	15.2	15.0	14.8	14.6	14.6	14.1	13.6	13.4	13.1	13.1	12.7	12.5	–
Sweden	31.8	31.7	31.4	30.4	29.9	29.2	28.7	28.3	26.9	27.4	27.2	27.2	27.4	27.1	25.9	25.8	25.0	24.6	24.9	24.6	24.4	23.0	22.9	22.7	22.7	21.3	20.8	19.7	19.3	18.6	18.0
Switzerland	31.7	–	–	–	–	27.5	–	–	–	–	26.0	–	26.4	26.2	25.7	25.8	25.8	25.8	25.4	25.2	24.7	25.3	25.4	25.4	24.6	24.4	23.7	25.2	–	–	–
Turkey	–	–	–	–	11.0	11.0	11.0	11.0	10.0	10.0	9.0	9.0	9.1	8.7	8.4	9.0	9.0	9.0	9.0	8.5	9.0	8.8	8.1	7.6	7.6	7.4	7.2	7.1	6.9	6.8	6.9
United Kingdom	35.9	34.4	33.4	32.1	30.9	30.1	29.7	28.5	28.0	26.6	25.7	24.5	23.9	23.6	23.0	22.9	22.1	21.3	20.8	20.3	19.1	18.6	18.3	17.4	16.5	15.8	15.2	15.0	–	–	14.5
United States	20.5	20.0	19.4	19.0	18.4	17.8	17.5	17.2	16.9	16.0	14.9	13.8	13.3	12.6	12.0	11.4	10.8	10.5	10.2	10.1	10.0	9.9	9.8	9.6	9.4	9.2	9.3	9.3	9.3	9.2	9.1

NOTE: The Belgian series has been revised, starting in 1986, and uses new sectoring inconsistent with pre–1986 data.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 9. Average length–of–stay in acute care inpatient institutions, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Patient days per admission
Australia	–	–	–	–	–	–	9.8	9.6	9.3	9.3	9.1	9.0	8.8	8.7	8.5	8.3	8.3	8.0	7.8	7.7	7.6	7.4	7.3	7.1	6.7	6.4	6.3	6.2	–	5.6	–
Austria	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	13.7	13.4	13.2	12.7	12.4	12.0	11.4	10.9	10.5
Belgium	–	–	–	–	–	14.4	14.5	14.4	14.4	14.9	15.6	14.9	15.1	14.6	14.8	11.4	10.8	10.5	10.2	10.1	10.0	9.9	9.8	9.6	–	–	10.9	10.5	10.3	10.0	–
Canada	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	9.4	9.6	9.8	9.9	10.2	10.4	10.4	10.3	10.6	10.7	10.8	10.9	10.8	10.5	–
Denmark	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	12.5	–	–	–	–	10.8	–	9.7	9.6	9.3	9.1	8.8	8.5	8.3	8.0	7.8	7.5	7.3	6.9	6.7	6.6
Finland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	8.3	7.9	7.6	7.6	7.3	7.0
France	–	–	20.0	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	16.0	–	–	–	–	12.0	–	–	–	–	9.9	9.7	9.4	9.0	8.7	8.3	8.0	7.6	7.3	7.2	7.0
Germany	21.6	21.4	21.3	20.7	20.2	20.0	19.5	19.3	19.0	18.6	18.3	17.9	17.8	17.6	17.2	16.7	16.3	15.8	15.5	15.2	14.9	14.7	14.4	14.2	14.1	13.9	13.5	13.1	12.7	12.4	–
Greece	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Iceland	–	–	–	20.3	19.8	19.9	20.1	20.4	20.7	20.2	18.6	18.1	18.2	18.5	18.5	18.0	17.5	17.2	17.0	16.1	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	7.7	6.5	6.3	–
Ireland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	13.3	14.0	13.9	12.4	11.3	11.4	10.8	10.9	10.3	10.4	9.7	–	7.6	7.5	7.5	7.5	7.4	7.4	7.3	7.0	6.9
Italy	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	11.2	–	–	–	–	–
Japan	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Luxembourg	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	13.6	12.5	14.3	13.7	13.3	13.0	13.1	12.6	12.1	11.9	11.9	11.5	11.5	11.4	10.7	11.0
Netherlands	20.1	20.0	19.9	19.8	19.4	20.4	20.6	20.1	19.7	19.3	18.8	18.2	17.7	17.0	16.6	16.1	15.4	15.2	14.8	14.4	14.0	13.7	13.3	13.0	12.8	12.5	12.3	12.1	11.9	11.5	11.2
New Zealand	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Norway	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	14.8	–	–	–	–	12.2	–	–	–	–	10.9	10.6	10.3	10.1	9.8	9.6	9.2	9.1	8.5	7.8	7.8
Portugal	19.5	19.0	–	16.7	17.6	19.0	18.2	–	–	15.9	15.3	14.6	13.8	13.1	12.7	12.5	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	11.1	10.4	9.7	9.4	8.6	8.4
Spain	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	8.9	10.1	9.9	10.0	9.8	9.7	–
Sweden	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	11.0	–	–	–	–	9.5	9.1	9.0	8.9	8.7	8.6	8.3	8.2	8.1	7.9	7.5	7.4	7.1	7.0	6.8	6.6
Switzerland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	15.0	–	–	–	–	15.5	15.4	15.1	15.1	15.0	14.7	14.2	14.5	14.2	14.0	13.4
Turkey	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	7.0	8.0	7.0	7.0	7.0	7.0	7.0	7.1	6.9	6.8	6.7	6.6	–	–	–	–
United Kingdom	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	9.8	9.8	8.7	8.5	8.9	8.8	8.5	8.2	8.0	7.8	–	–	–	–
United States	7.6	7.6	7.6	7.7	7.7	7.8	7.9	8.3	8.4	8.3	8.2	8.0	7.9	7.8	7.8	7.7	7.7	7.6	7.6	7.6	7.6	7.6	7.6	7.6	7.3	7.1	7.1	7.2	7.2	7.3	7.3

NOTE: The Belgian series has been revised, starting in 1986, and uses new sectoring inconsistent with pre–1986 data.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 10. Occupancy rates in inpatient care institutions, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Percent of available beds
Australia	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	81.4	–	–	–	–	81.8	–	–	–	–	77.7	–	–	–	–	74.6	81.2	–	80.0	–	82.4	–
Austria	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	86.8	86.4	85.4	85.1	83.7	81.8	83.9	84.4	84.4	84.7	84.3	84.4	83.9	82.5	81.9	81.9	82.1	82.4	82.4	82.8	82.2	81.7
Belgium	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	85.7	85.2	84.7	85.7	85.2	85.7	84.7	84.2	85.2	85.0	84.8	86.4	86.7	–
Canada	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	80.4	81.5	82.0	82.5	82.8	83.5	84.4	84.6	85.3	85.4	85.4	85.3	84.9	–	–
Denmark	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	80.6	81.9	80.2	78.7	78.7	79.6	81.4	82.7	82.8	81.9	81.1	81.2	80.9	82.2
Finland	92.2	91.4	90.8	91.9	93.6	93.2	93.3	91.9	92.8	91.7	91.0	90.9	93.1	92.8	91.3	88.9	85.8	85.9	84.8	84.1	86.0	84.3	84.9	85.4	84.9	85.3	83.6	83.8	83.7	83.6	–
France	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	72.1	–	–	–	–	74.5	74.2	72.8	78.2	80.7	81.8	81.5	80.5	81.2	80.9	80.4
Germany	93.0	92.9	92.2	91.5	91.7	91.3	90.7	90.4	89.5	88.9	88.5	88.5	87.4	86.6	85.7	83.3	82.6	82.9	84.1	84.5	84.9	84.2	83.5	83.1	84.8	85.8	86.6	86.6	86.5	86.0	–
Greece	–	–	–	–	–	–	75.0	75.0	76.0	77.0	76.0	76.0	77.0	74.0	75.0	73.0	70.0	65.0	68.0	66.0	69.0	69.0	70.0	68.0	69.0	70.0	72.0	72.0	71.0	66.0	–
Iceland	–	–	–	97.2	97.4	96.2	95.3	98.7	93.5	97.7	100.0	99.3	98.9	98.7	99.8	97.6	99.3	97.2	98.1	97.3	94.3	94.3	90.9	90.9	87.4	90.7	96.0	93.0	93.4	90.3	–
Ireland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	80.1	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Italy	78.6	78.4	79.5	80.0	79.9	80.8	80.3	80.3	79.7	79.5	77.9	78.2	79.2	79.5	77.8	76.6	74.6	72.7	70.5	69.5	68.9	68.3	67.0	66.4	67.2	67.8	69.1	70.1	70.2	68.4	–
Japan	80.7	–	–	–	–	82.6	82.5	82.7	82.7	82.2	81.6	80.8	81.0	81.2	80.4	80.5	81.1	81.7	82.0	83.0	83.3	83.5	84.2	84.6	85.6	85.8	85.7	85.1	84.1	83.8	83.6
Luxembourg	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Netherlands	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	90.9	90.5	92.3	91.6	90.6	90.2	89.5	88.8	88.9	88.9	88.5
New Zealand	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Norway	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	83.1	84.1	86.3	83.8	84.9	86.3	87.5	87.7	89.6	88.7	89.1	84.5	–
Portugal	–	77.7	–	78.4	76.4	79.2	76.9	–	–	73.2	74.1	72.8	70.5	68.6	69.2	72.0	74.3	71.2	68.3	68.9	62.6	68.1	65.6	67.1	65.3	69.2	71.3	68.4	70.2	69.3	69.4
Spain	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	69.0	70.0	68.1	69.0	69.2	68.8	68.4	68.9	70.0	71.5	72.9	73.7	74.6	75.2	74.1	76.4	77.1	76.0	–
Sweden	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	83.8	83.1	82.9	82.5	82.3	82.6	83.5	84.5	82.4	86.1	85.2	84.7	84.8	85.1	83.4	84.2
Switzerland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	83.6	84.3	84.6	85.2	84.3	84.7	83.9	85.9	–
Turkey	–	–	–	–	63.0	63.0	63.0	64.0	57.0	56.0	52.0	54.0	55.0	52.0	46.0	54.0	57.0	58.0	54.0	49.0	42.0	51.0	52.0	52.1	55.6	55.2	54.4	57.0	55.5	56.1	56.9
United Kingdom	85.4	84.4	85.0	85.5	84.7	84.6	84.2	83.9	83.2	83.2	82.1	82.2	82.0	80.1	80.3	79.7	80.6	80.8	80.9	81.4	81.4	81.1	79.3	79.3	80.5	80.8	80.6	–	–	–	–
United States	84.6	83.4	83.3	84.0	83.8	82.3	83.3	82.6	82.9	81.6	80.3	79.5	78.0	77.5	77.2	76.7	76.0	75.8	75.5	76.1	77.7	77.9	77.4	76.1	72.5	69.0	68.4	68.9	69.2	69.6	69.5

NOTE: The Belgian series has been revised, starting in 1986, and uses new sectoring inconsistent with pre–1986 data.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 11. Occupancy rates in acute inpatient care institutions, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Percent of available beds
Australia	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	74.0	–	–	–	–	73.0	–	–	–	–	66.2	–	–	–	–	61.8	69.3	–	69.9	–	71.1	–
Austria	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	80.8	80.7	81.1	81.4	81.6	81.5	81.3	80.9	80.2
Belgium	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	76.7	76.0	75.8	75.5	76.1	77.7	77.9	77.4	76.1	–	–	83.3	85.9	84.1	83.1	–
Canada	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	77.5	78.9	79.4	79.9	80.4	80.1	82.1	82.4	83.2	83.4	83.6	83.2	82.7	–	–
Denmark	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	77.7	79.1	77.6	76.5	75.9	77.1	78.8	81.3	80.8	80.3	80.3	80.5	80.4	–
Finland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	76.9	74.6	73.1	77.3	76.7	74.2
France	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	77.9	77.7	76.2	76.4	77.7	77.3
Germany	92.2	91.2	87.9	89.1	89.4	89.0	88.6	87.7	87.3	86.9	86.8	86.2	85.1	84.8	84.1	81.8	82.2	82.6	83.4	83.2	83.3	82.3	83.0	83.5	84.4	85.0	85.8	85.7	85.5	85.2	–
Greece	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Iceland	–	–	–	93.8	94.3	93.4	92.7	96.2	90.7	94.7	98.3	95.7	95.3	95.2	96.1	94.1	95.3	95.3	93.4	93.0	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	77.0	73.7	70.3	–
Ireland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	79.2	74.8	74.8	68.1	76.3	79.1	82.2	84.1	85.1
Italy	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Japan	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Luxembourg	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Netherlands	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	89.8	89.9	88.2	86.2	85.7	85.1	84.5	84.4	84.6	83.7	83.5	82.4	85.1	82.9	80.3	79.1	77.3	75.0	74.2	74.3	73.2
New Zealand	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Norway	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	79.3	77.3	77.9	79.9	81.4	82.0	79.0	77.0	77.4	77.1	–
Portugal	–	73.1	–	65.4	69.9	73.4	71.7	–	–	68.6	68.7	70.2	65.7	65.6	65.8	70.9	–	–		–	–	–	–	–	–	67.7	66.3	66.1	66.9	66.1	66.7
Spain	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–		–	–	–	–	–	71.3	72.2	70.4	73.4	74.5	73.0	–
Sweden	–	65.4	69.9	73.4	71.7	–	–	68.6	68.7	–	–	–	–	–	–	76.6	76.1	75.8	74.6	76.0	75.7	75.7	77.5	78.2	79.3	78.7	77.8	78.6	78.7	75.5	75.9
Switzerland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	77.9	78.1	80.0	79.0	78.8	80.0	79.6	80.0	80.6	79.6	79.0
Turkey	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	49.0	54.0	55.0	50.0	44.0	40.0	43.0	47.0	48.8	52.5	52.7	53.0	–	–	57.0	–
United Kingdom	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	74.5	74.4	75.0	75.1	75.3	74.6	75.0	75.4	76.1	76.2	–	–	–	–
United States	74.7	74.3	75.1	76.0	76.3	76.0	76.5	77.6	78.2	78.8	78.0	76.7	75.2	75.4	75.3	74.8	74.4	73.6	73.5	73.8	75.4	75.9	75.2	73.4	68.9	64.8	64.2	64.9	65.5	66.2	66.8

NOTE: The Belgian series has been revised, starting in 1986, and uses new sectoring inconsistent with pre–1986 data.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 12. Inpatient medical care beds, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Average daily census
Australia	–	–	–	–	98,901	102,583	105,410	109,181	111,995	114,923	118,337	123,992	133,719	137,610	142,051	143,674	146,089	148,156	151,331	155,894	159,961	162,843	164,711	167,073	168,601	169,366	168,960	165,842	165,221	164,411	–
Austria	76,170	76,398	77,067	77,693	78,239	78,520	78,422	78,703	79,293	80,269	80,549	81,348	81,391	83,136	86,746	85,461	84,856	84,790	84,959	85,204	84,382	84,310	82,957	83,141	83,572	82,388	82,443	81,721	80,984	80,462	78,945
Belgium	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	80,392	–	83,448	–	87,164	87,457	87,859	89,596	90,291	91,889	92,436	92,686	92,138	91,638	90,790	89,589	88,554	–	93,245	97,844	–
Canada	110,829	114,529	121,131	127,893	131,319	133,930	136,791	140,370	143,385	145,424	148,810	151,096	152,959	153,471	156,890	161,573	162,215	163,085	164,602	164,348	165,580	170,250	171,365	173,462	174,508	174,397	174,875	174,606	173,778	173,000	–
Denmark	–	37,200	37,400	39,700	37,600	37,800	38,700	38,700	39,300	39,800	40,100	40,600	41,700	41,900	42,900	42,900	43,400	42,500	43,497	42,955	42,504	40,182	39,273	37,900	36,405	35,976	35,606	32,325	31,267	30,229	29,104
Finland	50,956	57,506	58,297	59,329	59,940	61,723	63,187	64,567	65,544	67,725	69,376	69,467	69,653	70,269	70,301	71,115	72,418	72,547	73,667	74,513	74,381	74,441	75,026	74,796	68,938	68,704	68,220	67,246	66,645	64,412	62,424
France	–	–	451,571	–	–	–	–	487,292	–	–	–	–	477,259	–	548,543	556,896	562,660	572,071	580,926	594,085	597,800	604,031	601,436	594,232	588,377	579,750	574,612	569,184	568,905	558,693	552,755
Germany	583,513	594,642	613,641	615,685	619,388	631,447	640,372	649,590	665,546	677,695	683,254	690,236	701,263	707,460	716,530	729,791	726,846	722,953	714,879	712,055	707,710	695,603	683,624	682,747	678,708	674,742	674,384	673,687	672,834	669,750	–
Greece	48,239	48,779	49,247	49,786	48,363	50,323	51,638	52,173	53,260	53,733	54,633	56,232	55,958	56,118	56,885	58,501	58,574	58,994	59,100	60,073	60,067	59,914	58,938	57,496	57,081	54,438	52,864	51,575	51,587	51,448	51,329
Iceland	1,727	1,740	1,800	1,944	2,132	2,157	2,187	2,200	2,628	2,610	2,643	2,715	2,822	2,893	2,975	3,125	3,159	3,225	3,350	3,369	3,386	3,382	3,535	3,656	3,792	3,819	3,822	3,877	4,010	4,217	–
Ireland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	37,200	35,500	34,500	33,500	34,000	33,800	33,300	33,600	33,531	33,102	32,624	32,718	32,508	31,960	31,404	29,320	28,435	25,906	22,751	21,217	–
Italy	445,216	455,245	466,132	478,825	489,450	498,337	509,359	521,942	535,555	551,585	564,397	570,382	573,733	575,953	580,195	585,875	585,053	577,963	568,126	558,462	548,428	535,741	522,314	508,742	495,054	479,638	457,210	441,682	432,302	412,059	–
Japan	852,025	890,254	932,715	984,313	1,030,457	1,077,971	1,130,930	1,188,997	1,239,685	1,276,825	1,312,628	1,338,339	1,364,001	–	–	1,428,482	1,451,972	1,477,199	1,510,702	1,552,812	1,607,482	1,647,818	1,688,152	1,726,496	1,750,768	1,778,979	1,816,194	1,860,595	1,911,152	1,938,980	1,949,493
Luxembourg	3,729	3,812	3,890	3,925	4,058	4,126	4,114	4,254	4,297	4,306	4,289	4,246	4,274	4,196	4,225	4,170	4,225	4,391	4,603	4,539	4,667	4,778	4,816	4,740	4,688	4,587	4,616	4,661	4,669	4,642	4,483
Netherlands	125,900	127,600	129,300	131,000	133,500	136,000	138,500	141,000	143,400	145,400	148,550	151,300	156,306	162,216	165,793	166,731	168,674	169,856	171,146	172,494	173,462	174,512	171,775	172,122	172,420	172,390	172,625	172,650	172,684	172,326	172,060
New Zealand	27,789	27,774	27,756	27,905	28,038	28,247	28,932	29,309	29,212	29,554	30,337	30,513	30,916	31,959	31,577	32,485	32,397	32,636	32,552	32,537	32,035	31,637	31,586	31,653	31,344	30,999	30,397	30,433	29,803	29,200	–
Norway	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	63,020	–	66,345	–	–	67,585	67,776	67,227	66,725	66,298	66,539	66,969	66,373	64,385	61,426	–
Portugal	48,249	48,821	48,619	52,493	53,709	53,669	54,816	55,528	55,927	55,395	54,514	54,427	53,524	54,478	53,454	52,268	52,047	51,449	52,327	51,701	51,254	51,246	51,173	51,274	50,210	45,818	46,066	46,448	46,062	45,883	–
Spain	–	–	135,293	156,819	–	–	–	–	–	–	157,598	159,254	177,385	180,547	185,218	190,444	194,097	200,139	202,043	203,819	201,035	193,895	189,450	181,794	179,192	175,410	171,860	171,155	170,076	163,241	–
Sweden	102,394	104,736	105,882	106,953	109,071	110,142	110,984	112,739	114,569	117,790	119,679	117,349	117,996	117,934	118,967	118,324	118,972	118,836	119,246	117,235	117,657	116,739	116,528	116,688	115,859	114,202	111,091	115,030	112,094	109,749	106,500
Switzerland	67,722	–	–	–	–	71,742	–	–	–	–	69,932	–	–	–	–	72,438	72,300	72,300	72,000	72,000	71,900	72,900	74,600	71,500	72,800	72,400	73,000	72,100	65,800	63,759	–
Turkey	45,807	–	–	–	55,126	55,316	57,833	59,173	64,966	69,263	71,210	74,556	77,108	81,175	83,693	81,264	82,945	83,027	86,526	96,752	99,117	97,765	96,138	99,396	100,496	103,918	107,152	111,135	113,010	116,061	120,738
United Kingdom	–	543,457	532,922	533,404	537,151	537,210	534,009	532,898	533,001	528,917	524,682	516,097	509,926	505,620	496,482	488,006	479,359	469,849	470,900	463,400	458,000	454,923	452,600	446,400	430,815	421,195	409,962	388,711	372,900	365,000	–
United States	1,658,000	1,670,000	1,689,000	1,702,000	1,696,000	1,703,500	1,679,000	1,671,000	1,663,000	1,650,000	1,615,800	1,555,600	1,549,700	1,534,700	1,512,700	1,465,800	1,433,500	1,407,100	1,380,600	1,371,800	1,364,516	1,361,513	1,359,783	1,350,361	1,338,741	1,318,630	1,290,316	1,267,000	1,248,342	1,226,622	1,213,327

NOTE: The Belgian series has been revised, starting in 1986, and uses new sectoring inconsistent with pre–1986 data.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 13. Acute inpatient medical care beds, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Average daily census
Australia	–	–	–	–	70,216	71,293	72,335	73,644	74,112	74,756	75,434	77,242	82,433	84,194	87,631	88,918	90,511	91,644	92,849	94,456	94,672	94,931	94,137	94,361	94,018	94,164	93,251	89,910	89,796	89,632	–
Austria	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	51,026	50,718	50,700	50,230	49,799	49,137	48,442	47,329	46,041
Belgium	55,214	–	–	–	–	60,528	–	–	–	–	45,828	–	48,167	–	50,417	50,706	51,267	52,338	52,827	53,477	53,889	54,749	57,476	57,729	57,506	57,693	57,825	54,992	55,922	55,721	–
Canada	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	128,130	128,791	129,677	129,150	130,435	131,592	130,726	132,216	133,241	134,818	134,028	134,368	131,833	135,576	–
Denmark	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	27,569	27,732	28,786	29,646	29,480	30,418	29,981	29,442	29,418	28,459	27,832	27,123	26,024	25,829	25,661	25,405	24,519	23,917	–
Finland	17,082	–	–	–	–	19,886	–	–	–	–	22,300	–	–	–	–	22,546	23,019	22,878	23,077	23,541	23,456	23,440	23,116	23,216	23,497	23,502	22,669	22,394	22,456	22,042	21,659
France	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	323,529	330,780	334,125	337,206	339,651	336,670	334,796	334,008	329,943	323,355	318,921	312,548	309,189	305,299	300,613	297,500	292,852
Germany	399,839	407,589	419,034	416,882	417,738	422,199	425,270	434,299	447,345	454,055	457,004	465,946	475,555	481,142	486,326	489,756	489,517	487,566	484,776	478,888	476,652	473,804	466,943	463,671	463,404	462,124	461,320	459,131	456,041	452,283	–
Greece	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Iceland	1,240	1,253	1,421	1,179	1,182	1,206	1,235	1,258	1,417	1,405	1,400	1,507	1,592	1,676	1,722	1,820	1,831	1,937	1,935	1,954	–	1,976	–	–	–	–	–	1,206	1,232	1,226	–
Ireland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	19,437	19,128	19,183	19,100	19,080	19,158	18,857	17,223	16,876	15,225	13,632	12,118	–
Italy	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Japan	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Luxembourg	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	2,745	2,695	2,722	2,722	2,671
Netherlands	58,000	58,900	59,500	60,408	61,500	65,300	68,200	69,782	70,093	71,976	72,359	73,823	75,496	75,545	75,302	74,645	74,260	74,244	74,028	73,808	73,150	72,848	69,612	69,602	68,989	68,461	67,970	67,411	66,961	65,808	64,580
New Zealand	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Norway	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	22,457	–	22,652	–	–	21,883	21,793	21,285	29,689	20,248	20,224	20,218	20,043	18,790	17,576	–
Portugal	31,726	31,959	32,544	34,255	35,644	35,707	36,330	–	–	36,515	36,157	37,142	37,175	37,538	37,813	36,747	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	36,650	36,392	36,615	36,505	36,588	35,922
Spain	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	135,441	134,140	134,065	133,381	132,528	128,764	–
Sweden	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	42,032	41,768	41,420	41,280	40,402	40,147	39,628	38,607	38,281	37,471	36,925	35,777	35,097	34,680	34,540	33,503
Switzerland	43,571	–	–	–	–	46,647	–	–	–	–	44,072	–	–	–	–	44,912	–	–	–	44,502	45,267	44,800	44,744	44,081	44,339	43,850	44,329	44,066	43,921	38,746	43,851
Turkey	–	–	–	–	30,805	31,813	33,824	35,015	39,523	42,521	44,908	47,281	48,676	53,378	55,649	54,585	55,760	54,621	58,543	60,095	64,934	65,486	62,391	65,526	75,658	79,174	82,651	90,697	94,687	98,027	100,818
United Kingdom	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	166,854	165,407	164,436	163,561	163,627	164,353	165,448	166,122	162,958	160,630	–	–	–	–
United States	639,100	658,521	676,795	698,191	720,810	741,300	758,000	778,000	796,000	816,000	848,200	866,519	883,700	903,300	931,200	947,000	961,200	973,900	979,700	987,700	992,075	1,006,774	1,015,180	1,021,371	1,019,751	1,003,138	982,540	961,490	949,462	935,763	929,000

NOTE: The Belgian series has been revised, starting in 1986, and uses new sectoring inconsistent with pre–1986 data.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 14. Practicing physicians, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Number of active physicians
Australia	10,881	–	–	–	–	13,085	13,873	–	–	–	–	16,105	–	–	–	–	20,480	–	–	–	–	27,127	–	–	–	–	32,789	–	–	–	–
Austria	9,573	9,851	9,995	10,063	10,086	10,119	10,169	10,222	10,062	10,079	10,137	10,153	10,154	10,416	10,575	10,834	11,012	11,386	11,623	11,705	12,017	12,374	12,747	13,066	13,400	13,898	14,215	14,512	15,111	15,814	16,425
Belgium	11,730	12,394	12,888	13,236	13,473	13,793	14,176	14,517	14,922	14,991	–	14,887	15,888	16,478	17,272	18,506	19,872	20,725	22,143	23,415	24,536	25,629	26,593	27,726	28,828	29,993	30,942	31,718	32,571	33,442	34,275
Canada	–	21,290	23,248	24,082	24,847	25,481	26,528	27,544	28,209	29,659	31,166	32,942	34,508	35,923	37,297	39,104	40,130	41,398	42,238	43,192	44,275	45,542	47,384	48,860	49,916	51,948	53,207	55,275	57,405	58,942	59,409
Denmark	5,650	–	5,900	6,200	6,300	6,450	6,650	6,800	7,000	7,100	7,200	7,500	8,100	8,500	9,000	9,397	9,900	10,250	10,548	10,845	11,143	12,120	12,463	–	12,806	12,975	13,144	13,144	13,678	–	14,277
Finland	2,520	2,640	2,760	2,900	3,010	3,160	3,390	3,530	3,740	4,020	4,320	4,630	4,960	5,280	5,680	6,130	6,470	6,970	7,480	7,870	8,330	8,810	9,290	9,793	9,979	10,193	10,556	10,889	11,212	11,823	12,091
France	44,600	46,492	48,465	58,522	52,665	54,900	56,819	59,065	60,861	62,989	65,191	68,778	70,711	73,552	77,143	80,954	86,306	91,442	97,168	104,073	108,054	113,000	118,000	122,500	125,000	128,000	132,138	138,835	143,438	148,089	152,096
Germany	79,350	80,825	82,097	83,025	84,203	85,801	86,700	88,559	90,882	93,934	99,654	103,910	107,403	110,980	114,661	118,726	122,075	125,274	130,033	135,711	139,431	142,934	146,221	147,467	153,895	160,902	165,015	171,487	177,001	188,225	–
Greece	10,424	10,423	10,723	11,265	11,980	12,072	12,383	12,839	13,159	13,712	14,263	14,883	15,351	16,984	17,942	18,421	19,340	20,484	21,320	22,337	23,469	24,724	25,909	27,607	28,212	29,103	30,481	33,290	32,145	33,151	–
Iceland	205	212	224	228	232	238	239	241	254	263	291	305	333	343	372	400	408	424	439	459	488	509	532	545	574	626	632	665	675	715	–
Ireland	–	2,952	–	–	–	–	3,011	–	–	–	–	3,565	–	–	–	3,758	3,925	–	–	4,174	4,440	5,119	–	–	5,160	5,754	5,682	5,155	5,223	–	–
Italy	26,459	27,815	29,342	30,695	32,074	33,571	35,016	36,355	37,631	39,394	41,961	44,370	47,205	50,700	54,242	56,541	57,619	60,032	63,580	67,186	67,744	69,452	71,617	70,192	68,269	69,000	70,133	72,121	75,602	76,367	–
Japan	96,038	97,329	98,562	99,471	101,021	102,015	103,956	104,990	107,028	109,595	113,214	116,746	119,084	120,107	122,096	125,970	128,448	131,628	136,164	143,125	148,815	155,422	160,379	–	173,452	–	183,129	–	193,682	–	203,797
Luxembourg	318	322	326	329	331	338	346	349	359	365	384	397	403	410	425	452	456	455	530	575	621	563	605	627	637	663	686	666	709	744	766
Netherlands	12,809	13,027	13,238	13,642	13,904	14,362	14,550	14,774	15,128	15,644	16,292	17,381	18,142	19,330	20,200	21,892	22,913	23,769	24,878	25,947	26,987	28,037	28,807	29,951	31,185	32,193	33,330	34,573	35,852	36,042	37,461
New Zealand	2,573	2,573	–	–	–	–	2,838	–	–	–	–	3,080	–	3,444	–	–	4,048	4,257	4,377	4,557	4,881	5,037	–	5,403	5,437	5,556	5,747	6,095	6,174	6,286	–
Norway	4,260	–	4,215	4,215	4,556	4,681	4,847	5,020	5,175	5,412	5,361	5,690	6,005	6,367	6,602	6,899	7,140	7,485	7,648	7,813	8,050	8,311	8,630	8,691	8,934	9,176	9,443	10,482	–	–	13,234
Portugal	7,075	7,368	7,673	7,541	7,561	7,820	7,619	7,838	8,482	8,019	8,156	8,410	8,972	9,111	10,312	11,101	11,863	13,816	15,958	18,088	19,332	20,997	22,009	22,917	24,095	24,629	25,696	26,381	26,869	27,608	28,016
Spain	35,685	36,562	37,374	37,743	39,064	39,709	40,840	41,932	42,460	44,102	45,335	47,419	49,256	51,594	52,016	54,533	64,597	69,080	75,081	81,658	86,253	96,569	104,759	115,251	121,362	127,195	131,080	135,406	138,994	143,803	148,717
Sweden	7,130	7,376	7,630	7,970	8,220	8,520	8,840	9,240	9,840	10,380	10,560	11,250	11,920	12,610	13,260	14,050	14,650	15,410	16,340	16,840	18,300	19,000	19,500	20,100	21,259	21,596	23,154	23,900	24,000	24,200	24,600
Switzerland	7,227	7,368	7,493	7,618	7,771	7,771	7,977	8,128	8,308	8,599	8,890	9,319	9,845	10,366	10,904	11,466	12,118	12,715	13,460	14,381	15,094	15,865	–	–	16,878	17,600	18,319	18,667	19,257	19,433	20,030
Turkey	8,214	8,998	11,077	11,231	10,051	10,895	11,335	11,875	12,689	13,336	13,843	16,514	17,034	18,511	20,868	21,714	23,588	23,920	25,230	26,298	27,241	28,411	30,956	32,263	34,195	36,427	37,442	38,829	43,502	46,708	50,639
United Kingdom	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	68,704	70,404	71,614	72,980	73,824	74,912	75,595	76,163	78,236	80,216	–
United States	259,400	264,659	271,700	289,189	297,089	305,115	313,559	322,045	330,111	338,379	326,500	337,400	348,300	355,700	370,000	384,500	399,500	405,900	424,000	440,400	457,500	466,600	482,000	501,100	506,400	534,400	544,800	560,300	573,600	577,200	601,100

NOTE: For Italy, includes public hospital–based physicians only.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Selected variations in common medical care practice

Table 15. Mean length–of–stay in days for disease categories, by country: 1988.

International Classification of Disease categories	Australia	Austria	Belgium	Canada	Denmark	Finland	France	Germany	Greece	Iceland	Ireland	Italy	Japan	Luxembourg	Netherlands	New Zealand	Norway	Portugal	Spain	Sweden	Switzerland	Turkey	United Kingdom	United States
Infectious and parasitic diseases (001 –139)	–	13.6	9.0	9.6	6.7	13.0	–	15.4	8.0	–	6.2	–	–	–	13.9	5.9	7.3	–	14.4	6.4	13.1	11.2	7.3	8.1
Neoplasms (140–239)	–	11.2	11.6	15.1	8.0	10.7	–	14.3	11.0	–	10.7	15.2	–	–	14.4	10.5	9.7	–	14.8	9.9	15.8	11.4	9.5	8.5
Endocrine and metabolic diseases (240–279)	–	13.8	11.0	13.7	9.6	14.4	–	17.4	10.0	–	8.4	13.3	–	–	15.4	17.3	8.7	–	14.0	9.3	19.6	8.7	13.4	7.5
Diseases of the blood (280–289)	–	12.0	9.4	9.8	7.9	9.9	–	14.8	3.0	–	6.7	10.8	–	–	12.2	7.0	6.5	–	12.6	8.0	12.9	7.1	8.9	6.2
Mental disorders (290–319)	–	22.6	16.8	32.2	10.8	44.5	–	35.0	111.0		12.8	20.0	–	–	36.6	36.9	–	–	98.3	10.7	20.1	24.9	216.7	13.0
Diseases of the nervous system (320–389)	–	14.1	8.2	21.6	6.5	13.5	–	13.2	10.0	–	5.6	11.9	–	–	9.3	16.4	6.9	–	13.2	5.9	12.3	8.1	11.8	5.4
Diseases of the circulatory system (390–459)	–	14.0	11.3	20.1	11.5	23.1	–	18.9	10.0	–	11.1	13.9	–	–	13.7	20.4	10.6	–	14.2	9.6	19.5	8.4	17.5	7.5
Diseases of the respiratory system (460–519)	–	9.5	8.4	8.7	6.7	14.9	–	11.2	7.0	–	7.3	10.8	–	–	9.8	7.4	6.5	–	9.8	5.9	12.1	6.9	9.8	6.6
Diseases of the digestive system (520–579)	–	11.0	8.4	7.6	6.4	8.3	–	13.4	9.0	–	5.9	10.6	–	–	11.6	6.5	6.4	–	11.0	6.6	11.5	7.1	7.5	6.2
Diseases of the genito–urinary system (580–629)	–	8.9	6.8	6.6	5.1	7.1	–	11.0	7.0	–	5.1	9.5	–	–	8.9	5.3	5.1	–	8.8	5.7	9.2	7.2	5.0	5.3
Complications of pregnancy and childbirth (630–676)	–	6.4	6.8	4.3	4.2	5.6	–	6.4	5.0	–	3.4	6.3	–	–	6.3	4.9	5.3	–	4.6	5.5	7.7	2.6	3.5	2.7
Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue (680–709)	–	9.2	12.2	9.7	8.0	11.7	–	15.9	8.0	–	5.3	10.1	–	–	15.2	9.2	10.6	–	9.4	11.3	12.8	7.8	10.5	8.1
Diseases of the musculo–skeletal system and connective tissue (710–739)	–	13.7	9.9	11.6	10.8	10.8	–	19.0	12.0	–	7.6	12.8	–	–	10.8	11.2	10.2	–	13.5	9.7	15.9	12.5	11.3	6.3
Congenital anomalies (740–759)	–	–	7.2	9.8	5.2	7.1	–	12.3	8.0	–	6.3	8.9	–	–	8.9	10.2	6.1	–	10.4	6.2	10.5	10.2	9.9	5.9
Certain causes of perinatal morbidity and mortality (760–779)	–	12.2	12.4	13.0	10.2	9.4	–	18.7	9.0	–	11.8	9.2	–	–	10.1	10.4	9.5	–	10.1	11.2	11.6	4.8	6.7	12.4
Symptoms of ill–defined conditions (780–799)	–	–	6.3	8.3	5.7	7.6	–	14.1	5.0	–	4.2	9.0	–	–	9.8	7.9	8.1	–	9.2	4.6	8.5	14.1	24.9	3.3
Accidents, poisoning, and violence (800–999)	–	10.1	9.2	10.6	8.3	12.0	–	14.5	7.0	–	5.7	8.0	–	–	14.2	10.1	4.0	–	11.7	8.6	12.6	5.2	9.1	6.8
All other	–	13.1	6.2	17.2	3.9	7.4	–	–	–	–	5.1	7.4	–	–	5.9	6.3	–	–	8.6	5.0	8.0	–	11.9	3.3
All categories (001–999)	–	11.8	9.3	11.9	7.2	13.1	–	15.2	11.0	–	6.9	11.2	–	–	–	10.1	7.6	–	12.3	7.5	13.8	6.9	20.0	6.5

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 16. Mean length–of–stay in days for selected disease subcategories, by country: 1988.

International Classification of Disease categories	Australia	Austria	Belgium	Canada	Denmark	Finland	France	Germany	Greece	Iceland	Ireland	Italy	Japan	Luxembourg	Netherland	New Zealand	Norway	Portugal	Spain	Sweden	Switzerland	Turkey	United Kingdom	United States
Pulmonary tuberculosis (011)	–	31.8	19.1	28.2	–	22.5	–	56.0	20.0	–	15.1	–	–	–	–	16.1	17.9	–	34.2	–	30.5	47.6	17.2	15.5
Trachea, bronchus and lung cancer (162)	–	–	11.2	13.6	–	11.8	–	16.0	11.0	–	14.4	–	–	–	–	11.0	11.2	–	16.8	–	15.9	16.4	10.4	9.5
Breast cancer (174)	–	–	11.7	13.3	–	12.1	–	11.5	6.0	–	13.2	–	–	–	–	10.0	9.2	–	14.0	–	19.2	–	9.3	5.6
Prostate cancer (185)	–	–	13.8	18.7	–	13.8	–	16.6	11.0	–	14.1	–	–	–	–	12.3	10.2	–	18.7	–	17.7	10.8	12.0	6.8
Diabetes mellitus (250)	–	–	11.9	15.3	–	16.4	–	22.2	11.0	–	7.7	–	–	–	–	17.0	9.5	–	15.1	–	24.5	9.1	14.4	8.2
Cataract (366)	–	–	6.5	3.2	–	6.6	–	9.2	6.0	–	5.6	–	–	–	–	4.4	4.8	–	9.8	–	8.6	7.1	9.0	1.4
Otitis (380–382)	–	–	4.0	4.1	–	3.1	–	6.1	7.0	–	2.0	–	–	–	–	2.4	3.6	–	5.6	–	–	7.5	1.8	2.3
Hypertension (401 –405)	–	–	9.5	11.6	–	12.4	–	18.6	8.0	–	7.5	–	–	–	–	9.8	7.5	–	11.2	–	16.8	7.8	12.2	5.2
Acute myocardial infarction (410)	–	–	12.5	13.2	–	25.3	–	19.9	10.0	–	11.3	–	–	–	–	10.7	–	–	14.3	–	17.1	–	11.9	9.0
Pneumococcal pneumonia (481)	–	–	11.8	10.7	–	13.4	–	14.6	–	–	10.4	–	–	–	–	10.7	–	–	13.0	–	16.5	–	13.5	7.4
Bronchitis (490–491)	–	–	13.0	10.4	–	12.7	–	16.7	8.0	–	7.5	–	–	–	–	9.3	9.2	–	11.7	–	17.1	–	11.9	6.1
Asthma (493)	–	–	8.6	4.9	–	7.1	–	17.8	–	–	4.8	–	–	–	–	3.7	5.8	–	8.3	–	14.6	–	4.0	4.8
Ulcers of stomach and small intestine (531 –34)	–	–	11.4	9.8	–	10.3	–	18.0	10.0	–	6.4	–	–	–	–	10.1	8.0	–	12.0	–	14.3	–	11.1	7.2
Appendicitis (540–543)	–	–	6.6	5.2	–	4.9	–	8.8	6.0	–	5.4	–	–	–	–	4.9	4.2	–	7.8	–	7.7	6.0	7.3	5.2
Inguinal hernia (550–554)	–	–	7.7	5.3	–	4.9	–	12.2	7.0	–	4.8	–	–	–	–	5.4	3.3	–	12.0	–	–	7.0	6.2	2.5
Cholelithiasis (574)	–	–	12.6	8.5	–	9.2	–	17.2	11.0	–	9.9	–	–	–	–	8.1	7.7	–	14.1	–	14.5	9.1	8.9	6.5
Nephritis (580–584)	–	–	10.1	16.7	–	9.6	–	15.8	11.0	–	11.3	–	–	–	–	14.2	8.7	–	13.1	–	–	9.3	10.4	7.5
Calculus of kidney and ureter (592)	–	–	5.5	5.0	–	5.0	–	9.5	5.0	–	5.9	–	–	–	–	7.2	4.8	–	10.2	–	6.8	8.9	5.5	3.1
Cystitis (595)	–	–	7.9	6.8	–	7.8	–	12.1	6.0	–	4.1	–	–	–	–	4.9	–	–	9.8	–	12.4	–	4.7	6.0
Normal delivery (650)	–	–	7.0	3.9	–	6.2	–	5.8	5.0	–	–	–	–	–	–	5.0	–	–	4.2	–	8.1	2.0	3.5	2.1
Major puerperal infection (670)	–	–	4.7	4.9	–	5.2	–	4.9	4.0	–	–	–	–	–	–	3.7	–	–	5.5	–	10.5	–	2.8	3.8
Osteoarthritis (715)	–	–	10.7	19.8	–	13.2	–	25.8	–	–	9.9	–	–	–	–	16.5	14.8	–	19.9	–	21.6	–	21.6	9.8
Intervertebral disc disorder (722)	–	–	10.7	8.1	–	7.5	–	19.1	–	–	9.7	–	–	–	–	9.6	9.6	–	14.4	–	18.3	–	10.6	5.9
Fracture of neck of femur (820)	–	–	–	30.0	–	31.8	–	–	–	–	18.2	–	–	–	–	36.1	16.5	–	24.1	–	31.3	–	29.6	13.4

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 17. Hospital staffing ratio, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Number of personnel per occupied bed
Australia	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	3.15	–	–	–	–	3.27	–	–	–	–	–	3.75	–	3.88	–	3.91	–
Austria	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.40	0.40	0.40	0.40	0.40	0.50	0.50	0.50	0.60	0.60	0.60	0.60	0.60	0.60	0.60	0.70	0.70	0.70	0.70	0.80	0.85
Belgium	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.85	–	0.96	–	1.03	–	1.03	–	1.07	–	1.11	–	1.19	–	–	–
Canada	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	2.00	2.00	2.00	2.05	2.09	2.08	2.10	2.10	2.20	2.20	2.25	2.30	2.40	–	–
Denmark	–	–	–	–	–	1.32	–	–	–	–	1.59	–	–	–	–	1.86	–	–	–	–	2.08	2.12	2.24	2.36	2.30	2.30	2.40	2.63	2.72	2.82	2.83
Finland	1.07	1.06	1.06	1.10	1.11	1.17	1.24	1.24	1.32	1.35	1.37	1.40	1.44	1.58	1.63	1.66	1.74	1.66	1.71	1.75	1.80	1.83	1.86	1.84	1.83	1.86	1.90	1.88	1.87	–	–
France	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.75	–	–	–	–	0.99	–	–	–	–	1.25	1.29	1.34	1.37	–	0.98	1.00	1.02	1.04	1.06	1.09
Germany	0.62	0.62	0.62	0.65	0.68	0.69	0.72	0.74	0.75	0.77	0.80	0.85	0.87	0.91	0.96	0.97	0.97	0.98	1.01	1.04	1.08	1.11	1.14	1.16	1.18	1.21	1.23	1.25	1.27	1.31	–
Greece	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.63	0.62	0.61	0.64	0.66	0.69	0.70	0.70	0.74	0.70	0.70	0.70	0.70	0.88	0.92	0.77	0.82	0.88	1.00	1.09	1.17	1.73	1.55	1.48
Iceland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Ireland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.50	1.50	1.50	1.70	–
Italy	0.39	0.40	0.41	0.43	0.44	0.46	0.47	0.48	0.49	0.51	0.55	0.60	0.65	0.70	0.75	0.79	0.84	0.88	0.92	0.97	1.01	1.06	1.10	1.10	1.10	1.20	1.20	1.30	1.30	1.41	–
Japan	0.54	–	–	–	–	0.57	–	–	–	0.59	0.60	0.61	0.62	0.63	0.65	0.67	0.69	0.71	0.72	0.74	0.75	0.76	0.77	0.77	0.78	0.79	0.80	0.77	0.77	0.78	0.79
Luxembourg	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Netherlands	1.14	–	–	–	–	1.25	–	–	–	–	1.52	–	–	–	–	1.96	–	–	–	–	1.80	1.83	1.92	1.90	1.91	1.93	1.96	1.99	2.00	2.06	2.13
New Zealand	1.36	–	–	–	–	1.63	–	–	–	–	1.78	–	–	–	–	1.97	–	–	–	–	1.74	1.80	1.86	1.86	1.89	1.91	1.89	2.00	–	–	–
Norway	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.98	2.03	2.11	–	–	2.48	2.48	2.40	2.55	2.78	–
Portugal	0.24	–	–	–	–	0.55	–	–	–	–	0.67	–	–	–	–	0.95	–	–	–	–	1.18	1.31	1.38	1.37	1.40	1.70	1.70	1.70	1.75	1.82	1.90
Spain	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.77	0.88	0.94	1.04	1.11	1.18	1.22	1.29	1.35	1.44	1.52	1.60	1.58	1.65	1.72	1.78	1.88	1.90	–
Sweden	0.71	–	–	–	–	0.75	–	–	–	–	0.98	–	–	–	–	1.27	–	–	–	–	1.64	1.68	1.74	–	–	1.85	–	–	–	–	–
Switzerland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.70	1.70	1.73	1.78	1.76	1.81	1.83	1.92	1.91
Turkey	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	2.20	1.99	1.88	1.63	1.52	1.48
United Kingdom	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.60	1.74	1.84	1.88	1.94	2.02	2.10	2.20	2.30	2.30	2.30	2.40	2.40	2.60	–	–	–
United States	0.96	–	–	1.08	1.11	1.15	1.25	1.32	1.39	1.47	1.57	1.66	1.72	1.80	1.93	2.06	2.17	2.28	2.38	2.47	2.56	2.69	2.91	2.75	2.71	2.75	2.83	2.95	3.08	3.21	3.35

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 18. Nurse staffing ratio, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Number of nurses per occupied bed
Australia	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.36	–	–	–	–	1.67	1.76	1.84	–	–	–	1.69	–	1.72	–	1.78	–
Austria	0.21	0.23	0.24	0.24	0.24	0.24	0.24	0.25	0.26	0.27	0.27	0.28	0.29	0.31	0.33	0.35	0.38	0.40	0.42	0.43	0.44	0.46	0.46	0.47	0.49	0.52	0.54	0.54	0.55	0.54	0.59
Belgium	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.51	–	0.55	–	0.55	–	0.60	–	0.63	–	0.69	–	–	–
Canada	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.70	0.80	0.80	0.80	0.80	0.80	0.80	0.80	0.80	0.90	0.90	0.90	0.90	–	–
Denmark	–	–	–	–	–	0.33	–	–	–	–	0.37	–	–	–	–	0.38	–	–	–	–	0.42	0.44	0.47	0.50	0.60	0.60	0.60	0.68	0.72	0.76	0.81
Finland	0.28	0.26	0.26	0.28	0.28	0.30	0.30	0.30	0.31	0.32	0.34	0.35	0.35	0.38	0.42	0.42	0.43	0.44	0.43	0.43	0.43	0.44	0.45	0.46	0.50	0.51	0.54	0.55	0.55	–	–
France	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.13	–	–	–	–	0.17	–	–	–	–	0.24	0.25	0.25	0.26	–	0.35	0.37	0.38	0.37	0.38	–
Germany	0.16	0.16	0.16	0.16	0.16	0.17	0.18	0.19	0.19	0.20	0.21	0.23	0.24	0.26	0.28	0.28	0.29	0.31	0.32	0.34	0.35	0.36	0.38	0.39	0.41	0.42	0.43	0.45	0.46	0.48	–
Greece	–	–	–	–	–	0.22	–	0.26	0.27	0.29	0.29	0.29	0.29	0.29	0.30	0.26	0.30	0.30	0.30	0.30	0.31	0.33	0.33	0.35	0.35	0.41	0.43	0.49	0.57	0.64	0.67
Iceland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Ireland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.53	–	–	–	–	0.76	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.20	1.16	1.04	–
Italy	0.12	0.13	0.13	0.14	0.14	0.15	0.15	0.16	0.17	0.18	0.20	0.22	0.24	0.26	0.29	0.31	0.34	0.36	0.38	0.39	0.42	0.44	0.46	0.47	0.48	0.50	0.53	0.56	0.58	0.61	–
Japan	0.23	–	–	–	0.30	0.23	0.23	0.23	0.24	0.25	0.26	0.26	0.27	0.28	0.29	0.30	0.31	0.32	0.33	0.34	0.35	0.35	0.36	0.36	0.37	0.38	0.38	0.39	0.40	0.41	0.42
Luxembourg	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Netherlands	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.79	0.80	0.83	0.82	0.82	0.82	0.84	0.86	0.86	0.87	–
New Zealand	0.25	–	–	–	–	0.31	–	–	–	–	0.39	–	–	–	–	0.55	–	–	–	–	0.58	0.62	0.62	0.67	0.76	0.80	0.81	0.91	–	–	–
Norway	–	–	–	–	–	0.34	–	–	–	–	0.39	–	–	–	–	0.40	–	–	–	–	0.56	0.57	0.61	–	–	0.68	0.67	0.72	0.79	0.87	–
Portugal	0.12	0.12	0.13	0.13	0.14	0.14	0.14	–	–	0.15	0.16	0.17	0.17	0.18	0.20	0.24	0.24	0.27	0.28	0.29	0.29	0.33	0.34	0.35	0.36	0.43	0.46	0.47	0.48	0.50	0.51
Spain	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.15	0.17	0.19	0.22	0.24	0.27	0.28	0.31	0.32	0.34	0.37	0.39	0.39	0.42	0.44	0.46	0.49	0.60	–
Sweden	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Switzerland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.95	0.94	0.95	0.95	0.90	0.92	0.92	0.99	0.98
Turkey	–	–	–	–	0.08	0.08	0.09	0.10	0.11	0.12	0.12	0.13	0.15	0.17	0.15	0.18	0.20	0.24	0.24	0.25	0.27	0.30	0.35	0.29	0.24	0.30	0.30	0.31	0.34	0.37	0.33
United Kingdom	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.34	0.36	0.38	0.41	0.43	0.45	0.47	0.51	0.53	0.55	0.57	0.61	0.64	0.69	0.72	–	–
United States	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Selected health status indicators

Table 19. Female life expectancy at birth, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Life expectancy in years
Australia	74.0	74.2	–	–	–	–	74.2	–	74.2	74.6	74.2	74.5	75.0	75.5	75.4	76.2	76.3	76.8	77.2	77.8	78.1	78.4	78.2	78.8	79.0	78.8	79.2	79.5	79.5	79.6	80.0
Austria	71.9	72.8	72.5	72.7	73.2	73.0	73.4	73.4	73.5	73.3	73.4	73.7	74.0	74.6	74.6	74.7	75.0	75.5	75.7	76.0	76.1	76.4	76.6	76.6	77.2	77.4	77.7	78.1	78.6	78.8	79.0
Belgium	73.5	73.5	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	74.2	74.2	74.2	74.2	75.1	75.1	75.5	75.8	76.1	76.8	76.8	76.8	76.8	77.3	77.8	77.7	77.7	78.2	79.1	79.1	79.1
Canada	–	74.3	–	–	–	–	75.2	–	–	–	–	76.4	–	–	–	–	77.5	–	–	–	–	79.1	–	–	–	–	79.7	–	–	–	–
Denmark	74.1	–	–	–	–	–	–	75.4	75.6	75.7	76.1	76.1	–	76.6	–	76.8	77.1	77.5	77.4	77.3	77.6	77.4	77.5	77.5	77.5	77.5	77.5	77.6	77.7	77.7	77.7
Finland	71.6	–	–	72.6	–	–	–	–	73.6	–	–	74.2	74.9	75.5	75.4	75.9	76.1	76.7	77.1	77.2	77.6	77.8	78.1	78.0	78.8	78.5	78.7	78.7	78.7	78.9	78.9
France	73.6	74.5	74.1	74.1	75.1	75.0	75.5	75.4	75.2	75.1	76.1	75.9	76.2	76.3	76.7	76.9	77.2	77.8	77.9	78.3	78.4	78.5	78.9	78.8	79.3	79.4	79.7	80.3	80.5	80.6	80.9
Germany	72.4	72.4	–	–	–	73.5	73.6	73.6	73.5	73.4	73.8	73.8	74.1	74.4	74.5	74.8	75.2	75.6	76.0	76.3	76.6	76.9	77.1	77.5	77.8	78.1	78.4	78.7	78.4	79.0	–
Greece	70.4	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	73.6	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	76.3	–	–	–	–	–	–	78.9	–	–	78.6
Iceland	75.0	–	–	76.2	–	–	–	–	76.3	–	–	–	–	77.5	–	–	79.2	–	79.3	–	79.7	–	79.4	–	80.2	80.2	80.4	80.0	79.7	79.9	80.3
Ireland	71.8	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	73.2	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	74.9	74.9	75.0	75.6	75.6	–	–	–	76.4	–	76.7	77.0	77.4
Italy	71.8	72.3	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	74.6	74.9	–	–	75.7	75.9	76.0	76.7	77.2	77.5	77.4	77.8	78.2	78.1	78.1	78.6	78.9	79.4	79.7	80.0	–
Japan	70.3	70.8	71.2	72.3	72.9	73.0	73.6	74.2	74.3	74.7	74.7	75.6	75.9	76.0	76.3	77.0	77.4	78.0	78.3	78.9	78.8	79.1	79.7	79.8	80.2	80.5	80.9	81.4	81.3	81.8	81.9
Luxembourg	71.9	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	73.9	–	–	74.5	–	–	–	75.1	–	–	75.1	76.7	–	–	–	–	77.9	–	–	–	78.5
Netherlands	75.5	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	76.6	76.7	76.8	77.2	77.6	77.6	78.0	78.4	78.5	78.9	79.2	79.3	79.4	79.5	79.5	79.6	79.6	80.1	79.9	79.9	80.1
New Zealand	73.9	–	74.2	74.0	74.1	74.1	74.3	74.3	74.4	74.3	74.6	74.6	74.8	74.8	75.1	75.3	75.5	75.8	76.0	76.1	76.3	76.4	76.9	77.2	77.1	77.3	77.1	77.4	77.6	78.0	–
Norway	75.9	–	–	76.0	–	–	–	–	76.8	–	77.5	77.4	–	77.8	78.0	77.7	78.4	78.7	78.7	–	78.7	79.4	79.4	79.6	79.5	79.4	79.7	79.6	79.6	79.9	79.8
Portugal	67.2	–	–	–	–	69.3	–	69.7	–	70.0	71.0	–	71.7	–	72.0	–	73.0	74.3	–	75.2	–	76.6	–	76.2	–	76.7	–	76.9	77.6	77.6	77.9
Spain	72.2	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	75.1	–	–	–	–	76.2	–	–	–	–	78.6	–	–	–	–	79.7	–	–	–	–	80.1
Sweden	74.9	75.4	75.4	75.6	75.9	76.1	76.5	76.5	76.3	76.5	77.1	77.3	77.4	77.7	77.8	77.9	77.9	78.5	78.6	78.7	78.8	79.1	79.4	79.6	79.9	79.7	80.0	80.2	80.0	80.6	80.4
Switzerland	74.1	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	76.2	76.6	77.0	77.3	77.8	77.8	78.1	78.4	78.6	78.7	78.8	79.0	79.3	79.5	79.8	80.1	80.3	80.5	80.7	80.9	80.9
Turkey	49.7	–	–	53.7	–	–	–	–	56.5	–	–	–	–	59.9	–	–	–	–	64.3	–	–	–	–	65.4	–	–	–	–	68.1	–	68.4
United Kingdom	74.2	73.8	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	75.2	75.0	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	75.9	76.8	77.2	77.2	77.4	77.4	77.6	77.6	78.1	78.4	78.5
United States	73.1	73.6	73.5	73.4	73.7	73.8	73.9	74.3	74.1	74.4	74.7	75.0	75.1	75.3	75.9	76.6	76.8	77.2	77.3	77.8	77.4	77.8	78.1	78.1	78.2	78.2	78.3	78.4	78.3	78.6	78.8

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992

Table 20. Male life expectancy at birth, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Life expectancy in years
Australia	67.9	67.9	–	–	–	–	67.6	–	67.5	67.5	67.4	68.0	68.2	68.6	68.4	69.2	69.3	69.9	70.2	70.8	71.0	71.4	71.2	72.1	72.5	72.4	72.9	73.0	73.1	73.3	73.9
Austria	65.4	66.5	66.3	66.4	66.8	66.6	66.8	66.6	66.8	66.5	66.5	66.6	66.9	67.5	67.5	67.7	68.2	68.5	68.5	68.8	69.0	69.3	69.4	69.4	70.1	70.4	71.0	71.5	72.0	72.1	72.5
Belgium	67.7	67.7	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	67.8	67.8	67.8	67.8	68.6	68.6	68.7	69.1	69.4	70.0	70.0	70.0	70.0	70.4	70.8	70.9	70.9	71.4	72.4	72.4	72.4
Canada	–	68.4	–	–	–	–	68.8	–	–	–	–	69.3	–	–	–	–	70.2	–	–	–	–	71.9	–	–	–	–	73.0	–	–	–	–
Denmark	72.3	–	–	–	–	–	–	70.6	70.7	70.8	71.0	70.7	70.8	70.8	–	71.1	71.2	71.5	71.3	71.2	71.4	71.4	71.5	71.5	71.6	71.6	71.6	71.8	71.8	72.0	72.0
Finland	64.9	–	–	65.4	–	–	–	–	65.9	–	–	65.9	66.6	66.9	66.9	67.4	67.5	67.9	68.5	68.9	69.2	69.5	70.1	70.2	70.4	70.1	70.5	70.7	70.7	70.9	70.9
France	67.0	67.6	67.3	67.1	68.0	67.8	68.1	68.0	67.8	67.4	68.6	68.3	68.5	68.7	68.9	69.0	69.2	69.7	69.8	70.1	70.2	70.4	70.7	70.7	71.2	71.3	71.5	72.0	72.3	72.5	72.7
Germany	66.9	66.9	–	–	–	67.6	67.6	67.6	67.4	67.2	67.4	67.4	67.6	67.9	68.0	68.3	68.6	69.0	69.3	69.6	69.9	70.2	70.5	70.8	71.2	71.5	71.8	72.1	71.8	72.6	–
Greece	67.3	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	70.1	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	72.2	–	–	–	–	–	–	74.1	–	–	–
Iceland	70.7	–	–	70.8	–	–	–	–	70.7	–	–	–	–	71.6	–	–	73.0	–	73.4	–	73.7	–	73.9	–	74.0	74.7	75.0	75.1	74.6	75.2	75.7
Ireland	68.5	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	68.5	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	68.1	68.1	69.5	70.1	70.1	–	–	–	70.8	–	71.0	71.0	–
Italy	66.8	67.2	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	68.6	69.0	–	–	69.6	69.5	69.6	70.1	70.4	70.6	70.6	71.1	71.5	71.4	71.6	72.0	72.5	72.9	73.2	73.5	–
Japan	65.4	66.0	66.2	67.2	67.7	67.7	68.4	68.9	69.1	69.2	69.3	70.2	70.5	70.7	71.2	71.8	72.2	72.7	73.0	73.5	73.4	73.8	74.2	74.2	74.5	74.8	75.2	75.6	75.5	75.9	75.9
Luxembourg	66.1	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	67.0	–	–	67.3	–	–	–	68.0	–	–	68.0	70.0	–	–	–	–	70.6	–	–	–	–
Netherlands	71.6	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	70.9	71.0	70.8	71.2	71.6	71.4	71.5	72.0	71.9	72.4	72.4	72.7	72.7	72.8	73.0	73.1	73.1	73.5	73.3	73.7	73.8
New Zealand	68.7	–	68.8	68.4	68.3	68.2	68.2	68.1	68.2	68.1	68.3	68.6	68.6	68.7	68.7	69.0	69.0	69.3	69.4	69.8	70.1	70.4	70.6	70.9	71.0	71.0	71.1	71.3	71.6	72.0	–
Norway	71.4	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	71.0	71.2	–	71.5	71.7	71.4	72.1	72.3	72.3	72.3	72.2	72.6	72.7	72.9	72.8	72.7	72.9	72.8	73.1	73.3	73.4
Portugal	61.7	–	–	–	–	65.3	–	64.0	–	64.2	65.3	–	65.3	–	65.3	–	65.4	–	67.0	–	67.7	68.9	–	69.3	–	69.7	–	69.9	70.7	70.7	70.9
Spain	67.4	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	69.6	–	–	–	–	70.4	–	–	–	–	72.5	–	–	–	–	73.3	–	–	–	–	–
Sweden	71.2	71.6	71.3	71.6	71.7	71.7	71.9	71.9	71.7	71.7	72.2	72.0	72.0	72.1	72.2	72.1	72.1	72.4	72.4	72.5	72.8	73.1	73.4	73.6	73.8	73.8	74.0	74.2	74.2	74.8	74.8
Switzerland	68.7	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	70.3	70.1	70.4	70.8	71.1	71.4	71.6	71.8	72.0	72.1	72.3	72.4	72.6	72.8	73.0	73.4	73.6	73.8	73.9	74.0	74.0
Turkey	46.5	–	–	50.5	–	–	–	–	53.4	–	–	–	–	55.8	–	–	–	–	58.2	–	–	–	–	60.7	–	–	–	–	63.2	–	64.1
United Kingdom	68.3	67.9	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	68.6	68.8	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	70.2	70.8	71.3	71.4	71.5	71.5	71.9	71.9	72.4	72.8	–
United States	66.6	67.1	66.9	66.6	66.8	66.8	66.7	67.0	66.6	66.8	67.1	67.4	67.4	67.6	68.2	68.8	69.1	69.5	69.6	70.0	70.0	70.4	70.9	71.0	71.2	71.2	71.3	71.5	71.5	71.8	72.0

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 21. Female life expectancy at age 60, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Life expectancy in years
Australia	19.5	19.5	–	–	–	–	19.5	–	–	–	19.5	–	–	20.4	20.2	20.8	20.7	21.1	21.4	21.8	21.9	22.1	21.9	22.4	22.4	22.4	22.6	22.8	22.8	22.8	23.1
Austria	18.6	19.0	18.7	18.7	19.0	18.7	19.0	18.8	18.9	18.7	18.8	19.0	19.3	19.6	19.6	19.6	19.7	20.0	20.0	20.3	20.3	20.4	20.6	20.6	21.1	21.0	21.3	21.6	21.9	22.0	22.3
Belgium	18.7	18.7	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	19.2	19.2	19.2	19.2	19.7	–	–	–	–	20.9	20.9	20.9	20.9	–	–	–	22.0	22.0	22.5	22.5	22.5
Canada	–	19.9	–	–	–	–	20.6	–	–	–	–	21.4	–	–	–	–	22.0	–	–	–	–	22.9	–	–	–	–	23.2	–	–	–	–
Denmark	19.1	–	–	–	–	–	–	20.0	20.2	20.4	20.7	20.7	20.8	–	–	21.1	21.3	21.3	21.5	21.5	21.7	21.6	21.6	21.6	21.6	21.6	21.6	21.7	21.7	21.8	–
Finland	17.5	–	–	17.5	–	–	–	–	18.0	–	–	18.3	18.8	19.2	19.4	19.7	19.8	20.1	20.4	20.5	20.7	20.7	21.0	21.1	21.6	21.3	21.6	21.7	21.7	21.9	21.9
France	19.5	19.6	19.6	19.6	19.3	20.1	20.5	20.5	20.4	20.3	20.8	20.8	21.1	21.0	21.3	21.3	21.5	20.1	22.1	22.2	22.4	22.3	22.7	22.6	23.0	23.0	23.2	23.7	23.9	24.0	–
Germany	18.5	18.5	–	–	–	19.0	18.9	18.9	18.8	18.8	19.1	19.1	19.3	19.5	19.5	19.7	19.9	20.2	20.4	20.5	20.7	20.8	20.9	21.2	21.4	21.6	21.7	21.9	–	22.2	–
Greece	18.6	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	19.3	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	20.6	–	–	–	–	21.2	–	–	–	–	–
Iceland	20.4	–	–	20.9	–	–	–	–	20.5	–	–	–	–	21.7	–	–	22.7	–	23.0	–	23.0	–	22.5	–	23.1	22.9	23.2	23.3	22.8	22.9	–
Ireland	18.3	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	18.5	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	19.2	19.2	18.8	19.5	19.5	–	–	–	20.1	–	–	20.0	–
Italy	19.0	19.3	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	20.1	20.2	–	–	20.3	20.3	20.4	20.8	21.1	21.3	21.2	21.4	21.7	21.5	21.5	21.9	22.0	22.4	22.7	22.9	–
Japan	17.9	17.9	17.9	18.5	18.7	18.5	19.0	19.2	19.2	19.5	19.3	20.0	20.2	20.2	20.3	20.8	21.0	21.4	21.7	22.1	21.9	22.2	22.6	22.7	23.0	23.2	23.6	24.0	23.9	24.3	24.4
Luxembourg	18.3	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	19.0	–	–	19.2	–	–	–	19.8	–	–	19.8	20.7	–	–	–	–	21.3	–	–	–	–
Netherlands	19.9	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	20.7	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	22.5	22.6	22.7	22.8	22.8	–	23.3	23.6	23.4	23.4	–
New Zealand	19.5	–	19.4	19.4	19.4	19.4	19.6	19.6	19.7	19.6	19.8	19.8	19.9	19.9	20.1	20.3	20.4	20.7	20.8	20.7	20.8	21.0	21.4	21.5	21.4	21.5	21.3	21.6	21.7	21.9	–
Norway	20.1	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	21.1	21.0	–	21.3	21.4	–	21.9	–	21.9	–	22.1	22.5	22.6	22.7	22.7	22.7	22.9	22.7	22.7	22.9	–
Portugal	18.6	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	18.8	–	–	–	–	–	19.1	–	19.9	20.6	–	21.9	–	20.9	–	21.1	–	21.2	21.7	22.0	–
Spain	19.0	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	19.9	–	–	–	–	20.5	–	–	–	–	22.1	–	–	–	–	22.7	–	–	–	–	–
Sweden	19.3	19.6	19.6	19.8	20.0	20.1	20.3	20.4	20.2	20.3	20.9	21.0	21.1	21.3	21.4	21.4	21.4	21.9	21.9	22.0	22.1	22.2	22.5	22.7	22.8	22.7	22.9	23.1	22.9	23.4	23.3
Switzerland	19.2	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	20.4	20.5	20.7	20.9	21.1	21.5	21.7	21.9	22.1	22.2	22.3	22.3	22.6	22.7	22.9	23.2	23.3	23.5	23.7	23.9	23.9
Turkey	15.9	–	–	–	–	16.3	–	–	–	–	16.6	–	–	–	–	17.0	–	–	–	–	17.3	–	–	–	–	17.6	–	–	–	–	18.1
United Kingdom	19.3	19.0	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	19.9	19.8	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	20.5	20.8	20.9	21.0	21.0	21.0	21.2	21.2	21.6	21.7	–
United States	19.5	19.8	19.7	19.7	20.0	20.0	20.1	20.3	20.2	20.4	20.7	20.9	20.8	21.0	21.3	21.9	21.9	22.2	22.3	22.6	22.2	22.5	22.6	22.5	22.5	22.4	22.5	22.5	22.5	22.7	–

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): Health Data File, 1992.

Table 22. Male life expectancy at age 60, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Life expectancy in years
Australia	15.6	15.6	–	–	–	–	15.7	–	–	–	15.0	–	–	15.8	15.7	16.3	16.1	16.6	16.7	17.1	17.1	17.3	17.2	17.7	17.9	17.9	18.2	18.3	18.4	18.3	18.8
Austria	15.0	15.5	15.1	15.0	15.3	14.9	15.4	15.0	15.0	14.8	14.8	15.2	15.4	15.7	15.6	15.6	15.8	16.1	15.9	16.2	16.3	16.4	16.6	16.5	17.0	17.0	17.4	17.6	17.9	17.9	18.1
Belgium	15.4	15.5	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	15.2	15.2	15.2	15.2	15.5	–	–	–	–	16.3	16.3	16.3	16.3	–	–	–	17.3	17.3	17.6	17.6	17.6
Canada	–	16.8	–	–	–	–	16.8	–	–	–	–	17.0	–	–	–	–	17.2	–	–	–	–	18.0	–	–	–	–	18.4	–	–	–	–
Denmark	17.2	–	–	–	–	–	–	16.9	17.0	17.1	17.3	17.0	17.0	–	–	17.1	17.2	17.2	17.1	17.1	17.2	17.1	17.2	17.2	17.2	17.2	17.3	17.4	17.5	17.6	17.5
Finland	14.4	–	–	14.3	–	–	–	–	14.2	–	–	14.3	14.9	14.9	14.9	15.0	15.0	15.2	15.4	15.7	15.6	16.0	16.2	16.1	16.5	16.1	16.7	16.7	16.9	17.1	17.1
France	15.6	15.8	15.7	15.5	16.1	15.8	16.1	15.9	15.9	15.5	16.2	16.2	16.3	–	16.4	16.5	16.6	17.0	17.0	17.2	17.3	17.3	17.6	17.6	17.9	17.9	18.0	18.4	18.7	18.8	–
Germany	15.5	15.5	–	–	–	15.5	15.4	15.3	15.1	15.0	15.3	15.3	15.4	15.5	15.5	15.6	15.8	16.0	16.2	16.3	16.4	16.5	16.6	16.8	16.9	17.1	17.3	17.5	–	17.8	–
Greece	16.9	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	17.5	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	18.2	–	–	–	–	18.2	–	–	–	–	–
Iceland	18.6	–	–	18.6	–	–	–	–	18.0	–	–	–	–	18.6	–	–	19.4	–	19.7	–	19.4	–	18.9	–	19.2	19.5	19.7	19.9	19.4	19.5	–
Ireland	16.3	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	15.4	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	14.9	14.9	15.5	15.9	15.9	–	–	–	16.0	–	–	16.0	–
Italy	16.4	16.7	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	16.4	16.7	–	–	16.5	16.3	16.3	16.6	16.8	16.9	16.8	17.0	17.2	17.0	17.1	17.4	17.5	17.9	18.1	18.3	–
Japan	14.9	15.2	14.9	15.4	15.5	15.2	15.7	15.9	15.9	16.0	15.9	16.6	16.8	16.8	17.0	17.4	17.6	18.0	18.2	18.5	18.3	18.6	19.0	19.0	19.2	19.3	19.7	19.9	19.8	20.0	20.0
Luxembourg	15.9	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	14.7	–	–	15.0	–	–	–	14.1	–	–	15.1	16.0	–	–	–	–	16.4	–	–	–	–
Netherlands	17.8	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	16.9	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	17.4	17.5	17.5	17.5	17.6	–	18.0	18.3	18.1	18.3	–
New Zealand	16.3	–	16.0	15.8	15.7	15.6	15.7	15.7	15.7	15.6	15.6	15.7	15.8	15.9	16.0	16.1	16.1	16.3	16.4	16.4	16.5	16.6	16.9	17.0	17.1	17.1	17.2	17.4	17.5	17.8	–
Norway	18.0	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	17.3	17.4	–	17.5	17.6	–	17.7	–	17.7	–	17.7	17.9	18.0	18.0	17.9	17.9	18.0	17.9	18.2	18.3	–
Portugal	15.9	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	15.7	–	–	–	–	–	15.1	–	15.9	16.3	–	17.7	–	17.1	–	17.3	–	17.4	17.8	18.0	–
Spain	16.5	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	16.7	–	–	–	–	17.1	–	–	–	–	18.4	–	–	–	–	18.7	–	–	–	–	–
Sweden	17.3	17.6	17.3	17.4	17.6	17.5	17.6	17.6	17.5	17.4	17.8	17.6	17.7	17.6	17.7	17.6	17.5	17.8	17.8	17.8	17.9	18.0	18.2	18.3	18.5	18.3	18.5	18.7	18.6	19.2	19.1
Switzerland	16.2	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	16.7	16.8	16.9	17.1	17.2	17.4	17.5	17.6	17.8	17.8	17.9	17.9	18.1	18.2	18.3	18.5	18.6	18.8	19.0	19.1	19.1
Turkey	14.7	–	–	–	–	14.8	–	–	–	–	15.0	–	–	–	–	15.2	–	–	–	–	15.4	–	–	–	–	15.5	–	–	–	–	15.8
United Kingdom	15.3	15.0	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	15.2	15.3	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	15.9	16.3	16.5	16.5	16.6	16.6	16.8	16.8	17.3	17.4	–
United States	15.8	16.0	15.9	15.7	15.9	15.8	15.8	15.9	15.7	15.9	16.1	16.2	16.1	16.2	16.5	16.8	16.9	17.2	17.2	17.5	17.4	17.6	17.8	17.8	17.9	17.9	18.0	18.2	18.2	18.6	–

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 23. Female life expectancy at age 80, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Life expectancy in years
Australia	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	7.1	7.0	7.4	7.3	7.5	7.6	7.8	7.9	8.1	7.9	8.3	8.3	8.1	8.4	8.4	8.4	8.4	8.6
Austria	5.9	6.2	5.9	6.0	6.2	6.0	6.2	6.1	6.1	6.1	6.1	6.1	6.3	6.4	6.4	6.3	6.2	6.5	6.4	6.6	6.6	6.6	6.8	6.7	7.0	6.9	7.1	7.3	7.4	7.5	7.6
Belgium	–	6.1	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	6.3	6.3	6.3	6.3	6.5	–	–	–	–	7.1	7.1	7.1	7.1	–	–	–	7.8	7.8	7.9	7.9	7.9
Canada	–	7.0	–	–	–	–	7.4	–	–	–	–	7.9	–	–	–	–	8.2	–	–	–	–	8.8	–	–	–	–	8.9	–	–	–	–
Denmark	–	–	–	–	–	–	6.4	6.7	6.9	7.1	7.2	7.2	7.3	7.3	7.5	7.4	7.6	7.8	7.7	7.7	7.7	7.9	7.9	7.9	7.9	7.9	8.0	8.1	8.2	8.2	8.1
Finland	5.4	–	–	4.9	–	–	–	–	5.4	–	–	5.6	5.6	5.9	6.1	6.2	6.4	6.4	6.4	6.6	6.5	6.5	6.7	6.7	7.6	7.2	7.5	7.5	7.5	7.5	7.5
France	6.3	6.4	6.4	6.4	6.9	6.7	7.0	6.9	6.9	7.0	7.1	7.2	7.2	7.1	7.3	7.2	7.3	–	–	7.5	7.7	7.6	7.9	7.7	8.0	8.0	8.1	8.4	8.6	8.6	–
Germany	5.9	5.9	–	–	–	6.2	6.1	6.1	6.0	6.0	6.2	6.2	6.2	6.3	6.3	6.4	6.5	6.6	6.8	6.8	6.9	7.0	7.0	7.2	7.3	7.4	7.5	7.6	–	–	–
Greece	6.2	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	6.2	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	7.6	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Iceland	7.1	–	–	7.1	–	–	–	–	6.5	–	–	–	–	7.7	–	–	8.4	–	8.4	–	8.9	–	8.4	–	8.9	8.8	8.7	8.9	8.6	8.5	9.0
Ireland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	6.4	6.4	6.4	6.7	6.7	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Italy	–	6.4	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	6.7	–	–	6.7	6.7	6.7	6.9	7.1	7.3	7.2	7.3	7.4	7.3	7.2	7.5	7.4	7.7	7.8	8.0	–
Japan	6.0	5.5	5.5	6.0	6.1	5.8	6.3	6.3	6.2	6.4	6.3	6.7	6.7	6.5	6.5	6.9	6.9	7.2	7.4	7.7	7.3	7.5	7.7	7.7	7.9	8.1	8.3	8.5	8.4	8.7	8.7
Luxembourg	5.4	–	6.1	–	–	–	6.1	–	6.1	–	–	6.1	–	–	6.1	–	–	6.1	–	6.1	–	6.8	–	–	–	–	6.8	–	–	–	–
Netherlands	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	7.0	–	–	7.6	–	8.1	8.1	8.2	8.1	8.2	–	8.4	8.8	8.6	8.6	–
New Zealand	–	–	6.6	6.5	6.6	6.6	6.7	6.8	6.8	6.7	6.8	6.8	6.9	6.9	7.0	7.2	7.3	7.5	7.6	7.6	7.7	7.7	8.0	8.1	8.0	8.0	7.9	8.0	8.0	8.2	–
Norway	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	7.9	8.1	8.1	8.0	8.2	8.1	8.1	8.1	8.1
Portugal	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	6.9	7.2	–	–
Spain	6.5	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	6.6	–	–	–	–	6.7	–	–	–	–	7.6	–	–	–	–	7.7	–	–	–	–	–
Sweden	6.2	6.4	6.2	6.4	6.6	6.6	6.7	6.8	6.4	6.6	6.9	7.0	7.1	7.2	7.4	7.3	7.2	7.6	7.5	7.6	7.6	7.6	8.0	8.0	8.1	8.0	8.1	8.3	8.1	8.4	8.3
Switzerland	6.1	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	6.7	6.8	7.0	7.1	7.1	7.3	7.4	7.5	7.6	7.7	7.8	7.7	7.8	7.9	8.1	8.2	8.3	8.4	8.6	8.6	8.5
Turkey	5.1	–	–	–	–	5.3	–	–	–	–	5.4	–	–	–	–	5.5	–	–	–	–	5.6	–	–	–	–	5.8	–	–	–	–	5.9
United Kingdom	–	6.3	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	6.9	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	7.5	7.5	7.6	7.6	7.6	7.7	7.8	8.1	8.2	–
United States	6.8	7.0	6.9	6.9	7.1	7.1	7.1	7.4	7.3	7.4	8.0	7.9	7.9	7.9	8.2	8.7	8.6	8.9	8.8	9.0	8.6	8.9	9.1	8.9	8.9	8.8	8.8	8.8	8.7	9.0	–

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 24. Male life expectancy at age 80, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Life expectancy in years
Australia	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	5.7	5.5	5.8	5.7	6.0	6.1	6.3	6.3	6.3	6.2	6.4	6.5	6.4	6.6	6.6	6.7	6.5	6.8
Austria	5.1	5.4	5.1	5.2	5.4	5.2	5.4	5.2	5.2	5.3	5.2	5.2	5.4	5.5	5.4	5.2	5.4	5.5	5.3	5.5	5.5	5.4	5.6	5.6	5.9	5.8	6.0	6.2	6.3	6.4	6.6
Belgium	–	5.3	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	5.4	5.4	5.4	5.5	5.5	–	–	–	–	5.7	5.7	5.7	5.7	–	–	–	6.3	6.3	6.1	6.1	6.1
Canada	–	6.2	–	–	–	–	6.5	–	–	–	–	6.4	–	–	–	–	6.4	–	–	–	–	6.9	–	–	7.0	–	6.9	–	–	–	–
Denmark	–	–	–	–	–	–	5.8	6.0	6.1	6.2	6.1	6.2	6.3	6.2	6.2	6.2	6.3	6.5	6.3	6.3	6.2	6.2	–	6.3	6.3	6.3	6.4	6.5	6.4	6.5	6.4
Finland	5.5	–	5.3	–	–	–	–	–	4.9	–	–	4.9	5.1	5.3	5.1	5.3	5.2	5.2	5.3	5.6	5.4	5.6	5.7	5.6	6.2	5.7	6.1	6.1	6.1	6.2	6.1
France	5.1	5.3	5.3	5.3	5.7	5.5	5.8	5.6	5.6	5.6	5.8	5.7	5.9	5.8	5.9	5.8	5.9	6.1	6.0	6.1	6.1	6.0	6.2	6.1	6.3	6.2	6.4	6.6	6.8	6.8	–
Germany	5.2	5.2	–	–	–	5.4	5.4	5.3	5.3	5.2	5.4	5.4	5.4	5.4	5.4	5.4	5.5	5.6	5.6	5.7	5.7	5.7	5.7	5.8	5.9	5.9	6.0	6.1	–	–	–
Greece	5.6	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	5.8	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	6.7	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Iceland	6.2	–	–	6.3	–	–	–	–	6.0	–	–	–	–	6.6	–	–	7.4	–	7.6	–	7.0		7.1	–	7.5	7.6	7.4	7.5	7.2	7.1	7.4
Ireland	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	5.6	5.6	5.5	5.4	5.4	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Italy	–	5.7	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	5.8	–	–	5.6	5.5	5.5	5.7	5.8	5.9	5.8	5.8	6.0	5.9	6.0	6.2	6.0	6.2	6.3	6.4	–
Japan	4.9	4.8	4.4	5.0	5.1	4.7	5.2	5.2	5.1	5.2	5.2	5.5	5.5	5.4	5.4	5.8	5.8	6.0	6.0	6.3	6.1	6.2	6.5	6.4	6.5	6.5	6.7	6.9	6.7	6.9	6.9
Luxembourg	5.0	–	5.4	–	–	–	5.4	–	5.4	–	–	5.4	–	–	5.4	–	–	5.4	–	5.5	–	5.5	–	–	–	–	5.3	–	–	–	–
Netherlands	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	5.9	–	–	6.3	–	6.5	6.5	6.5	6.4	6.4	–	6.5	6.7	6.7	6.6	–
New Zealand	–	–	5.6	5.4	5.5	5.5	5.6	5.6	5.6	5.5	5.5	5.5	5.6	5.6	5.6	5.7	5.7	5.9	6.0	5.9	5.9	5.9	6.2	6.2	6.1	6.2	6.1	6.4	6.5	6.7	–
Norway	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	6.4	6.5	6.5	6.5	6.5	6.4	6.5	6.5	6.4
Portugal	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	5.8	6.1	–	–
Spain	5.7	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	5.8	–	–	–	–	5.9	–	–	–	–	6.6	–	–	–	–	6.7	–	–	–	–	–
Sweden	5.7	5.9	5.7	5.7	5.9	5.9	6.0	6.1	5.9	6.0	6.1	6.0	6.0	6.0	6.1	6.1	6.0	6.1	6.1	6.1	6.1	6.2	6.3	6.3	6.5	6.3	6.4	6.5	6.3	6.7	6.6
Switzerland	5.5	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	5.8	5.9	6.0	6.1	6.2	6.3	6.3	6.4	6.4	6.4	6.5	6.4	6.4	6.5	6.5	6.7	6.7	6.9	6.9	6.8	6.8
Turkey	4.8	–	–	–	–	4.9	–	–	–	–	4.9	–	–	–	–	5.0	–	–	–	–	5.1	–	–	–	–	5.1	–	–	–	–	5.2
United Kingdom	–	5.2	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	5.5	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	5.7	5.8	5.9	5.9	5.9	5.9	6.0	6.4	6.2	–
United States	6.0	6.1	6.0	5.8	6.1	6.0	6.0	6.1	6.0	6.1	6.6	6.4	6.4	6.3	6.5	6.8	6.7	6.9	6.8	7.0	6.7	6.9	7.0	6.9	6.9	6.8	6.9	6.9	6.9	7.1	–

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 25. Infant mortality, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Percent of live births
Australia	2.01	1.95	2.04	1.95	1.91	1.85	1.82	1.83	1.78	1.79	1.79	1.73	1.67	1.65	1.61	1.43	1.38	1.25	1.22	1.14	1.07	1.00	1.03	0.96	0.92	1.00	0.88	0.87	0.87	0.80	0.82
Austria	3.75	3.27	3.28	3.13	2.92	2.83	2.81	2.64	2.55	2.54	2.59	2.61	2.52	2.38	2.35	2.05	1.82	1.68	1.50	1.47	1.43	1.27	1.28	1.19	1.14	1.12	1.03	0.98	0.81	0.83	0.78
Belgium	3.12	2.81	2.75	2.72	2.54	2.37	2.47	2.29	2.17	2.12	2.11	2.04	1.88	1.77	1.74	1.61	1.53	1.36	1.33	1.23	1.21	1.15	1.11	1.06	1.00	0.94	0.97	0.97	0.94	0.86	0.79
Canada	2.73	2.72	2.76	2.63	2.47	2.36	2.31	2.20	2.08	1.93	1.88	1.75	1.71	1.55	1.50	1.43	1.35	1.24	1.20	1.09	1.04	0.96	0.91	0.85	0.81	0.80	0.79	0.73	0.72	0.71	0.68
Denmark	2.15	2.18	2.01	1.91	1.87	1.87	1.69	1.58	1.64	1.48	1.42	1.35	1.22	1.15	1.07	1.04	1.02	0.87	0.88	0.88	0.84	0.79	0.82	0.77	0.77	0.78	0.82	0.83	0.75	0.76	0.75
Finland	2.10	2.08	2.05	1.82	1.70	1.76	1.50	1.48	1.44	1.43	1.32	1.27	1.20	1.06	1.10	1.00	0.92	0.88	0.77	0.76	0.76	0.66	0.61	0.61	0.66	0.63	0.58	0.61	0.61	0.61	0.56
France	2.74	2.57	2.57	2.56	2.34	2.19	2.17	2.07	2.04	1.96	1.82	1.72	1.60	1.54	1.46	1.36	1.25	1.15	1.06	1.01	1.01	0.96	0.93	0.89	0.83	0.81	0.80	0.76	0.77	0.75	0.72
Germany	3.38	3.20	2.93	2.71	2.53	2.38	2.36	2.28	2.26	2.32	2.34	2.31	2.24	2.27	2.11	1.97	1.74	1.54	1.47	1.36	1.27	1.16	1.09	1.02	0.96	0.89	0.87	0.83	0.76	0.75	–
Greece	4.01	3.98	4.04	3.93	3.58	3.43	3.40	3.43	3.44	3.18	2.96	2.69	2.73	2.41	2.39	2.40	2.25	2.04	1.93	1.87	1.79	1.63	1.51	1.46	1.43	1.41	1.22	1.17	1.10	0.91	–
Iceland	1.30	1.95	1.72	1.70	1.75	1.50	1.36	1.34	1.40	1.16	1.32	1.29	1.13	0.96	1.17	1.25	0.77	0.95	1.13	0.54	0.77	0.60	0.71	0.62	0.61	0.57	0.54	0.72	0.62	0.53	0.59
Ireland	2.93	3.05	2.91	2.66	2.67	2.53	2.50	2.44	2.10	2.06	1.95	1.80	1.80	1.80	1.78	1.75	1.55	1.55	1.49	1.24	1.11	1.06	1.05	0.98	1.01	0.89	0.87	0.74	0.86	0.76	–
Italy	4.39	4.07	4.18	4.01	3.61	3.60	3.47	3.32	3.27	3.08	2.96	2.85	2.70	2.62	2.29	2.22	1.95	1.81	1.69	1.57	1.43	1.41	1.30	1.23	1.14	1.05	1.02	0.98	0.93	0.86	0.82
Japan	3.07	2.86	2.64	2.32	2.04	1.85	1.98	1.49	1.53	1.42	1.31	1.24	1.17	1.13	1.08	1.00	0.93	0.89	0.84	0.79	0.75	0.71	0.66	0.62	0.60	0.55	0.52	0.50	0.48	0.46	0.46
Luxembourg	3.15	2.62	3.11	2.86	2.98	2.40	2.68	2.04	1.70	1.75	2.49	2.25	1.40	1.53	1.35	1.48	1.79	1.06	1.06	1.30	1.15	1.38	1.21	1.12	1.17	0.90	0.80	0.93	0.90	0.99	0.74
Netherlands	1.79	1.70	1.70	1.58	1.48	1.44	1.47	1.34	1.36	1.32	1.27	1.21	1.17	1.15	1.13	1.06	1.07	0.95	0.96	0.87	0.86	0.83	0.83	0.84	0.84	0.80	0.78	0.76	0.68	0.68	0.71
New Zealand	2.26	2.28	2.05	1.97	1.91	1.96	1.77	1.81	1.87	1.69	1.68	1.65	1.56	1.62	1.55	1.59	1.39	1.42	1.38	1.25	1.29	1.17	1.18	1.25	1.16	1.08	1.12	1.00	1.08	1.02	0.83
Norway	1.89	–	–	–	–	1.68	1.45	1.48	1.37	1.38	1.27	1.28	1.18	1.19	1.04	1.11	1.05	0.92	0.86	0.88	0.81	0.75	0.81	0.79	0.83	0.85	0.79	0.84	0.83	0.79	0.70
Portugal	7.75	8.88	7.86	7.31	6.90	6.49	6.47	5.92	6.11	5.58	5.51	5.19	4.14	4.48	3.79	3.89	3.34	3.03	2.91	2.60	2.43	2.18	1.98	1.92	1.67	1.78	1.58	1.42	1.30	1.22	1.10
Spain	4.37	4.40	3.93	3.84	3.72	3.59	3.41	3.21	3.04	2.83	2.63	2.42	2.14	2.00	1.85	1.88	1.71	1.60	1.53	1.43	1.23	1.25	1.13	1.09	0.98	0.89	0.92	0.89	0.81	0.78	–
Sweden	1.66	1.58	1.54	1.54	1.42	1.33	1.26	1.29	1.31	1.17	1.10	1.11	1.08	0.99	0.96	0.86	0.83	0.80	0.78	0.75	0.69	0.69	0.68	0.70	0.64	0.68	0.59	0.61	0.58	0.57	0.60
Switzerland	2.11	2.10	2.12	2.05	1.90	1.78	1.71	1.75	1.61	1.54	1.51	1.44	1.33	1.32	1.25	1.07	1.07	0.98	0.86	0.85	0.91	0.76	0.77	0.76	0.71	0.69	0.68	0.68	0.68	0.73	–
Turkey	19.24	19.33	18.93	18.52	17.98	17.43	16.89	16.34	15.80	15.45	15.70	14.34	14.30	14.04	13.65	12.86	12.26	11.67	11.08	10.31	9.53	9.23	8.72	8.29	7.90	7.53	7.18	6.84	6.52	6.22	5.93
United Kingdom	2.25	2.21	2.23	2.18	2.06	1.96	1.96	1.88	1.87	1.86	1.85	1.79	1.75	1.72	1.68	1.60	1.45	1.41	1.32	1.28	1.21	1.12	1.10	1.01	0.96	0.84	0.93	0.91	0.90	0.84	0.79
United States	2.60	2.53	2.53	2.52	2.48	2.47	2.37	2.24	2.18	2.09	2.00	1.91	1.85	1.77	1.67	1.61	1.52	1.41	1.38	1.31	1.26	1.19	1.15	1.12	1.08	1.06	1.04	1.01	1.00	0.98	0.91

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 26. Perinatal mortality, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Percent of live and still births
Australia	2.90	–	–	–	2.51	2.48	2.52	2.43	2.26	2.26	2.25	2.11	2.34	2.16	2.15	1.87	1.87	1.65	1.61	1.50	1.41	1.32	1.34	1.22	1.19	1.18	1.15	1.06	1.07	0.99	1.03
Austria	3.50	3.18	3.18	3.19	3.01	2.95	2.95	2.74	2.69	2.70	2.70	2.59	2.59	2.46	2.30	2.12	1.82	1.73	1.49	1.41	1.41	1.20	1.13	1.12	1.02	1.01	0.91	0.76	0.74	0.76	0.69
Belgium	3.19	3.01	2.99	2.88	3.03	2.73	2.74	2.64	2.47	2.48	2.33	2.29	2.20	2.12	2.05	2.00	1.80	–	1.54	1.47	1.41	1.32	1.26	1.22	1.14	1.08	1.04	1.02	–	–	–
Canada	2.84	2.81	2.86	2.80	2.74	2.60	2.55	2.47	2.37	2.23	2.18	2.01	1.90	1.76	1.67	–	–	1.38	1.28	1.18	1.09	1.07	1.01	0.95	0.87	0.87	0.84	0.80	0.76	0.79	–
Denmark	2.62	2.69	2.49	2.43	2.31	2.39	2.16	1.95	1.89	1.87	1.79	1.74	1.61	1.45	1.31	1.33	1.26	1.06	1.08	0.99	0.90	0.90	0.87	0.90	0.84	0.81	0.84	0.88	0.87	0.91	0.83
Finland	2.75	2.75	2.62	2.36	2.37	2.36	2.06	2.03	1.91	1.88	1.70	1.67	1.71	1.48	1.46	1.24	1.14	1.12	0.94	0.93	0.84	0.79	0.74	0.74	0.76	0.73	0.64	0.68	0.65	0.64	0.62
France	3.13	2.98	2.98	2.94	2.86	2.77	2.72	2.67	2.57	2.50	2.33	2.25	2.13	2.03	1.93	1.81	1.67	1.56	1.47	1.38	1.29	1.23	1.19	1.14	1.12	1.07	1.04	0.99	0.92	0.89	–
Germany	3.58	3.41	3.26	3.07	2.94	2.86	2.76	2.69	2.64	2.66	2.64	2.53	2.39	2.30	2.14	1.93	1.71	1.49	1.37	1.26	1.16	1.05	0.96	0.93	0.86	0.79	0.76	0.73	0.65	0.64	–
Greece	2.64	2.59	2.72	2.86	2.88	2.94	3.02	2.96	2.86	2.91	2.74	2.79	2.73	2.55	2.58	2.55	2.51	2.26	2.16	2.13	2.03	1.84	1.68	1.65	1.68	1.58	1.47	1.45	1.29	0.91	–
Iceland	1.97	2.78	2.16	2.41	2.27	2.40	2.06	2.07	2.36	1.83	1.85	1.78	1.95	1.62	1.67	1.56	0.93	1.14	1.31	0.80	0.88	0.76	0.90	0.73	0.61	0.52	0.82	0.83	0.75	0.42	0.63
Ireland	3.77	3.61	3.44	3.20	3.18	3.00	2.86	2.85	2.66	2.58	2.42	2.28	2.32	2.29	2.20	2.15	1.97	1.92	1.76	1.62	1.48	1.34	1.35	1.37	1.37	1.23	1.18	1.04	1.13	0.99	–
Italy	4.19	4.03	3.99	3.94	3.73	3.65	3.61	3.41	3.34	3.19	3.12	3.04	2.92	2.83	2.61	2.41	2.26	2.08	1.99	1.85	1.75	1.67	1.60	1.52	1.45	1.35	1.27	1.24	1.23	1.10	–
Japan	3.73	3.68	3.49	3.27	3.02	2.77	2.82	2.44	2.28	2.14	2.03	1.92	1.79	1.70	1.61	1.52	1.40	1.34	1.24	1.19	1.11	1.03	0.96	0.89	0.83	0.76	0.70	0.66	0.62	0.57	0.55
Luxembourg	3.23	3.02	3.08	2.71	3.01	3.06	2.30	2.37	2.43	2.13	2.47	2.16	1.60	1.77	1.67	1.60	1.80	1.06	1.20	1.22	0.98	1.11	1.20	–	0.88	0.78	0.72	1.06	0.71	0.90	–
Netherlands	2.66	2.59	2.57	2.45	2.34	2.31	2.24	2.11	2.02	1.96	1.86	1.76	1.66	1.63	1.54	1.39	1.44	1.29	1.24	1.19	1.11	1.07	1.00	1.01	1.00	0.98	0.97	0.94	0.91	0.96	0.96
New Zealand	2.70	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	2.00	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.21	1.22	1.05	1.06	1.01	0.86	0.89	0.87	0.79	0.85	0.82	0.72
Norway	2.40	–	–	–	–	2.13	2.08	2.05	1.97	2.02	1.90	1.77	1.75	1.66	1.55	1.41	1.33	1.32	1.11	1.18	1.10	0.96	0.98	0.99	0.89	0.91	0.80	0.79	0.79	0.76	0.75
Portugal	4.11	4.09	4.26	3.96	3.86	3.86	3.84	3.85	3.87	3.86	3.70	3.82	3.45	3.31	3.22	3.13	2.93	2.89	2.69	2.55	2.39	2.27	2.21	2.11	1.98	1.97	1.82	1.67	1.53	1.46	–
Spain	3.66	3.63	3.56	3.40	3.17	3.09	2.94	2.85	2.80	2.62	2.55	2.42	2.34	2.15	2.00	2.09	1.98	1.87	1.73	1.65	1.44	1.43	1.29	1.21	1.12	1.08	1.06	0.89	–	1.00	–
Sweden	2.62	2.42	2.36	2.31	2.16	1.99	1.88	1.88	1.83	1.62	1.64	1.56	1.43	1.40	1.32	1.13	1.08	1.02	0.95	0.92	0.87	0.77	0.78	0.73	0.73	0.73	0.75	0.71	0.68	0.65	0.65
Switzerland	2.56	–	–	–	–	2.28	–	–	–	–	1.82	–	–	–	–	1.34	–	–	–	1.08	0.95	0.91	0.90	0.91	0.81	0.83	0.77	0.79	0.71	0.77	–
Turkey	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
United Kingdom	3.36	3.27	3.15	3.00	2.88	2.76	2.67	2.58	2.50	2.37	2.38	2.26	2.21	2.13	2.08	1.97	1.80	1.73	1.56	1.46	1.34	1.20	1.13	1.04	1.01	0.83	0.94	0.95	0.91	0.90	0.84
United States	2.89	2.86	2.85	2.82	2.84	2.80	2.72	2.65	2.61	2.42	2.30	2.19	2.14	2.02	1.91	1.79	1.69	1.55	1.47	1.39	1.33	1.26	1.23	1.16	1.11	1.08	1.04	1.00	0.97	0.96	–

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 27. Crude mortality rates, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Deaths per 1,000 population
Australia	8.5	8.4	8.6	8.6	9.0	8.7	9.0	8.6	9.1	8.5	8.9	8.4	8.2	8.2	8.4	7.8	8.0	7.6	7.5	7.3	7.4	7.2	7.5	7.1	7.2	7.4	7.2	7.2	7.2	7.4	7.0
Austria	12.7	12.1	12.7	12.8	12.3	13.0	12.5	12.9	12.9	13.3	13.2	13.0	12.6	12.2	12.4	12.7	12.6	12.2	12.5	12.2	12.2	12.3	12.1	12.3	11.7	11.9	11.5	11.2	11.0	10.9	10.7
Belgium	12.4	11.6	12.2	12.6	11.7	12.2	12.1	12.0	12.7	12.5	12.3	12.4	12.1	12.1	11.9	12.2	12.1	11.5	11.7	11.4	11.5	11.4	11.3	11.6	11.3	11.5	11.4	11.3	10.6	10.8	10.5
Canada	7.8	7.6	7.7	7.7	7.5	7.5	7.4	7.3	7.3	7.3	7.3	7.3	7.4	7.4	7.4	7.3	7.3	7.2	7.2	7.1	7.2	7.0	7.1	7.0	7.0	7.2	7.3	7.2	7.3	7.3	7.2
Denmark	9.6	9.3	9.6	9.8	9.9	10.0	10.2	9.9	9.6	9.8	9.7	9.8	10.2	10.1	10.1	10.1	10.6	10.0	10.4	10.7	10.9	10.9	10.8	11.2	11.2	11.3	11.3	11.3	11.5	11.5	11.9
Finland	9.0	9.2	9.5	9.3	9.4	9.6	9.6	9.5	9.7	10.0	9.6	9.9	9.5	9.2	9.6	9.3	9.5	9.3	9.2	9.2	9.2	9.1	8.9	9.2	9.2	9.8	9.6	9.7	9.9	9.9	10.0
France	11.3	10.7	11.3	11.5	10.6	11.0	10.6	10.9	11.0	11.3	10.6	10.8	10.6	10.7	10.5	10.6	10.5	10.1	10.2	10.1	10.1	10.2	9.9	10.2	9.9	10.0	9.9	9.5	9.4	9.4	9.4
Germany	11.6	11.2	11.3	11.7	11.0	11.5	11.5	11.5	12.2	12.2	12.1	11.9	11.8	11.8	11.7	12.1	11.9	11.5	11.8	11.6	11.6	11.7	11.6	11.7	11.3	11.5	11.5	11.2	11.2	11.3	11.5
Greece	7.3	7.6	7.9	7.9	8.2	7.9	7.9	8.3	8.4	8.2	8.4	8.4	8.6	8.7	8.5	8.9	8.9	9.0	8.7	8.6	9.1	8.9	8.8	9.2	8.9	9.3	9.2	9.6	9.3	10.1	9.2
Iceland	6.6	7.0	6.8	7.2	7.0	6.7	7.1	7.0	6.9	7.2	7.1	7.3	6.9	7.0	6.9	6.5	6.1	6.5	6.4	6.6	6.7	7.2	6.8	7.0	6.6	6.8	6.6	7.0	7.3	6.8	6.7
Ireland	11.7	12.4	12.0	11.9	11.5	11.5	12.1	10.7	11.3	11.6	11.4	10.3	11.1	10.6	10.7	10.6	10.1	10.0	10.1	10.0	9.6	9.2	9.4	9.4	9.1	9.3	9.6	8.8	9.1	8.8	9.1
Italy	9.5	9.1	9.9	10.0	9.4	9.9	9.4	9.6	10.0	9.9	9.8	9.5	9.5	9.9	9.6	10.0	10.0	9.8	9.6	9.6	9.9	9.6	9.5	9.9	9.4	9.6	9.5	9.3	9.4	9.2	9.5
Japan	7.6	7.4	7.5	7.0	6.9	7.1	6.8	6.8	6.8	6.8	6.9	6.6	6.5	6.6	6.5	6.3	6.3	6.1	6.1	6.0	6.2	6.1	6.0	6.2	6.2	6.3	6.2	6.2	6.5	6.4	6.7
Luxembourg	11.7	11.3	12.4	12.0	11.8	12.3	12.2	12.2	12.2	12.4	12.4	12.8	11.8	11.9	12.0	12.2	12.5	11.3	11.6	11.0	11.2	11.2	11.5	11.2	11.2	10.9	10.9	10.8	10.2	10.6	9.9
Netherlands	7.5	7.5	7.9	8.0	7.6	7.9	8.1	7.9	8.2	8.3	8.4	8.3	8.5	8.2	8.0	8.3	8.3	7.9	8.2	8.0	8.0	8.1	8.2	8.2	8.3	8.5	8.6	8.3	8.4	8.7	8.6
New Zealand	8.7	9.0	8.9	8.8	8.8	8.7	8.9	8.4	8.9	8.7	8.8	8.5	8.5	8.5	8.3	8.1	8.1	8.3	7.9	8.1	8.5	8.0	8.0	8.1	7.8	8.4	8.3	8.3	8.2	8.1	7.9
Norway	9.2	9.5	9.3	10.1	9.5	9.5	9.6	9.6	9.9	10.1	10.0	10.0	10.0	10.1	9.9	9.9	10.0	9.8	10.0	10.2	10.1	10.2	10.1	10.2	10.3	10.7	10.5	10.7	10.8	10.7	10.9
Portugal	10.5	11.1	10.7	10.8	10.6	10.5	11.0	10.5	10.4	11.1	10.3	11.0	10.0	10.6	10.5	10.2	10.5	9.8	9.8	9.4	9.9	9.8	9.4	9.6	9.6	9.6	9.4	9.3	9.5	9.3	10.4
Spain	8.6	8.5	8.9	8.9	8.6	8.5	8.5	8.5	8.5	9.0	8.4	9.0	8.3	8.6	8.5	8.4	8.3	8.1	8.1	7.9	7.7	7.8	7.6	7.9	7.8	8.1	8.0	8.0	8.2	8.3	8.6
Sweden	10.0	9.8	10.2	10.1	10.0	10.1	10.1	10.1	10.4	10.5	10.0	10.2	10.4	10.5	10.6	10.8	11.0	10.7	10.8	11.0	11.1	11.1	10.9	10.9	10.8	11.3	11.1	11.1	11.5	10.8	11.1
Switzerland	9.8	9.4	10.0	10.0	9.3	9.5	9.4	9.2	9.5	9.5	9.2	9.3	9.0	9.0	8.9	8.8	9.1	8.9	9.4	9.1	9.4	9.3	9.5	9.1	9.2	9.3	9.2	9.2	9.3	9.2	9.5
Turkey	–	–	–	–	9.5	9.0	8.8	8.2	7.9	7.7	7.6	7.4	7.4	6.9	7.1	–	–	–	–	7.0	7.5	7.3	9.1	9.0	8.7	9.0	8.3	8.1	7.9	–	7.8
United Kingdom	11.5	11.9	11.9	12.2	11.3	11.5	11.8	11.2	11.9	11.9	11.7	11.5	12.0	11.9	11.9	11.8	12.1	11.7	11.9	12.0	11.7	11.7	11.8	11.7	11.4	11.9	11.6	11.3	11.4	11.5	11.2
United States	9.5	9.3	9.5	9.6	9.4	9.4	9.5	9.4	9.7	9.5	9.5	9.3	9.4	9.3	9.1	8.8	8.8	8.6	8.7	8.5	8.8	8.6	8.5	8.6	8.6	8.7	8.7	8.7	8.8	8.7	8.6

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Demographic and general economic background data

Table 28. Population in thousands, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Mid–year estimates
Australia	10,547	10,774	10,986	11,196	11,418	11,648	11,865	12,074	12,300	12,553	12,817	13,067	13,304	13,505	13,723	13,893	14,033	14,192	14,358	14,514	14,695	14,923	15,184	15,394	15,579	15,788	16,018	16,264	16,538	16,833	17,086
Austria	7,047	7,086	7,130	7,176	7,224	7,271	7,322	7,377	7,415	7,441	7,467	7,500	7,544	7,586	7,599	7,579	7,566	7,568	7,562	7,549	7,549	7,565	7,574	7,552	7,553	7,558	7,566	7,576	7,596	7,624	7,718
Belgium	9,153	9,184	9,221	9,290	9,378	9,464	9,528	9,581	9,619	9,646	9,651	9,673	9,709	9,739	9,768	9,795	9,811	9,822	9,830	9,837	9,847	9,853	9,856	9,855	9,855	9,858	9,862	9,868	9,884	9,938	9,993
Canada	17,909	18,269	18,615	18,965	19,325	19,678	20,048	20,412	20,729	21,028	21,324	21,595	21,822	22,072	22,395	22,727	23,027	23,295	23,535	23,768	24,070	24,366	24,657	24,905	24,995	25,181	25,374	25,644	25,937	26,273	26,639
Denmark	4,581	4,612	4,647	4,684	4,720	4,757	4,797	4,839	4,867	4,893	4,929	4,963	4,992	5,022	5,045	5,060	5,073	5,088	5,097	5,112	5,125	5,122	5,119	5,116	5,112	5,114	5,121	5,127	5,130	5,132	5,140
Finland	4,430	4,461	4,491	4,523	4,549	4,564	4,581	4,606	4,626	4,624	4,606	4,612	4,640	4,666	4,691	4,712	4,726	4,739	4,753	4,765	4,780	4,800	4,827	4,856	4,882	4,902	4,918	4,932	4,946	4,964	4,986
France	45,684	46,163	46,998	47,816	48,310	48,758	49,164	49,548	49,915	50,315	50,772	51,251	51,701	52,118	52,460	52,699	52,909	53,145	53,376	53,606	53,880	54,182	54,480	54,729	54,946	55,170	55,547	55,824	56,118	56,423	56,735
Germany	55,433	56,185	56,837	57,389	57,971	58,619	59,148	59,286	59,500	60,067	60,651	61,284	61,672	61,976	62,054	61,829	61,531	61,400	61,327	61,359	61,566	61,682	61,638	61,423	61,175	61,024	61,066	61,077	61,451	62,063	63,074
Greece	8,327	8,398	8,448	8,480	8,510	8,550	8,614	8,716	8,741	8,773	8,793	8,831	8,889	8,929	8,962	9,047	9,167	9,308	9,430	9,548	9,643	9,729	9,790	9,847	9,896	9,934	9,966	9,984	10,004	10,033	10,140
Iceland	176	179	182	185	189	192	196	199	201	203	204	206	209	212	215	218	220	222	224	226	228	231	234	237	239	241	243	246	250	253	256
Ireland	2,834	2,819	2,830	2,850	2,864	2,876	2,884	2,900	2,913	2,926	2,950	2,978	3,024	3,073	3,124	3,177	3,228	3,272	3,314	3,368	3,401	3,443	3,483	3,505	3,529	3,540	3,541	3,542	3,538	3,515	3,503
Italy	50,198	50,524	50,844	51,199	51,601	51,988	52,332	52,667	52,987	53,317	53,661	54,005	54,400	54,779	54,111	55,441	55,718	55,955	56,155	56,318	56,416	56,508	56,639	56,836	57,005	57,141	57,221	57,331	57,441	57,525	57,647
Japan	93,260	94,100	94,980	95,890	96,900	97,950	98,860	99,920	101,070	102,320	103,720	104,750	107,180	108,660	110,158	111,520	112,768	113,880	114,920	115,880	116,800	117,650	118,450	119,260	120,020	120,750	121,490	122,090	122,610	123,116	123,540
Luxembourg	314	317	321	324	328	332	334	335	336	338	340	342	347	351	355	359	361	361	362	363	365	366	366	366	366	367	370	372	375	378	381
Netherlands	11,486	11,639	11,806	11,966	12,127	12,292	12,455	12,597	12,730	12,878	13,039	13,194	13,329	13,439	13,545	13,666	13,774	13,856	13,942	14,038	14,150	14,247	14,313	14,367	14,424	14,491	14,572	14,665	14,760	14,849	14,944
New Zealand	2,377	2,427	2,485	2,537	2,589	2,635	2,683	2,728	2,754	2,780	2,820	2,864	2,916	2,977	3,042	3,100	3,132	3,143	3,144	3,138	3,144	3,157	3,181	3,222	3,253	3,272	3,279	3,309	3,326	3,343	3,379
Norway	3,585	3,615	3,639	3,667	3,694	3,723	3,753	3,785	3,819	3,851	3,879	3,903	3,933	3,961	3,985	4,007	4,026	4,043	4,060	4,073	4,087	4,100	4,116	4,128	4,141	4,153	4,169	4,187	4,209	4,227	4,242
Portugal	8,426	8,420	8,410	8,466	8,505	8,511	8,492	8,986	8,998	8,482	8,432	8,382	8,364	8,837	8,482	8,737	8,942	9,044	9,105	9,189	9,819	9,936	9,429	9,502	9,577	9,648	9,903	9,898	9,889	9,878	9,859
Spain	30,583	30,904	31,158	31,430	31,741	32,085	32,453	32,850	33,240	33,566	33,876	34,190	34,498	34,810	35,147	35,515	35,937	36,367	36,778	37,108	37,386	37,751	37,970	38,162	38,328	38,474	38,604	38,716	38,809	38,888	38,959
Sweden	7,480	7,520	7,562	7,604	7,662	7,734	7,807	7,869	7,912	7,968	8,043	8,098	8,122	8,137	8,160	8,192	8,222	8,252	8,276	8,294	8,311	8,320	8,325	8,329	8,337	8,350	8,370	8,398	8,436	8,493	8,566
Switzerland	5,328	5,434	5,574	5,694	5,789	5,856	5,918	5,992	6,068	6,136	6,181	6,213	6,261	6,307	6,341	6,339	6,303	6,281	6,282	6,294	6,385	6,354	6,391	6,419	6,442	6,470	6,573	6,619	6,672	6,723	6,796
Turkey	27,755	28,447	29,156	29,883	30,628	31,391	32,192	33,013	33,855	34,719	35,605	36,554	37,502	38,451	39,399	40,348	40,925	41,835	42,774	43,741	44,737	45,757	46,780	47,804	49,420	50,664	51,731	52,747	53,969	55,255	57,163
United Kingdom	52,373	52,807	53,292	53,625	53,991	54,350	54,643	54,959	55,214	55,461	55,632	55,907	56,079	56,210	56,224	56,215	56,206	56,179	56,167	56,227	56,314	56,379	56,335	56,377	56,488	56,618	56,763	56,930	57,065	57,236	57,411
United States	190,081	193,196	196,108	198,901	201,563	204,041	206,302	208,441	210,513	212,565	214,776	217,035	219,086	220,924	222,712	224,545	226,437	228,451	230,607	232,844	235,121	237,474	239,912	242,320	244,677	247,049	249,452	251,906	254,420	256,964	259,571

NOTE: Includes population for U.S. States and territories.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 29. Population age 65 and over, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Percent of population
Australia	8.2	8.3	8.3	8.3	8.3	8.3	8.3	8.3	8.3	8.2	8.1	8.3	8.4	8.5	8.6	8.7	8.9	9.1	9.2	9.4	9.6	9.8	9.9	9.9	10.1	10.3	10.5	10.7	10.9	11.0	11.2
Austria	12.2	12.3	12.6	12.7	13.0	13.2	13.4	13.6	13.8	14.0	14.1	14.3	14.4	14.6	14.8	15.0	15.1	15.3	15.3	15.5	15.4	15.1	14.8	14.4	14.3	14.3	14.5	14.7	14.9	15.1	15.1
Belgium	12.0	12.1	12.3	12.4	12.5	12.6	12.8	13.0	13.1	13.3	13.4	13.5	13.6	13.7	13.9	13.9	14.0	14.1	14.2	14.4	14.4	14.2	14.1	13.8	13.7	13.8	14.1	14.3	14.5	14.7	–
Canada	7.6	7.6	7.6	7.6	7.6	7.7	7.7	7.7	7.8	7.9	8.0	8.1	8.2	8.3	8.4	8.5	8.7	8.9	9.1	9.3	9.5	9.7	9.8	9.9	10.1	10.4	10.6	10.9	11.1	11.3	11.5
Denmark	10.6	10.8	11.0	11.1	11.3	11.5	11.5	11.7	11.9	12.1	12.3	12.5	12.7	12.9	13.1	13.4	13.6	13.8	14.1	14.3	14.4	14.5	14.7	14.8	14.9	15.1	15.3	15.4	15.4	15.6	15.6
Finland	7.5	7.4	7.5	7.7	7.9	8.0	8.2	8.4	8.6	8.8	9.1	9.4	9.7	10.0	10.3	10.6	10.9	11.2	11.5	11.8	12.0	12.1	12.2	12.3	12.4	12.5	12.7	12.9	13.1	13.0	13.5
France	11.6	11.7	11.7	11.8	11.9	12.0	11.9	12.4	12.6	12.7	12.8	12.9	13.0	13.3	13.3	13.4	13.5	13.6	13.8	13.9	14.0	13.8	13.5	13.2	12.9	12.8	13.1	13.3	13.6	13.8	14.0
Germany	10.2	10.4	11.3	11.5	11.7	12.0	12.3	12.6	12.9	13.1	13.2	13.4	13.6	13.9	14.1	14.5	14.7	15.0	15.3	15.5	15.5	15.3	15.0	14.8	14.7	14.8	15.1	15.3	15.4	–	–
Greece	8.1	8.2	8.6	8.7	8.9	9.0	9.2	9.4	9.7	9.9	11.1	11.1	11.4	11.7	12.0	12.2	12.4	12.6	12.9	13.0	13.1	13.2	13.2	13.3	13.3	13.4	13.5	13.6	13.6	13.7	–
Iceland	8.2	8.2	8.3	8.3	8.4	8.4	8.5	8.5	8.6	8.7	8.8	8.9	8.9	9.0	9.0	9.2	9.3	9.5	9.6	9.8	9.9	9.8	9.9	10.0	10.1	10.1	10.3	10.4	10.5	10.5	10.7
Ireland	11.1	11.2	11.2	11.1	11.1	11.1	11.2	11.1	11.1	11.0	10.8	11.1	11.0	11.0	10.9	10.9	10.8	10.8	10.8	10.7	10.7	10.7	10.6	10.8	10.8	10.8	10.9	11.0	11.1	11.2	11.3
Italy	9.2	9.6	9.6	9.7	9.8	10.1	10.2	10.4	10.5	10.7	10.9	11.2	11.4	11.7	12.0	12.3	12.5	12.8	13.1	13.4	13.6	13.7	13.1	12.9	12.8	12.9	13.2	13.6	14.8	14.3	15.3
Japan	5.7	5.8	5.9	6.1	6.2	6.3	6.5	6.7	6.9	6.9	7.1	7.2	7.4	7.5	7.7	8.0	8.2	8.4	8.6	8.8	9.1	9.2	9.5	9.7	9.9	10.3	10.6	10.9	11.2	11.6	12.0
Luxembourg	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	11.9	–	–	–	12.7	–	–	12.9	–	–	13.3	13.5	13.5	13.5	13.5	13.4	13.3	13.2	13.2	13.2	13.3	13.3	13.4	–
Netherlands	8.6	9.1	9.3	9.4	9.5	9.6	9.7	9.8	9.9	10.1	10.2	10.3	10.4	10.5	10.7	10.8	10.9	11.1	11.2	11.4	11.5	11.6	11.7	11.8	11.9	12.1	12.3	12.4	12.5	12.7	12.8
New Zealand	8.7	8.6	8.5	8.4	8.3	8.3	8.3	8.3	8.4	8.4	8.4	8.5	8.6	8.6	8.6	8.8	8.9	9.1	9.3	9.6	9.8	10.0	10.1	10.1	10.3	10.3	10.6	10.6	10.7	10.8	10.9
Norway	11.1	11.1	11.4	11.6	11.8	12.0	12.2	12.4	12.6	12.8	12.9	13.0	13.1	13.3	13.5	13.7	13.9	14.1	14.3	14.6	14.8	14.9	15.1	15.3	15.6	15.7	16.0	16.1	16.1	16.3	16.3
Portugal	8.1	8.4	8.6	8.7	8.7	8.9	9.1	8.7	8.9	9.6	9.7	9.3	9.9	9.9	10.7	10.7	10.7	10.7	10.7	10.3	11.4	11.6	11.7	11.7	11.9	12.1	12.4	12.6	12.9	13.1	13.1
Spain	8.1	8.3	8.4	8.5	8.7	8.8	9.0	9.1	9.3	9.4	9.6	9.7	9.8	9.9	10.1	10.3	10.5	10.6	10.7	10.8	10.9	11.3	11.5	11.6	11.8	12.0	12.2	12.5	13.1	13.1	13.4
Sweden	11.8	11.9	12.1	12.3	12.5	12.7	12.9	13.1	13.3	13.5	13.7	13.9	14.2	14.5	14.8	15.1	15.4	15.6	15.9	16.2	16.4	16.6	16.7	16.8	17.1	17.4	17.6	17.7	17.8	17.8	17.8
Switzerland	10.7	10.7	10.7	10.7	10.8	11.0	11.2	11.3	11.5	11.6	11.8	12.1	12.3	12.5	12.7	13.1	13.4	13.7	14.0	14.2	14.3	14.3	14.3	14.3	14.4	14.6	14.7	14.8	14.9	15.0	15.0
Turkey	3.6	–	–	–	–	4.1	–	–	–	–	4.5	–	–	–	–	4.6	–	–	4.5	–	4.8	4.5	4.4	4.3	4.2	4.8	4.0	4.0	4.0	4.1	–
United Kingdom	11.7	11.8	11.8	11.8	12.0	12.2	12.3	12.5	12.6	12.8	13.0	13.2	13.4	13.6	13.7	14.1	14.2	14.4	14.6	14.8	14.9	15.0	15.0	14.9	14.8	15.1	15.3	15.5	15.6	15.6	15.7
United States	9.2	9.3	9.4	9.4	9.4	9.5	9.5	9.6	9.6	9.7	9.8	9.9	10.0	10.2	10.3	10.5	10.7	10.8	11.0	11.2	11.3	11.4	11.5	11.7	11.8	11.9	12.1	12.2	12.3	12.6	12.6

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 30. Population age 80 and over, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Percent of population
Australia	1.1	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.8	1.8	1.9	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.1	2.2
Austria	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.9	1.9	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.3	2.3	2.5	2.4	2.5	2.6	2.7	2.8	2.9	3.0	3.1	3.2	3.3	3.4	3.5	3.6	–
Belgium	1.8	1.9	1.9	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.3	2.3	2.4	2.5	2.5	2.7	2.7	2.8	2.9	3.0	3.1	3.2	3.3	3.3	3.4	3.4	3.5
Canada	1.2	1.2	1.3	1.3	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.9	1.9	2.0	2.1	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.3	2.4
Denmark	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.9	1.9	1.9	2.0	2.1	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.3	2.4	2.5	2.6	2.7	2.7	2.8	2.9	3.0	3.1	3.2	3.2	3.3	3.4	3.5	3.6	3.7
Finland	1.0	0.9	0.9	0.9	1.0	1.0	1.0	1.0	1.0	1.1	1.1	1.1	1.2	1.2	1.3	1.3	1.4	1.5	1.6	1.7	1.8	1.9	2.0	2.1	2.2	2.3	2.4	2.6	2.7	2.8	2.9
France	1.9	2.0	2.1	2.1	2.0	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.2	2.3	2.3	2.3	2.3	2.4	2.4	2.4	2.5	2.6	2.6	2.7	2.8	2.9	3.0	3.1	3.2	3.2	3.3	3.4	3.5	3.7	–
Germany	1.4	1.5	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.7	1.7	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.9	1.9	1.9	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.2	2.3	2.4	2.5	2.6	2.7	2.8	3.0	3.1	3.3	3.4	3.5	3.7	–	–
Greece	1.3	1.5	1.7	1.5	1.5	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.6	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.3	2.4	2.4	2.5	2.6	2.7	2.8	2.9	2.9	–	–
Iceland	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.3	1.3	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.4	1.5	1.5	1.6	1.6	1.7	1.8	1.9	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.3	2.3	2.3	2.4	2.4	2.5	2.5	2.5	2.5	2.5
Ireland	1.9	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.0	1.9	1.9	1.9	1.9	1.9	1.9	1.9	1.9	1.9	1.9	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.9	1.9	1.9	1.9	2.0	2.0	–	–
Italy	1.3	1.4	1.4	1.5	1.5	1.6	1.6	1.7	1.7	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.9	1.9	1.9	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.2	2.3	2.4	2.3	2.3	2.4	2.5	2.6	2.7	–	3.0	–
Japan	0.7	0.7	0.7	0.8	0.8	0.8	0.8	0.8	0.9	0.9	0.9	0.9	1.0	1.0	1.0	1.1	1.1	1.2	1.3	1.3	1.4	1.5	1.6	1.7	1.7	1.8	1.9	2.0	2.1	2.3	2.4
Luxembourg	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.7	–	–	–	1.8	–	–	1.8	–	–	2.0	2.1	2.1	2.2	2.3	2.4	2.5	2.5	2.6	2.7	2.7	2.9	2.4	–
Netherlands	1.2	1.4	1.4	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.6	1.6	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.9	1.9	2.0	2.1	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.3	2.4	2.4	2.5	2.6	2.6	2.7	2.8	2.9	–
New Zealand	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.6	1.6	1.7	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.9	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.2	2.2
Norway	2.0	1.9	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.1	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.2	2.3	2.3	2.4	2.5	2.6	2.7	2.7	2.8	2.9	3.0	3.1	3.2	3.3	3.4	3.4	3.5	3.6	3.7	3.7
Portugal	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.7	1.8	1.9	1.9	2.0	2.1	2.2	2.3	2.4	2.5	2.5
Spain	1.2	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.6	1.6	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.7	2.0	2.1	2.2	2.3	2.4	2.5	2.6	2.7	2.7	2.8
Sweden	1.9	1.9	1.9	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.3	2.3	2.4	2.5	2.5	2.6	2.7	2.8	2.8	2.9	3.0	3.1	3.2	3.3	3.5	3.9	3.7	3.8	3.9	4.0	4.2	4.4
Switzerland	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.8	1.9	1.9	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.1	2.2	2.4	2.5	2.6	2.7	2.8	3.0	3.1	3.2	3.3	3.4	3.5	3.7	3.8	3.9	4.0
Turkey	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	0.8	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
United Kingdom	1.9	1.9	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.3	2.3	2.3	2.4	2.3	2.4	2.5	2.5	2.6	2.6	2.7	2.8	2.9	3.0	3.1	3.2	3.2	3.4	3.5	3.6	3.7
United States	1.4	1.4	1.5	1.5	1.5	1.6	1.6	1.7	1.7	1.7	1.8	1.9	1.9	2.0	2.0	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.2	2.3	2.3	2.3	2.4	2.4	2.5	2.5	2.6	2.6	2.7	2.7	2.8

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 31. Dependency ratio, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	Population age 0–19 and 65 and over as a percent of population age 20–64
Australia	85.4	86.7	87.6	88.4	89.0	89.0	88.8	87.5	87.0	85.9	85.1	84.2	84.0	83.5	82.9	82.1	81.5	80.8	79.9	78.9	77.8	76.7	75.5	74.5	73.4	72.8	72.4	72.1	71.6	71.0	70.3
Austria	72.1	72.6	73.0	73.9	74.9	76.5	78.3	79.5	80.3	81.3	82.1	83.8	84.2	84.4	84.6	84.8	84.5	83.9	83.1	82.1	80.5	77.9	75.1	72.5	70.2	68.7	67.7	66.8	66.0	65.3	–
Belgium	70.8	72.9	75.1	76.4	77.4	78.5	79.2	79.6	79.8	79.9	80.2	80.3	80.4	80.4	79.7	78.5	77.9	77.1	76.0	73.8	73.8	72.6	71.2	69.2	67.4	66.5	66.1	65.8	65.7	65.7	–
Canada	96.2	97.8	98.9	100.0	100.4	100.1	99.2	97.7	95.9	94.0	92.2	90.4	88.6	86.6	84.3	82.2	80.4	78.5	76.6	75.0	73.3	71.6	70.0	68.3	66.9	66.0	65.5	65.4	65.2	65.1	65.0
Denmark	79.0	79.4	79.5	79.3	78.9	78.3	77.6	77.0	76.5	76.2	75.9	75.7	76.0	76.0	76.1	76.4	76.4	76.3	76.1	75.9	75.4	74.6	73.7	72.7	71.3	70.1	68.8	67.7	67.0	–	–
Finland	85.0	84.3	84.3	84.9	85.0	84.3	82.6	80.7	78.7	77.0	75.5	74.1	72.8	71.5	70.5	69.8	69.2	68.7	68.4	68.0	67.4	66.7	66.1	65.5	64.7	64.1	63.7	63.3	63.0	63.1	63.0
France	78.9	80.5	82.1	83.2	84.6	86.0	86.7	86.5	86.0	85.4	84.8	84.5	84.3	84.1	83.7	83.2	82.4	81.7	81.1	80.4	79.3	77.6	74.6	74.5	72.9	72.1	71.9	71.8	71.7	71.6	–
Germany	65.5	64.9	65.1	66.0	67.1	68.7	70.6	72.6	74.0	74.6	75.3	75.7	75.9	76.0	76.1	76.2	76.1	75.7	75.1	74.3	72.9	70.7	68.2	65.4	63.0	61.3	60.1	58.9	57.9	–	–
Greece	71.9	73.5	73.5	75.1	75.8	75.8	75.3	74.7	74.5	75.1	76.1	77.1	78.0	78.0	78.1	78.3	78.2	78.3	78.2	78.0	76.9	75.8	75.3	74.5	73.6	72.5	71.3	70.0	68.6	–	–
Iceland	105.7	107.2	108.2	108.9	109.2	109.3	108.9	107.8	106.7	105.8	104.4	103.2	102.2	100.8	99.0	97.2	95.5	93.4	91.9	90.4	88.8	87.4	86.0	84.4	82.8	81.3	80.1	79.1	78.6	78.2	78.4
Ireland	101.1	102.4	103.4	103.6	104.1	104.4	105.8	105.7	105.5	105.0	102.5	105.5	105.1	104.8	104.5	104.2	103.8	103.5	103.2	102.9	102.5	102.0	101.3	99.8	98.7	97.7	96.6	96.0	95.2	–	–
Italy	70.2	70.9	71.5	71.8	72.0	73.3	73.7	73.7	73.1	73.1	74.3	74.7	75.3	76.0	76.7	77.2	77.6	77.8	77.8	77.6	76.9	75.6	73.9	71.7	69.5	67.9	66.8	65.8	–	64.1	–
Japan	84.3	82.0	79.7	77.9	76.0	75.3	74.8	72.6	70.2	67.6	66.3	65.3	64.9	64.9	65.1	64.8	65.1	65.5	65.7	65.7	65.7	65.8	65.6	65.3	64.8	64.5	64.7	64.1	63.4	62.8	62.2
Luxembourg	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	69.8	–	–	–	71.5	–	–	69.6	–	–	66.7	66.0	66.5	66.8	65.6	64.4	62.8	61.9	60.8	59.1	58.3	57.8	–	–
Netherlands	89.5	89.2	89.9	90.3	90.3	90.3	89.3	87.7	86.5	85.7	85.1	84.4	83.7	82.9	82.0	80.9	79.6	78.3	77.1	75.8	74.5	73.1	71.6	69.9	68.1	66.8	64.7	63.8	62.9	61.9	–
New Zealand	96.9	97.7	98.4	99.3	100.1	100.4	100.1	99.8	99.5	99.1	98.5	97.7	97.0	96.2	95.0	93.6	93.2	92.4	91.2	90.1	88.3	86.2	84.1	81.8	80.1	79.1	78.3	77.2	76.4	75.5	74.5
Norway	79.6	79.6	81.1	82.2	82.5	82.6	82.3	82.0	82.0	82.2	82.3	82.5	82.6	82.6	82.5	82.4	82.1	81.7	81.3	81.0	80.5	80.1	79.7	79.2	78.6	77.9	77.3	76.6	75.7	75.1	–
Portugal	80.9	82.7	84.5	84.7	84.8	85.5	86.4	86.7	86.5	86.5	–	–	–	–	85.0	85.1	85.1	85.2	85.1	85.6	84.7	84.7	82.5	81.2	79.7	78.5	77.4	76.3	74.7	73.7	–
Spain	77.3	77.7	78.3	78.9	79.5	79.6	80.6	81.2	81.8	82.3	82.9	83.3	83.6	83.9	84.5	84.9	85.2	84.9	84.3	83.5	82.6	83.5	82.1	80.6	79.0	77.6	76.3	75.2	74.2	–	–
Sweden	72.0	72.4	72.5	72.3	72.0	71.6	71.2	71.0	70.8	70.6	70.6	71.0	71.5	72.1	72.8	73.4	73.8	74.0	74.2	74.4	74.6	74.8	74.7	74.5	73.4	73.7	73.5	73.3	73.1	73.2	73.4
Switzerland	71.6	72.5	73.5	74.0	74.1	74.1	74.0	73.8	73.3	72.8	72.8	73.2	73.2	73.2	73.0	72.8	72.5	72.2	71.8	71.2	70.2	69.1	67.6	66.1	64.8	63.8	63.0	62.2	61.6	61.1	60.8
Turkey	112.9	–	–	–	–	123.3	–	–	–	–	130.0	–	–	–	–	126.0	–	–	120.9	–	118.8	116.2	113.9	111.6	109.2	107.2	108.7	107.0	105.8	–	–
United Kingdom	72.0	73.2	74.0	74.8	75.6	76.5	77.1	77.0	77.4	78.1	78.7	79.3	80.0	80.5	80.1	81.0	80.9	80.5	80.2	79.8	79.4	78.6	77.5	75.8	74.0	73.5	73.0	72.6	72.0	71.5	70.9
United States	91.2	92.8	93.8	94.1	94.7	95.1	95.4	93.6	92.3	91.2	90.4	89.5	88.2	86.7	85.1	83.6	81.9	80.2	78.6	77.1	75.8	74.3	73.2	72.2	71.2	70.6	70.4	70.4	70.3	70.4	70.1

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 32. Employment, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
Australia	4,115,000	4,127,000	4,226,000	4,347,000	4,587,000	4,733,000	4,891,000	5,010,000	5,136,000	5,183,000	5,395,000	5,516,000	5,610,000	5,783,000	5,854,000	5,841,000	5,966,000	5,982,000	6,008,000	6,151,000	6,315,000	6,390,000	6,303,000	6,368,000	6,574,000	6,850,000	7,020,000	7,219,000	7,540,000	7,828,000	7,789,000
Austria	3,223,000	3,241,000	3,225,000	3,203,000	3,198,000	3,176,000	3,150,000	3,099,000	3,058,000	3,052,000	3,059,000	3,092,000	3,115,000	3,159,000	3,200,000	3,176,000	3,187,000	3,219,000	3,230,000	3,244,000	3,277,000	3,269,000	3,223,000	3,195,000	3,199,000	3,209,000	3,219,000	3,216,000	3,224,000	3,267,000	3,328,000
Belgium	3,404,000	3,433,000	3,488,000	3,513,000	3,561,000	3,567,000	3,585,000	3,573,000	3,670,000	3,630,000	3,691,300	3,728,500	3,724,900	3,773,900	3,828,200	3,781,600	3,757,600	3,751,400	3,753,200	3,798,500	3,700,200	3,637,200	3,583,000	3,546,100	3,546,100	3,540,500	3,583,800	3,600,100	3,653,300	3,712,000	3,764,000
Canada	6,084,000	6,176,000	6,351,000	6,498,000	6,728,000	6,974,000	7,377,000	7,583,000	7,719,000	7,952,000	8,034,000	8,214,000	8,447,000	8,860,000	9,220,000	9,364,000	9,559,000	9,728,000	10,053,000	10,449,000	10,709,000	10,999,000	10,619,000	10,678,000	10,933,000	11,223,000	11,533,000	11,858,000	12,246,000	12,484,000	12,571,000
Denmark	2,054,000	–	–	–	–	2,226,000	–	2,223,161	–	2,268,320	2,284,441	2,297,586	2,345,720	2,375,351	2,367,487	2,337,523	2,379,471	2,398,957	2,424,090	2,453,000	2,442,000	2,410,000	2,420,601	2,427,784	2,470,000	2,532,000	2,598,000	2,620,000	2,604,834	2,588,611	2,573,722
Finland	2,124,400	2,164,800	2,155,200	2,164,600	2,163,400	2,188,000	2,192,000	2,152,600	2,124,100	2,156,000	2,202,000	2,188,000	2,209,000	2,253,000	2,262,000	2,239,400	2,209,700	2,166,800	2,144,100	2,191,900	2,256,400	2,278,900	2,295,500	2,306,400	2,311,600	2,308,300	2,297,000	2,300,600	2,307,400	2,318,000	2,290,000
France	19,715,000	19,713,000	19,709,000	19,867,000	20,086,000	20,148,000	20,298,000	20,350,000	20,308,000	20,596,000	20,856,000	20,934,000	21,037,000	21,303,000	21,461,000	21,236,000	21,389,000	21,730,000	21,818,000	21,836,000	21,847,100	21,716,200	21,751,600	21,667,600	21,466,700	21,400,800	21,423,300	21,485,400	21,644,100	21,879,100	22,140,100
Germany	26,247,000	26,591,000	26,690,000	26,744,000	26,753,000	26,887,000	26,801,000	25,950,000	25,968,000	26,356,000	26,668,000	26,772,000	26,875,000	27,160,000	26,829,000	26,110,000	25,974,000	26,008,000	26,219,000	26,652,000	27,059,000	27,033,000	26,725,000	26,347,000	26,393,000	26,593,000	26,856,000	27,050,000	27,261,000	27,631,000	28,433,000
Greece	3,386,000	3,424,000	3,367,000	3,320,000	3,278,000	3,309,000	3,225,000	3,186,000	3,149,000	3,138,000	3,171,000	3,143,000	3,157,000	3,172,000	3,190,000	3,190,000	3,230,000	3,262,000	3,276,000	3,312,000	3,356,000	3,529,000	3,502,000	3,540,000	3,553,000	3,589,000	3,601,000	3,598,000	3,657,000	3,671,000	3,719,000
Iceland	68,000	69,000	71,000	72,000	72,000	76,000	77,000	77,000	78,000	78,000	81,463	85,558	87,760	90,170	93,320	94,850	98,285	98,560	101,505	102,540	105,944	110,997	113,922	114,923	116,559	120,795	124,655	131,807	132,800	135,700	133,708
Ireland	1,055,000	1,053,000	1,060,000	1,066,000	1,071,000	1,069,000	1,066,000	1,060,000	1,063,000	1,066,000	1,053,000	1,055,000	1,050,000	1,057,000	1,060,000	1,073,000	1,064,000	1,083,000	1,110,000	1,145,000	1,156,000	1,146,000	1,146,000	1,122,000	1,103,000	1,076,000	1,081,000	1,080,000	1,091,000	1,090,000	1,120,000
Italy	20,762,000	20,812,000	20,592,000	20,277,000	20,160,600	19,812,000	19,510,000	19,732,000	19,723,000	19,818,000	19,949,400	19,927,700	19,816,400	20,243,000	20,646,000	20,689,000	20,988,700	21,200,900	21,315,300	21,640,800	22,062,400	22,060,300	22,181,800	22,324,500	22,412,900	22,612,700	22,786,300	22,877,500	23,095,500	23,140,100	23,367,300
Japan	48,200,000	–	–	–	–	51,200,000	52,170,000	53,120,000	53,920,000	54,300,000	54,434,000	54,818,000	55,102,000	56,348,000	56,110,000	55,973,000	56,432,000	57,108,000	57,665,000	58,258,000	58,657,000	59,108,000	59,591,000	60,493,000	60,699,000	61,041,000	61,560,000	62,084,000	63,119,000	64,358,000	65,717,000
Luxembourg	132,000	–	–	–	–	137,000	137,000	136,000	137,000	140,000	140,200	144,000	148,000	151,000	155,000	157,500	157,300	157,200	156,300	156,900	158,200	158,700	158,300	157,800	158,700	160,900	165,100	169,600	174,800	181,300	189,100
Netherlands	4,182,000	4,243,000	4,328,000	4,387,000	4,464,000	4,502,000	4,537,000	4,523,000	4,564,000	4,641,000	4,709,000	4,724,000	4,683,000	4,685,000	4,687,000	4,670,000	4,669,000	4,680,000	4,713,000	4,773,000	4,807,000	4,736,000	4,619,000	4,531,000	4,528,000	4,589,000	4,689,000	4,755,000	4,820,000	4,901,000	5,005,000
New Zealand	875,000	895,000	911,000	929,000	957,000	990,000	1,026,000	1,051,000	1,035,000	1,058,000	1,090,000	1,103,000	1,115,000	1,154,000	1,204,000	1,225,000	1,246,000	1,265,000	1,257,000	1,275,000	1,274,000	1,272,000	1,285,000	1,422,406	1,499,566	1,496,390	1,517,898	1,487,797	1,442,817	1,400,206	1,344,386
Norway	1,401,000	1,423,000	1,554,900	1,561,800	1,566,800	1,579,700	1,587,500	1,597,600	1,599,700	1,613,500	1,640,500	1,655,200	1,673,100	1,684,400	1,706,300	1,738,600	1,796,700	1,842,900	1,876,400	1,904,800	1,948,000	1,967,100	1,969,600	1,963,200	1,975,300	2,028,400	2,089,800	2,133,200	2,117,200	2,067,300	2,053,300
Portugal	3,173,200	3,153,100	3,126,700	3,106,600	3,087,600	3,268,000	3,248,000	3,228,000	3,208,000	3,188,000	3,362,000	3,352,000	3,331,000	3,303,000	3,277,000	3,259,000	3,279,000	3,857,000	3,797,000	3,879,000	3,864,000	3,905,000	3,850,000	3,787,000	3,729,000	3,729,000	3,628,000	3,646,000	3,649,000	3,687,000	3,787,000
Spain	11,641,000	–	–	–	11,485,000	11,993,000	11,944,000	12,051,000	12,280,000	12,410,000	12,539,300	12,608,700	12,642,400	12,951,600	13,019,400	12,789,400	12,653,500	12,550,800	12,215,400	11,952,900	11,683,300	11,377,900	11,272,400	11,219,700	10,951,700	11,141,800	11,298,100	11,807,000	12,205,000	12,638,000	12,993,000
Sweden	3,615,700	3,645,000	3,664,900	3,683,100	3,736,000	3,761,800	3,767,100	3,726,900	3,766,400	3,837,300	3,912,400	3,904,800	3,918,000	3,932,300	4,010,300	4,089,400	4,111,000	4,104,000	4,127,200	4,181,000	4,273,800	4,240,600	4,232,600	4,242,300	4,277,600	4,321,700	4,348,400	4,383,100	4,443,200	4,508,100	4,549,700
Switzerland	2,701,000	2,828,000	2,938,000	2,983,000	3,030,000	3,009,000	2,997,000	3,013,000	3,031,000	3,082,000	3,124,000	3,167,000	3,189,000	3,203,000	3,187,000	3,017,000	2,918,000	2,923,000	2,940,000	2,962,000	3,016,000	3,054,000	3,033,000	3,149,000	3,142,000	3,366,000	3,398,000	3,438,000	3,478,000	3,518,000	3,562,000
Turkey	12,253,000	12,394,000	12,372,000	12,558,000	12,719,000	12,837,000	12,989,000	13,013,000	13,071,000	13,097,000	13,283,000	13,504,000	13,802,000	14,015,000	14,190,000	14,296,000	14,613,000	14,881,000	14,476,000	14,390,000	14,313,000	14,605,000	14,893,000	15,149,000	15,519,000	15,860,000	16,342,000	16,816,000	17,050,000	17,271,000	–
United Kingdom	24,178,000	24,452,000	24,627,000	24,657,000	24,946,000	25,199,000	25,351,000	24,987,000	24,836,000	24,857,000	24,753,000	24,399,000	24,391,000	25,057,000	25,148,000	25,056,000	24,845,000	24,865,000	25,015,000	25,393,000	25,327,000	24,345,000	23,908,000	23,610,000	24,060,000	24,536,000	24,562,000	25,074,000	25,920,000	26,768,400	27,338,000
United States	64,984,600	64,615,000	66,000,000	66,583,000	67,811,000	70,107,000	73,286,000	75,122,000	76,913,000	78,853,000	78,255,000	77,937,000	79,835,000	83,275,000	84,591,000	82,802,000	85,126,000	88,093,000	92,512,000	95,502,000	95,708,000	96,558,000	94,964,000	95,928,000	100,590,000	103,031,000	104,831,000	107,510,000	110,962,000	113,450,000	115,040,000

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 33. Gross domestic product, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	National currency in millions
Australia	15,209	15,585	16,837	18,703	20,579	21,629	23,846	25,495	28,725	31,822	35,116	39,293	44,784	53,587	64,669	76,643	87,635	95,294	104,465	122,933	140,166	158,127	171,626	194,617	216,059	240,091	264,627	299,429	339,834	371,930	379,580
Austria	162,890	180,730	192,130	207,080	226,730	246,490	268,530	285,590	306,830	335,000	375,880	419,620	479,540	543,460	618,560	656,110	724,750	796,190	842,330	918,540	994,700	1,055,972	1,133,535	1,201,217	1,276,775	1,348,425	1,422,497	1,481,388	1,561,700	1,663,891	1,789,386
Belgium	557,018	592,441	633,714	681,300	762,525	829,955	892,114	955,350	1,022,336	1,134,165	1,262,110	1,382,016	1,545,387	1,755,020	2,056,806	2,271,144	2,578,903	2,785,262	2,987,489	3,188,796	3,451,150	3,577,543	3,889,986	4,122,259	4,429,036	4,738,039	4,985,952	5,205,543	5,542,673	6,015,975	6,429,346
Canada	39,193	40,618	44,124	47,367	51,854	57,153	63,977	68,612	74,839	82,424	88,462	96,550	107,785	124,420	150,956	170,106	196,292	216,088	239,580	274,092	307,730	353,454	371,820	402,229	441,311	474,339	501,426	546,778	599,969	643,406	665,236
Denmark	41,149	45,659	51,448	54,765	62,601	70,320	77,183	84,813	94,358	107,319	118,626	131,120	150,728	172,859	193,629	216,256	251,215	279,311	311,377	346,893	373,786	407,790	464,467	512,540	565,284	615,072	666,496	699,908	735,520	776,015	810,448
Finland	16,199	18,362	19,661	21,352	24,083	26,634	28,554	31,321	35,908	40,986	45,743	50,257	58,625	71,364	90,055	104,291	117,643	129,790	143,376	166,892	192,605	218,477	245,716	274,647	308,357	334,986	357,566	391,597	441,539	496,935	524,955
France	300,658	327,989	366,222	410,551	455,447	490,258	530,746	573,306	623,123	710,501	793,519	884,186	997,947	1,129,835	1,302,978	1,467,884	1,700,553	1,917,803	2,182,588	2,481,097	2,808,295	3,164,804	3,626,021	4,006,498	4,361,913	4,700,143	5,069,296	5,336,652	5,735,000	6,159,000	6,492,000
Germany	302,710	331,710	360,780	382,370	420,180	459,170	488,230	494,350	533,280	596,950	675,300	749,750	823,120	917,250	983,930	1,026,630	1,120,500	1,195,290	1,283,550	1,388,440	1,472,040	1,534,970	1,588,090	1,668,540	1,750,890	1,823,180	1,925,290	1,990,480	2,095,980	2,208,880	2,403,090
Greece	105,167	118,637	126,005	140,714	157,999	179,765	199,988	216,097	234,508	266,460	298,917	330,300	377,726	484,151	564,205	672,158	824,932	963,728	1,161,392	1,428,757	1,710,934	2,050,057	2,574,652	3,079,178	3,805,686	4,617,816	5,514,766	6,258,478	7,526,471	8,777,535	10,454,979
Iceland	85	98	117	139	178	215	258	261	281	350	439	558	698	972	1,418	2,031	2,866	4,143	6,477	9,617	15,497	24,336	38,132	65,837	87,508	119,091	158,597	208,099	254,639	300,595	341,314
Ireland	631	680	736	791	901	959	1,010	1,104	1,245	1,438	1,620	1,853	2,238	2,701	2,988	3,792	4,653	5,703	6,757	7,917	9,361	11,359	13,382	14,779	16,407	17,790	18,871	20,263	21,815	24,308	25,693
Italy	24,791,000	29,747,000	30,979,000	35,484,000	38,844,000	41,797,000	45,286,000	49,884,000	54,071,000	59,693,000	67,178,000	72,994,000	79,810,000	96,738,000	122,190,000	138,630,000	174,869,000	214,398,000	253,536,000	309,834,000	387,669,000	464,030,000	545,124,000	633,436,000	725,760,000	810,580,000	899,903,000	983,803,000	1,091,837,000	1,192,725,000	1,306,833,000
Japan	16,680,600	20,170,800	22,328,800	26,228,600	30,399,700	33,765,300	39,698,900	46,445,400	54,947,000	65,061,400	75,298,500	82,899,300	96,486,300	116,715,000	138,451,100	152,361,600	171,293,400	190,094,500	208,602,200	225,237,200	245,546,600	260,801,300	273,322,400	285,593,400	305,144,100	325,159,000	338,352,700	353,989,100	376,621,600	402,752,300	434,808,400
Luxembourg	26,106	26,116	27,501	29,341	33,495	35,096	36,879	37,117	40,609	47,024	55,042	56,050	63,207	76,815	93,644	86,742	99,805	102,560	112,215	122,145	132,929	141,691	158,786	174,683	193,666	205,255	223,304	227,846	248,387	279,033	291,505
Netherlands	44,421	46,898	50,486	54,775	64,454	71,986	78,383	85,994	95,352	107,990	121,180	136,530	154,260	176,040	199,780	219,960	251,930	274,930	297,010	315,960	336,740	352,850	368,860	381,020	400,250	418,180	428,610	430,170	449,820	475,300	508,310
New Zealand	2,855	2,911	3,151	3,420	3,735	4,053	4,203	4,359	4,610	5,127	5,728	6,730	7,695	9,001	9,812	11,031	13,412	14,880	16,857	19,687	22,947	27,745	31,096	34,375	38,764	44,617	53,879	59,778	64,759	69,785	71,680
Norway	33,058	36,062	38,844	41,682	45,837	50,564	54,568	59,700	63,749	69,417	79,878	89,107	98,403	111,854	129,729	148,702	170,709	191,534	213,080	238,669	285,046	327,674	362,269	402,199	452,512	500,199	514,600	561,480	583,277	622,991	662,444
Portugal	71,441	76,879	81,804	88,737	96,251	107,484	117,756	131,625	145,706	159,802	177,792	199,094	231,837	282,209	339,283	377,203	468,854	625,835	787,260	993,305	1,256,051	1,501,131	1,850,407	2,301,713	2,815,728	3,523,945	4,420,400	5,174,730	6,002,750	7,130,260	8,507,434
Spain	706,100	804,200	929,500	1,096,800	1,238,200	1,441,000	1,666,900	1,872,400	2,098,700	2,386,600	2,653,600	2,995,000	3,514,400	4,237,400	5,188,700	6,090,500	7,328,800	9,297,900	11,376,400	13,304,900	15,379,200	17,179,100	19,786,200	22,483,500	25,392,200	28,200,885	32,323,992	36,143,972	40,163,971	45,024,895	50,074,119
Sweden	72,561	78,938	85,608	92,661	103,333	113,712	123,691	134,260	142,473	154,722	173,261	187,333	204,982	228,107	257,666	302,593	342,242	372,240	414,929	465,086	528,255	578,913	633,682	709,852	794,298	865,788	946,183	1,019,547	1,110,471	1,226,313	1,346,627
Switzerland	37,370	42,040	46,620	51,265	56,825	60,860	65,355	70,350	75,120	81,395	90,665	102,995	116,710	130,060	141,100	140,155	141,960	145,790	151,675	158,545	170,330	184,755	195,980	203,865	213,230	227,950	243,350	254,685	268,410	289,800	316,715
Turkey	46,977	49,827	57,876	66,910	71,477	76,439	90,775	101,186	112,190	124,472	145,491	187,133	232,115	295,501	409,746	519,173	663,937	862,968	1,274,781	2,155,894	4,327,964	6,413,610	8,620,394	11,531,800	18,212,100	27,552,000	39,288,000	58,299,000	100,825,000	167,770,000	282,800,000
United Kingdom	25,858	27,419	28,816	30,547	33,387	35,960	38,282	40,298	43,671	46,999	51,607	57,575	64,456	74,074	83,706	105,598	125,027	145,740	168,133	197,813	231,233	254,851	278,087	303,377	324,081	356,083	382,942	419,983	466,477	510,020	549,181
United States	513,351	531,789	571,598	603,130	648,028	702,675	769,761	814,327	889,313	959,462	1,010,673	1,097,183	1,206,963	1,349,595	1,458,620	1,585,862	1,768,426	1,974,116	2,232,692	2,488,634	2,708,037	3,030,603	3,149,594	3,405,049	3,777,202	4,038,734	4,268,640	4,539,931	4,900,383	5,244,025	5,513,785

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 34. Gross domestic product price index, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
Australia	17.6	17.9	18.1	18.6	19.2	19.7	20.4	20.9	21.7	22.7	23.6	25.1	27.0	30.2	35.7	41.4	46.9	51.2	55.1	60.6	67.3	73.7	81.9	88.7	94.2	100.0	107.1	115.4	125.7	135.6	140.9
Austria	29.2	30.8	32.0	33.1	34.2	36.1	37.2	38.5	39.5	40.6	42.6	45.2	48.6	52.5	57.5	61.2	64.7	68.0	71.9	74.8	78.7	83.8	89.0	92.5	97.0	100.0	104.3	106.8	108.3	111.2	114.0
Belgium	27.2	27.5	28.0	28.8	30.2	31.7	33.0	34.1	35.0	36.4	38.1	40.2	42.7	45.8	51.6	57.8	62.2	66.8	69.8	72.9	75.7	79.2	84.8	89.6	94.2	100.0	103.7	106.0	107.5	112.6	116.0
Canada	24.7	24.8	25.1	25.6	26.3	27.2	28.5	29.7	30.8	32.2	33.6	34.7	36.7	39.9	45.7	50.2	54.5	58.0	61.5	67.7	74.9	82.9	90.1	94.5	97.4	100.0	102.4	107.2	112.3	117.6	121.1
Denmark	14.7	15.4	16.4	17.3	18.1	19.5	20.8	22.1	23.7	25.3	27.4	29.5	32.2	35.7	40.3	45.3	49.5	54.1	59.5	64.0	69.3	76.2	84.3	90.7	95.8	100.0	104.6	109.5	114.4	119.4	122.1
Finland	12.6	13.3	13.8	14.5	15.6	16.4	17.1	18.4	20.6	21.5	22.3	24.0	26.0	29.7	36.4	41.6	46.8	51.6	55.8	60.5	66.3	74.1	80.4	87.3	95.1	100.0	104.5	110.1	117.7	125.8	132.3
France	16.3	16.9	17.6	18.8	19.6	20.1	20.7	21.3	22.2	23.7	25.0	26.6	28.6	31.0	34.8	39.4	43.7	47.6	52.4	57.7	64.4	71.7	80.3	88.1	94.5	100.0	105.3	108.5	112.1	116.0	119.5
Germany	35.3	37.1	38.5	39.7	40.9	42.5	43.9	44.6	45.6	47.5	51.1	55.1	58.0	61.6	65.9	69.8	72.3	75.0	78.2	81.2	85.2	88.7	92.6	95.8	97.9	100.0	103.3	105.3	106.9	109.7	113.4
Greece	8.0	8.2	8.5	8.7	9.0	9.3	9.8	10.0	10.2	10.5	11.0	11.3	11.9	14.2	17.1	19.3	22.2	25.1	28.4	33.6	39.6	47.4	59.3	70.7	85.0	100.0	117.5	134.3	155.2	174.9	208.6
Iceland	0.2	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.4	0.4	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.6	0.8	0.8	1.0	1.3	1.8	2.6	3.4	4.5	6.6	9.3	14.2	21.5	33.0	59.3	75.9	100.0	124.0	149.7	184.6	220.8	250.6
Ireland	9.6	9.9	10.4	10.6	11.7	12.2	12.7	13.1	13.7	15.0	16.4	18.1	20.6	23.7	25.1	30.2	36.6	41.4	45.8	52.0	59.7	70.1	80.7	89.4	95.1	100.0	106.6	109.4	112.8	118.1	116.6
Italy	8.3	8.5	9.0	9.8	10.4	10.8	11.1	11.4	11.6	12.0	12.9	13.8	14.6	16.6	19.9	23.1	27.4	32.5	37.0	42.7	51.3	61.0	71.5	82.3	91.9	100.0	107.9	114.3	121.9	129.3	138.9
Japan	25.2	27.2	28.3	29.9	31.5	33.1	34.7	36.6	38.4	40.1	42.7	45.1	47.7	54.0	64.8	69.6	75.0	79.8	83.8	86.1	90.0	93.4	94.9	96.3	98.5	100.0	101.8	101.8	102.2	104.1	106.1
Luxembourg	26.3	25.3	26.3	27.1	28.7	29.5	30.7	30.8	32.3	34.1	39.2	38.9	41.1	46.1	54.0	53.5	60.1	60.8	63.9	67.9	73.3	78.6	87.1	93.0	97.1	100.0	103.8	103.2	106.5	112.5	114.9
Netherlands	24.4	25.6	25.8	27.0	29.4	31.2	33.1	34.5	35.9	38.2	40.6	43.8	47.9	52.3	57.1	62.9	68.5	73.1	77.0	80.1	84.6	89.2	94.6	96.4	98.2	100.0	100.5	100.1	102.0	103.6	106.6
New Zealand	12.9	12.4	13.2	13.5	14.0	14.3	14.0	15.2	16.1	16.2	18.4	20.5	22.5	24.6	25.3	28.7	34.1	39.8	44.9	51.4	59.5	68.6	76.6	82.3	88.0	100.0	118.7	129.9	142.4	151.3	153.8
Norway	18.7	19.2	20.1	20.7	21.7	22.8	23.7	24.4	25.4	26.5	29.9	31.9	33.5	36.6	40.3	44.4	47.7	51.7	55.0	58.6	67.2	76.6	84.4	89.5	95.2	100.0	98.6	105.6	110.3	117.4	122.7
Portugal	6.2	6.4	6.4	6.5	6.6	6.9	7.2	7.5	7.7	8.2	8.4	8.8	9.5	10.4	12.3	14.3	16.7	21.1	25.8	30.8	37.3	43.8	52.9	65.9	82.1	100.0	120.5	134.0	149.5	168.9	193.1
Spain	7.6	7.8	8.2	8.9	9.5	10.4	11.2	12.1	12.7	13.3	14.2	15.3	16.6	18.6	21.6	25.2	29.4	36.2	43.7	51.1	58.4	65.4	74.4	83.0	92.1	100.0	111.1	117.5	124.2	132.9	142.7
Sweden	17.5	18.0	18.8	19.3	20.1	21.3	22.7	23.9	24.4	25.3	26.6	28.5	30.5	32.6	35.7	40.9	45.7	50.6	55.4	59.8	66.8	73.2	79.2	87.1	93.8	100.0	106.8	112.0	119.3	128.7	140.8
Switzerland	31.5	32.8	34.7	36.4	38.3	39.8	41.7	43.6	44.9	46.1	48.2	52.6	57.8	62.5	66.8	71.6	73.6	73.8	76.4	77.9	80.1	85.6	91.7	94.4	97.0	100.0	103.8	106.5	109.0	113.6	121.1
Turkey	0.6	0.6	0.7	0.7	0.8	0.8	0.8	0.9	0.9	1.0	1.1	1.3	1.5	1.8	2.3	2.7	3.2	4.0	5.7	9.8	19.8	28.2	36.1	46.5	69.5	100.0	131.7	181.9	302.8	499.1	770.5
United Kingdom	12.9	13.2	13.7	14.0	14.5	15.3	16.0	16.4	17.1	18.0	19.4	21.2	22.9	24.6	28.2	35.9	41.4	47.1	52.5	60.0	71.7	79.9	85.9	90.5	94.6	100.0	103.5	108.7	115.8	123.8	132.2
United States	27.5	27.9	28.4	28.8	29.3	30.1	31.1	32.1	33.6	35.3	37.2	39.3	41.1	43.7	47.6	52.1	55.4	59.2	63.9	69.4	76.0	83.6	88.8	92.4	96.4	100.0	102.6	105.9	110.1	114.8	119.6

NOTE: 1985 = 100.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 35. Exchange rates, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	National currency units per U.S. dollar
Australia	0.89	0.89	0.89	0.89	0.89	0.89	0.89	0.89	0.89	0.89	0.89	0.88	0.84	0.70	0.70	0.76	0.82	0.90	0.87	0.89	0.88	0.87	0.99	1.11	1.14	1.43	1.50	1.43	1.28	1.27	1.28
Austria	25.96	25.93	25.82	25.83	25.83	25.82	25.83	25.83	25.84	25.86	25.86	24.96	23.12	19.58	18.69	17.42	17.94	16.53	14.52	13.37	12.94	15.92	17.06	17.96	20.01	20.69	15.27	12.64	12.35	13.23	11.37
Belgium	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00	48.87	44.01	38.98	38.95	36.78	38.61	35.84	31.49	29.32	29.24	37.13	45.69	51.13	57.78	59.38	44.67	37.33	36.77	39.40	33.42
Canada	0.97	1.01	1.07	1.08	1.08	1.08	1.08	1.08	1.08	1.08	1.05	1.01	0.99	1.00	0.98	1.02	0.99	1.06	1.14	1.17	1.17	1.20	1.23	1.23	1.30	1.37	1.39	1.33	1.23	1.18	1.17
Denmark	6.91	6.91	6.91	6.91	6.91	6.91	6.91	6.96	7.50	7.50	7.50	7.42	6.95	6.05	6.09	5.75	6.05	6.00	5.51	5.26	5.64	7.12	8.33	9.15	10.36	10.60	8.09	6.84	6.73	7.31	6.19
Finland	3.20	3.20	3.20	3.20	3.20	3.20	3.20	3.45	4.20	4.20	4.20	4.18	4.15	3.82	3.77	3.68	3.86	4.03	4.12	3.90	3.73	4.32	4.82	5.57	6.01	6.20	5.07	4.40	4.18	4.29	3.82
France	4.94	4.94	4.94	4.94	4.94	4.94	4.94	4.94	4.94	5.19	5.55	5.54	5.04	4.46	4.81	4.29	4.78	4.91	4.51	4.25	4.23	5.43	6.57	7.62	8.74	8.99	6.93	6.01	5.96	6.38	5.45
Germany	4.20	4.03	4.00	4.00	4.00	4.00	4.00	4.00	4.00	3.94	3.66	3.49	3.19	2.67	2.59	2.46	2.52	2.32	2.01	1.83	1.82	2.26	2.43	2.55	2.85	2.94	2.17	1.80	1.76	1.88	1.62
Greece	30.00	30.00	30.00	30.00	30.00	30.00	30.00	30.00	30.00	30.00	30.00	30.00	30.00	29.63	30.00	32.05	36.52	36.84	36.75	37.04	42.62	55.41	66.80	88.06	112.72	138.12	139.98	135.43	141.86	162.42	158.23
Iceland	0.34	0.40	0.43	0.43	0.43	0.43	0.43	0.44	0.62	0.88	0.88	0.88	0.88	0.90	1.00	1.54	1.82	1.99	2.71	3.53	4.80	7.22	12.35	24.84	31.69	41.51	41.10	38.68	43.01	57.04	58.36
Ireland	0.36	0.36	0.36	0.36	0.36	0.36	0.36	0.36	0.42	0.42	0.42	0.41	0.40	0.41	0.43	0.45	0.56	0.57	0.52	0.49	0.49	0.62	0.70	0.80	0.92	0.95	0.74	0.67	0.66	0.71	0.61
Italy	623.99	625.00	625.00	625.00	625.00	625.00	625.00	625.00	625.00	625.00	625.00	619.93	583.22	583.00	650.34	652.85	832.28	882.39	848.66	830.86	856.45	1136.77	1352.51	1518.85	1756.96	1909.44	1490.81	1296.07	1301.62	1372.09	1198.00
Japan	360.00	360.00	360.00	360.00	360.00	360.00	360.00	360.00	360.00	360.00	360.00	349.33	303.17	271.70	292.08	296.79	296.55	268.51	210.44	219.14	226.74	220.54	249.08	237.51	237.52	238.54	168.52	144.60	128.15	138.00	144.80
Luxembourg	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00	48.87	44.01	38.98	38.95	36.78	38.61	35.84	31.49	29.32	29.24	37.13	45.69	51.13	57.78	59.38	44.67	37.34	36.77	39.40	33.42
Netherlands	3.80	3.65	3.62	3.62	3.62	3.62	3.62	3.62	3.62	3.62	3.62	3.50	3.21	2.80	2.69	2.53	2.64	2.45	2.16	2.01	1.99	2.50	2.67	2.85	3.21	3.32	2.45	2.03	1.98	2.12	1.82
New Zealand	0.71	0.72	0.72	0.72	0.72	0.72	0.72	0.73	0.89	0.89	0.89	0.88	0.84	0.74	0.72	0.83	1.00	1.03	0.96	0.98	1.03	1.15	1.33	1.50	1.76	2.02	1.91	1.70	1.53	1.67	1.68
Norway	7.14	7.14	7.14	7.14	7.14	7.14	7.14	7.14	7.14	7.14	7.14	7.04	6.59	5.77	5.54	5.23	5.46	5.32	5.24	5.06	4.94	5.74	6.45	7.30	8.16	8.60	7.39	6.74	6.52	6.90	6.26
Portugal	28.75	28.75	28.75	28.75	28.75	28.75	28.75	28.75	28.75	28.75	28.75	28.31	27.05	24.52	25.41	25.55	30.23	38.28	43.94	48.92	50.06	61.55	79.47	110.78	146.39	170.40	149.59	140.88	143.95	157.46	142.31
Spain	60.00	60.00	60.00	60.00	60.00	60.00	60.00	61.67	70.00	70.00	70.00	69.47	64.27	58.26	57.69	57.41	66.90	75.96	76.67	67.13	71.70	92.32	109.86	143.43	160.76	170.04	140.05	123.48	116.49	118.38	101.94
Sweden	5.17	5.17	5.17	5.17	5.17	5.17	5.17	5.17	5.17	5.17	5.17	5.12	4.76	4.37	4.44	4.15	4.36	4.48	4.52	4.29	4.23	5.06	6.28	7.67	8.27	8.60	7.12	6.34	6.13	6.45	5.92
Switzerland	4.37	4.37	4.37	4.37	4.37	4.37	4.37	4.37	4.37	4.37	4.37	4.13	3.82	3.16	2.98	2.58	2.50	2.40	1.79	1.66	1.68	1.96	2.03	2.10	2.35	2.46	1.80	1.49	1.46	1.64	1.39
Turkey	4.87	9.00	9.00	9.00	9.00	9.00	9.00	9.00	9.00	9.00	11.50	14.92	14.15	14.15	13.93	14.44	16.05	18.00	24.28	31.08	76.04	111.22	162.55	225.46	366.68	521.98	674.51	857.22	1432.35	2121.68	2606.50
United Kingdom	0.36	0.36	0.36	0.36	0.36	0.36	0.36	0.36	0.42	0.42	0.42	0.41	0.40	0.41	0.43	0.45	0.56	0.57	0.52	0.47	0.43	0.50	0.57	0.66	0.75	0.78	0.68	0.61	0.56	0.61	0.56
United States	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.

Table 36. Purchasing power parities for gross domestic product, by country: 1960–90.

Country	1960	1961	1962	1963	1964	1965	1966	1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972	1973	1974	1975	1976	1977	1978	1979	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990
	National currency units per U.S. dollar
Australia	0.72	0.72	0.71	0.73	0.74	0.74	0.74	0.73	0.72	0.72	0.71	0.72	0.74	0.78	0.84	0.89	0.95	0.97	0.97	0.98	1.00	1.00	1.04	1.09	1.12	1.16	1.21	1.27	1.34	1.39	1.39
Austria	14.77	15.43	15.68	16.05	16.38	16.91	16.73	16.71	16.38	16.03	15.94	16.10	16.57	16.79	16.85	16.33	16.23	15.98	15.75	15.05	14.51	14.11	14.08	14.15	14.33	14.38	14.68	14.60	14.32	14.17	13.95
Belgium	38.05	38.24	38.04	38.73	40.08	41.12	41.12	41.00	40.14	39.79	39.51	39.70	40.31	40.54	41.84	42.69	43.21	43.52	42.35	40.63	38.62	36.93	37.16	37.95	38.55	39.83	40.44	40.12	39.40	39.74	39.32
Canada	1.10	1.10	1.09	1.10	1.11	1.12	1.13	1.14	1.12	1.12	1.11	1.09	1.10	1.13	1.18	1.18	1.21	1.20	1.19	1.20	1.22	1.23	1.26	1.27	1.27	1.27	1.27	1.29	1.31	1.32	1.31
Denmark	4.69	4.85	5.06	5.29	5.47	5.74	5.88	6.04	6.17	6.28	6.46	6.62	6.91	7.17	7.43	7.61	7.81	8.00	8.20	8.10	8.03	8.07	8.38	8.73	8.90	9.05	9.26	9.41	9.52	9.57	9.41
Finland	2.52	2.64	2.68	2.79	2.95	3.03	3.04	3.16	3.38	3.35	3.30	3.38	3.50	3.75	4.21	4.39	4.64	4.79	4.83	4.81	4.83	4.93	5.03	5.28	5.55	5.68	5.82	5.95	6.16	6.33	6.40
France	3.72	3.81	3.90	4.11	4.23	4.24	4.19	4.18	4.15	4.22	4.23	4.28	4.39	4.47	4.60	4.73	4.94	5.04	5.17	5.23	5.35	5.44	5.73	6.07	6.29	6.48	6.68	6.69	6.69	6.66	6.59
Germany	2.68	2.78	2.83	2.89	2.94	2.98	2.95	2.90	2.83	2.81	2.87	2.94	2.96	2.95	2.89	2.79	2.72	2.64	2.56	2.45	2.35	2.24	2.19	2.20	2.16	2.15	2.18	2.16	2.12	2.09	2.08
Greece	22.32	22.48	23.01	23.05	23.64	24.01	24.15	23.93	23.21	22.87	22.56	22.13	22.23	24.89	27.60	28.22	30.64	32.43	34.14	37.18	40.09	43.86	51.54	59.39	68.96	79.01	90.91	100.84	112.79	122.44	140.30
Iceland	0.32	0.36	0.39	0.42	0.49	0.53	0.56	0.56	0.61	0.70	0.77	0.83	0.94	1.16	1.45	1.88	2.35	2.93	3.99	5.15	7.19	9.91	14.31	24.87	30.76	39.43	47.85	56.10	66.96	77.15	84.11
Ireland	0.24	0.24	0.25	0.25	0.27	0.28	0.28	0.28	0.27	0.28	0.30	0.31	0.34	0.37	0.36	0.39	0.44	0.47	0.48	0.50	0.53	0.57	0.62	0.66	0.68	0.69	0.72	0.72	0.72	0.73	0.69
Italy	347.77	354.59	367.08	393.43	414.29	421.46	413.42	411.00	398.62	395.21	400.87	407.76	415.07	440.48	483.82	513.24	571.66	635.16	675.23	714.76	786.00	854.73	941.25	1047.88	1128.80	1196.48	1263.53	1300.34	1342.31	1370.75	1415.00
Japan	191.97	205.26	209.29	218.22	227.28	233.30	234.99	239.79	239.85	238.67	241.18	242.09	244.87	259.77	285.97	279.60	283.56	282.70	276.69	260.88	250.01	236.82	226.22	221.87	219.13	216.68	215.86	209.62	203.65	199.82	195.60
Luxembourg	37.35	35.70	36.29	36.99	38.72	38.86	38.75	37.64	37.69	37.81	41.30	38.97	39.41	41.47	44.48	40.14	42.39	40.17	39.37	38.44	38.00	37.21	38.73	40.02	40.34	40.45	41.12	39.67	39.63	40.35	39.56
Netherlands	2.04	2.13	2.10	2.17	2.33	2.41	2.46	2.48	2.46	2.49	2.51	2.58	2.70	2.76	2.76	2.77	2.84	2.84	2.79	2.66	2.58	2.48	2.47	2.44	2.40	2.38	2.34	2.26	2.23	2.18	2.16
New Zealand	0.55	0.53	0.55	0.56	0.57	0.57	0.53	0.56	0.57	0.54	0.58	0.62	0.65	0.67	0.63	0.65	0.73	0.79	0.84	0.88	0.93	0.98	1.03	1.07	1.10	1.22	1.42	1.51	1.60	1.64	1.60
Norway	6.16	6.28	6.43	6.57	6.81	6.96	6.95	6.92	6.89	6.84	7.32	7.43	7.46	7.64	7.72	7.73	7.82	7.94	7.87	7.70	8.09	8.42	8.72	8.95	9.19	9.40	9.07	9.44	9.54	9.77	9.81
Portugal	13.80	13.96	13.63	13.80	13.89	14.09	14.23	14.30	13.87	14.19	13.73	13.72	14.14	14.51	15.82	16.73	18.31	21.68	24.73	27.11	30.03	32.26	36.58	44.09	53.07	62.91	74.18	80.11	86.55	94.17	103.40
Spain	24.13	24.37	25.22	27.04	28.43	30.38	31.50	32.80	32.83	32.65	33.11	33.99	35.29	37.06	39.50	41.98	46.03	53.12	59.71	64.20	67.16	68.70	73.43	79.29	84.92	89.76	97.59	100.29	102.57	105.72	109.00
Sweden	4.81	4.91	5.00	5.07	5.24	5.42	5.54	5.63	5.49	5.41	5.41	5.51	5.63	5.65	5.67	5.91	6.23	6.45	6.58	6.53	6.68	6.68	6.80	7.23	7.52	7.80	8.16	8.31	8.57	8.90	9.35
Switzerland	2.38	2.46	2.55	2.64	2.75	2.79	2.80	2.83	2.78	2.72	2.70	2.81	2.95	2.99	2.93	2.86	2.76	2.59	2.51	2.35	2.21	2.16	2.17	2.16	2.14	2.15	2.19	2.18	2.16	2.17	2.19
Turkey	4.92	5.09	5.45	5.69	5.77	5.87	5.99	6.18	6.13	6.15	6.50	7.29	8.12	9.28	10.87	11.52	12.75	14.88	19.92	31.21	57.82	75.01	90.21	112.56	162.32	227.49	293.22	393.34	633.75	1006.19	1492.00
United Kingdom	0.24	0.25	0.25	0.26	0.26	0.27	0.27	0.27	0.27	0.27	0.27	0.28	0.29	0.30	0.31	0.36	0.39	0.42	0.43	0.45	0.50	0.51	0.51	0.52	0.53	0.54	0.55	0.56	0.58	0.59	0.61
United States	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): OECD Health Data File, 1992.