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International Journal of Epidemiology logoLink to International Journal of Epidemiology
. 2015 Jan 22;44(1):169–185. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyu255

Risk factors for head and neck cancer in young adults: a pooled analysis in the INHANCE consortium

Tatiana Natasha Toporcov 1,*, Ariana Znaor 2, Zuo-Feng Zhang 3, Guo-Pei Yu 4, Deborah M Winn 5, Qingyi Wei 6, Marta Vilensky 7, Thomas Vaughan 8, Peter Thomson 9, Renato Talamini 10, Neonila Szeszenia-Dabrowska 11, Erich M Sturgis 6, Elaine Smith 12, Oxana Shangina 13, Stephen M Schwartz 8, Stimson Schantz 14, Peter Rudnai 15, Lorenzo Richiardi 16, Heribert Ramroth 17, Mark P Purdue 5, Andrew F Olshan 18, José Eluf-Neto 19, Joshua Muscat 20, Raquel Ajub Moyses 21, Hal Morgenstern 22, Ana Menezes 23, Michael McClean 24, Keitaro Matsuo 25, Dana Mates 26, Tatiana V Macfarlane 27, Jolanta Lissowska 28, Fabio Levi 29, Philip Lazarus 30, Carlo La Vecchia 31, Pagona Lagiou 32, Sergio Koifman 33, Kristina Kjaerheim 34, Karl Kelsey 35, Ivana Holcatova 36, Rolando Herrero 37, Claire Healy 38, Richard B Hayes 39, Silvia Franceschi 40, Leticia Fernandez 41, Eleonora Fabianova 42, Alexander W Daudt 43, Otávio Alberto Curioni 44, Luigino Dal Maso 10, Maria Paula Curado 45, David I Conway 46, Chu Chen 47, Xavier Castellsague 48, Cristina Canova 49, Gabriella Cadoni 50, Paul Brennan 43, Stefania Boccia 51, José Leopoldo Ferreira Antunes 1, Wolfgang Ahrens 52, Antonio Agudo 53, Paolo Boffetta 54, Mia Hashibe 55, Yuan-Chin Amy Lee 56, Victor Wünsch Filho 1
PMCID: PMC4339764  PMID: 25613428

Abstract

Background: Increasing incidence of head and neck cancer (HNC) in young adults has been reported. We aimed to compare the role of major risk factors and family history of cancer in HNC in young adults and older patients.

Methods: We pooled data from 25 case-control studies and conducted separate analyses for adults ≤45 years old (‘young adults’, 2010 cases and 4042 controls) and >45 years old (‘older adults’, 17 700 cases and 22 704 controls). Using logistic regression with studies treated as random effects, we estimated adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

Results: The young group of cases had a higher proportion of oral tongue cancer (16.0% in women; 11.0% in men) and unspecified oral cavity / oropharynx cancer (16.2%; 11.1%) and a lower proportion of larynx cancer (12.1%; 16.6%) than older adult cases. The proportions of never smokers or never drinkers among female cases were higher than among male cases in both age groups. Positive associations with HNC and duration or pack-years of smoking and drinking were similar across age groups. However, the attributable fractions (AFs) for smoking and drinking were lower in young when compared with older adults (AFs for smoking in young women, older women, young men and older men, respectively, = 19.9% (95% CI = 9.8%, 27.9%), 48.9% (46.6%, 50.8%), 46.2% (38.5%, 52.5%), 64.3% (62.2%, 66.4%); AFs for drinking = 5.3% (−11.2%, 18.0%), 20.0% (14.5%, 25.0%), 21.5% (5.0%, 34.9%) and 50.4% (46.1%, 54.3%). A family history of early-onset cancer was associated with HNC risk in the young [OR = 2.27 (95% CI = 1.26, 4.10)], but not in the older adults [OR = 1.10 (0.91, 1.31)]. The attributable fraction for family history of early-onset cancer was 23.2% (8.60% to 31.4%) in young compared with 2.20% (−2.41%, 5.80%) in older adults.

Conclusions: Differences in HNC aetiology according to age group may exist. The lower AF of cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking in young adults may be due to the reduced length of exposure due to the lower age. Other characteristics, such as those that are inherited, may play a more important role in HNC in young adults compared with older adults.

Keywords: Head and neck neoplasms, adult, smoking, alcohol drinking, diet

Key Messages

  • Positive associations of cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking with the risk of HNC were consistently lower in the people aged 45 years or younger when compared with those over 45 years old.

  • The attributable fractions of cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking for HNC in the people aged 45 years or less were lower than in those over 45 years old, indicating roles of other risk factors in the HNC in young adults.

  • The protective effect of a diet rich in fruits and vegetables on HNC was consistent across young and older people.

  • Family history of cancer in young relatives was associated with an increased risk of HNC in young adults, but not in the older group.

Introduction

Approximately 550 000 new cases of head and neck cancer (HNC) are diagnosed worldwide annually.1 Furthermore, an increasing incidence of head and neck neoplasms among young adults (YA) has been reported;2 in particular, reports indicate an increase in tumours affecting the tongue and oropharynx among YA in India,3 Europe,4 the USA5 and China.6

The aetiology of HNC in YA is still unclear. Some authors proposed that HNC in YA might be a distinct subset more related to genetic predisposition, or HPV infection, than HNC in older adults7 because younger adults would have a reduced length of exposure to major carcinogenic factors,8 mainly tobacco and alcohol consumption and a poor diet. Conversely, association studies specifically assessing YA have found non-negligible associations between these risk factors and HNC.9,10 As these studies generally did not assess associations for older adults, it has not been possible to know whether the risks of HNC associated with its major risk factors are consistent across age groups.

Because YA represent a minority of HNC, studies that examined risk factors in this group comprised limited samples, which leads to imprecise results and does not allow for stratification by cancer subsites or sex. In addition, studies on HNC defined YA according to different age-group criteria, i.e. arbitrary age cut-off points ranging from 3011 to 50 years,10 thus leading to limited comparability of results.

The use of pooled data from a large number of case-control studies would provide increased statistical power for the analysis of lifestyle characteristics and family history of cancer associated with HNC in YA, thus allowing a rigorous assessment of the hypothesis that HNC in YA constitutes an aetiologically distinct subset. The International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology (INHANCE) Consortium [http://inhance.iarc.fr/] database provides a unique opportunity to investigate the aetiology of HNC in YA.

Methods

Study population characteristics

The INHANCE consortium was established in 2004 to elucidate the aetiology of HNC by providing opportunities for pooled analyses of risk factors on a large number of participants. This consortium pools epidemiological studies, mainly of case-control design, from many countries and regions (Europe, North and South America, Asia and Africa)—including studies from high-, medium- and low-income countries.12 Version 1.3 of the INHANCE Consortium pooled dataset comprised 26 case-control studies from Europe, America and Asia.13-38 The Germany-Saarland study from Europe did not include any cases aged 45 years or younger and was thus excluded. Subjects with missing data on age, sex and cancer subsite were excluded (40 cases and 3 controls aged 45 years or younger; and 156 cases and 23 controls older than 45 years). The YA group comprised 1910 cases and 4042 controls aged 45 or younger. Results for cases (n = 16 694) and controls (n = 22 772) older than 45 years of age (>45 years) were used for comparison.

Details of the 25 studies included in the analyses are shown in Supplementary Table 1 (available as Supplementary data at IJE online). Most of these were hospital-based case-control studies, and in the majority of these studies, the control subjects were matched to cases with regard to age, sex and additional characteristics (such as study centre, hospital and race/ethnicity).

Cases were included in this analysis if the tumours had been classified in the original study as invasive HNC according to the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) Oncology, Version 239 (ICD-O-2), the ICD-940 or the ICD-10.41 ICD-10 codes were used to classify each tumour into anatomical subsite categories: oral cavity (C00.3-C00.9, C02.0-C02.3, C03.0, C03.1, C03.9, C04.0, C04.1, C04.8, C04.9, C05.0, C05.8, C05.9, C06.0-C06.2, C06.8, C06.9), oropharynx (C01.9, C02.4, C05.1, C05.2, C09.0, C09.1, C09.8, C09.9, C10.0-C10.4, C10.8, C10.9), hypopharynx (C12.9, C13.0-C13.2, C13.8 C13.9), oral-oropharynx-hypopharynx not otherwise specified (C02.8, C02.9, C05.8, C05.9, C14.0, C14.2, C14.8) and larynx (C32.0-C32.3, C32.8, C32.9). Cancers of the salivary gland were excluded from our analysis because their aetiological pattern differs from that of other head and neck tumours.42

Our analysis included all histological types included in the ICD codes considered in the study. For the Milan and Aviano Italian multicentre studies and four centres in the International Multicentre study (Bangalore, Madras, Sudan and Trivandrum), no information on case histology was available. Of the 1570 young head and neck cancer cases for whom histological information was available, 88.2% of the female cases and 94.5% of the male cases were squamous cell carcinoma, whereas among the older cases, these proportions were 94.0% and 97.1%, respectively.

Data collection and pooling

For all studies, interviews were conducted face to face by trained interviewers. Written informed consent was obtained from the study subjects, and the investigations were approved by the institutional review boards at each of the institutions involved. Questionnaires were collected from all of the individual studies to assess data comparability and the wording of interview questions. The data from individual studies were received with the personal identifiers removed, and each data item was checked for illogical or missing values. Queries were sent to investigators, and inconsistencies were resolved.

The definition of ever or never cigarette smokers and ever or never drinkers used in this study has been previously described in detail.42 Although questions regarding history of cigarette smoking varied across studies, never users of cigarettes, pipes and cigars did not exceed either 1 year of cigarette smoking or 100 cigarettes in a lifetime or ever smoked ‘regularly’. Pack-years of cigarette smoking were calculated by multiplying the number of packs (defined as 20 cigarettes) per day by the number of years of smoking.

Subjects were asked about the duration, frequency and type of alcoholic beverages consumed (beer, wine, hard liquors and aperitifs). The definition of never drinkers also varied throughout the studies, from 0 drinks in a lifetime to <4 drinks per month. To address the different volume specifications for each type of alcoholic beverage by study, the number of drinks per day was calculated as the frequency of consumption of each alcoholic beverage type weighted by the relevant duration.

The assessment of diet has been described in detail previously.43 The data were collected using food frequency questionnaires that obtained information about diet before sick (Milan, Aviano, France, IARC multicentre studies), 10 years prior to interview (Seattle study), 5 years prior to interview (Boston study), 2 years prior to interview (Italy multicentre and Switzerland studies), 1 year prior to interview (North Carolina, Rome, US multicentre and Western Europe studies), within the 3 years before the interview (Puerto Rico study), before having cancer (Los Angeles and MSKCC studies), between 1980 and 1990 (Heidelberg study) and the diet in the diagnosis (Central Europe study). Briefly, four major food categories were examined: vegetables, fruits, animal products and others (cereals and grains). Several food items and sub-food categories were identified within each major food category. Centre-specific quartiles were used among the controls for food groups. Of the 25 studies included, 21 collected data on diet. In the Boston and Seattle study, data on diet were available only for a subset of the subjects and those with no data were not included in the analysis.

The definition of ‘family member with cancer’ was described previously.44 Four categories of cancers in the family were considered: (i) head and neck cancers, including only cancers with the previously described topography; (ii) other tobacco-related cancers [i.e. lung (C34), nasopharynx (C11), nasal cavity (C30), paranasal sinuses (C31), oesophagus (C15), stomach (C16), pancreas (C25), liver (C22), kidney (body and pelvis, C64), urinary bladder (C67), uterine cervix (C53) and bone marrow (myeloid leukaemia, C92)]; (iii) any cancer in relatives of any age; (iv) any cancer in young relatives.

Statistical analysis

The associations between cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, diet, cancer in family members and HNC were assessed by estimating the odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) using mixed effects logistic regression models, with study centres as random intercepts. Respective ORs were calculated for each age group [≤45 years old (yo) and >45 yo] and sex with adjustments for age, study, education, cigarette smoking (pack-years) and alcohol consumption (drinks/day). Multivariate adjusted models were further stratified according to cancer site (oral cavity, oropharynx and larynx) and smoking status (never smokers and ever smokers). The limited number of hypopharynx cancer cases (n = 108) in YA ≤45 yo did not allow stratification for that subsite. Linear trends in frequency, duration and cumulative use of tobacco or alcohol and frequency of food intake were assessed by p-values obtained from modelling the continuous forms of these variables.

To test for differences in results according to age group, we fitted models including subjects in both age groups with adjustment for age, study, education, cigarette smoking (pack-years) and alcohol consumption (drinks/day), plus an interaction term between age group and each variable of interest. p-Values for the interaction term were calculated using likelihood ratio tests and used as suggestive of differences or similarities in results according to age group

The fraction (AF) of cases with HNC attributable to cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking and family history of cancer was estimated using the formula AF = p(ec) × (OR − 1)/OR, where p(ec) is the proportion exposed among the case subjects.45

An influence analysis was performed by testing for variation in estimates according to the strata defined by data collection period and geographical region of study. We also performed analyses to determine whether any individual study’s data unduly influenced the results. Influence analyses were performed using STATA SE11 using xtmelogit command.

We tested for between-study and between–study centre heterogeneity by conducting a likelihood ratio test comparing a multivariate logistic model, not mixedeffects models, including the interaction terms between each study (other than the reference study) with the variable of interest and a model without the product terms, for the risk of HNC.

Results

Among cases, 10.7% were ≤45 yo. Compared with the >45 yo group, YA with HNC had a higher proportion of oral tongue cancer (16.0% in women and 11.0% in men) and unspecified oral cavity/oropharynx cancer (16.2% in women and 11.1% in men) and a lower proportion of larynx cancer (12.1% in women and 16.6% in men). With the exception of young female controls, higher proportions of never smokers and never drinkers were observed in young individuals as compared with the older subjects. A higher proportion of individuals with a higher education (Table 1) was found in YA cases and controls of both sexes when compared with the older group. Furthermore, across all of the age groups, the proportions of cases with oral tongue cancer, never smokers or never drinkers were higher among women than among men.

Table 1.

Characteristics of cases and controls. International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium

Characteristics Women, n (%)
 Men, n (%)
Cases
 Controls
 Cases
 Controls
≤45yo
 >45yo
 ≤45yo
 >45yo
 ≤45yo
 >45yo
 ≤45yo
 >45yo
N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
Cancer subsite
 Oral cavity
 Oral tongue 81 16.0 362 10.3 – – – 166 11.0 781 5.9 – – – –
 Floor of mouth 23 4.6 301 8.5 – – – 157 10.4 1076 8.2 – – – –
 Other parts, 111 21.0 844 23.9 – – – 203 13.5 1487 11.3 – – – –
 Oral cavity NOS
 Oropharynx 120 23.8 881 25.0 – – – – 428 28.4 3451 26.2 – – – –
 Hypopharynx 15 3.0 173 4.9 – – – – 103 6.8 1118 8.5 – – – –
 Oropharynx NOS 82 16.2 392 11.1 – – – – 167 11.1 1033 7.9 – – – –
 Overlapping palate 12 2.4 54 1.5 – 1.5 163 1.2 – – – –
 Larynx 61 12.1 506 14.4 – 16. 4002 30.4 – – – –
 Overlapping OC, PH, LA 0 0 0 9 0.3 – 81 16.0 362 10.3 – 0.7 61 0.5 – – – –
 All head and neck 505 100 3522 100 – 23 4.6 301 8.5 – 100 13 172 100 – – – –
p-Value (YA x older group)a <0.001 111 21.0 844 23.9 – <0.001
Tobacco smoking
 Never smoker 231 45.7 1144 32.5 848 59.1 4003 64.2 251 16.8 1101 8.4 950 36.6 4698 28.5
 Ever smoker 274 57.3 2372 67.3 588 41.0 2229 35.8 1246 83.2 12 015 91.2 1644 63.4 11 785 71.5
p-Value (YA x older group) <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Alcohol drinking
 Never drinker 208 41.2 1242 35.3 675 47.8 3010 48.3 171 11.4 911 6.9 533 20.6 2845 17.3
 Ever drinker 297 58.8 2263 64.2 736 52.2 3218 51.7 1326 88.6 12 188 92.5 2051 79.4 13 615 82.7
p-Value (YA x older group) 0.013 0.761 <0.001 <0.001
Education level
 No education 59 11.7 372 10.7 58 4.1 401 6.4 42 2.8 525 4.0 40 1.6 596 3.6
 ≤Junior high school 105 20.8 1078 30.9 407 28.9 2348 37.7 530 35.3 5852 44.4 822 31.9 6525 39.6
 Some high school 79 15.7 641 18.0 174 12.4 922 14.8 279 18.6 2250 17.1 417 16.2 2708 16.4
 High school graduate 85 16.9 535 15.1 203 14.4 781 12.6 222 14.8 1644 12.5 360 14.0 1807 11.0
 Technical school / college 98 19.4 620 17.4 304 21.6 1056 17.0 246 16.4 1699 12.9 534 20.7 2626 15.9
 ≥College graduate 78 15.5 275 7.9 263 18.7 714 11.5 181 12.1 1182 9.0 407 15.8 2208 13.4
p-Value (YA x older group)a <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
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yo, years old; NOS, not otherwise specified; OC, oral cavity; PH, pharynx; LA, larynx.

aChi-squared test.

The association with ever-smoking in YA was lower than in older subjects (Table 2, Supplementary Table 2 available as Supplementary data at IJE online). This difference remained in the analysis stratified by cancer sub site (Table 3), which also revealed substantially higher associations for larynx cancer in all age groups when compared with estimates for other subsites. The attributable fraction for cigarette smoking on the risk of HNC was 19.9% (95% CI = 9.8%, 27.9%) in young women, 48.9% (46.6%, 50.8%) in older women, 46.2% (38.5%, 52.5%) in young men and 64.3% (62.2%, 66.4%) in older men. In all age groups and sexes, the risk of HNC was directly associated with increasing duration, frequency or cumulative exposure to cigarette smoking, with a dose-response effect observed in cumulative cigarette consumption. ORs for both duration and cumulative strata of smoking were similar across age groups among men. Among women, lower ORs were found for smoking frequency in YA compared with the older group. Across all age groups, higher Ors were found for men than for women (Table 2, Supplementary Table 2 available as Supplementary data at IJE online).

Table 2.

Tobacco smoking and the risk of head and neck cancer according to sex and age. International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium

Smoking Women ≤45 yo
 Women >45 yo
 Men ≤45 yo
 Men >45 yo
Case Control OR (95% CI) Case Control OR (95% CI) Case Control OR (95% CI) Case Control OR (95% CI)
Tobacco smokinga
 Never 231 848 1.00 1144 4003 1.00 251 950 1.00 1101 4698 1.00
 Ever 274 588 1.58 (1.22, 2.06) 2372 2229 3.63 (3.24, 4.06) 1246 1644 2.25 (1.86, 2.71) 12 015 11 785 3.36 (3.11, 3.64)
 Missing 0 2 – – 6 6 – – 8 10 – – 56 19 – –
Duration (years)a
 Never smoker 231 848 1.00 1144 4003 1.00 950 251 1.00 1101 4698 1.00
 >0 to 10 38 171 0.83 (0.54, 1.28) 95 316 1.15 (0.88, 1.50) 299 99 1.22 (0.91, 1.64) 317 1116 1.08 (0.93, 1.26)
 >10 to 20 79 220 1.37 (0.97, 1.94) 125 349 1.43 (1.13, 1.82) 616 247 1.52 (1.21, 1.92) 560 1658 1.30 (1.15, 1.48)
 >20 to 30 133 172 2.93 (2.05, 4.18) 351 527 2.50 (2.10, 2.99) 626 740 3.96 (3.17, 4.94) 1678 2532 2.36 (2.13, 2.61)
 >30 to 40 20 13 5.49 (2.40, 12.5) 850 589 4.92 (4.23, 5.73) 87 12 4.87 (3.39, 7.01) 4247 3370 4.20 (3.83, 4.60)
 >40 0 0 – – 927 429 6.66 (5.68, 7.81) 0 2 – – 5099 3000 6.04 (5.50, 6.63)
 Missing 4 14 – – 30 25 – – 14 26 – – 170 128 – –
p-trend <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Frequency (cigarettes/day)a
 Never smoker 231 848 1.00 1144 4003 1.00 251 950 1.00 1101 4698 1.00
 >0 to 10 75 276 1.12 (0.80, 1.57) 566 948 2.34 (2.03, 2.71) 149 457 1.05 (0.81, 1.36) 1359 2720 1.80 (1.61, 1.98)
 >10 to 20 119 216 1.84 (1.33, 2.55) 917 809 4.22 (3.67, 4.85) 562 689 2.76 (2.23, 3.42) 5031 5035 3.54 (3.25, 3.86)
 >20 to 30 39 43 3.05 (1.78, 5.24) 422 220 6.07 (4.94, 7.45) 235 229 3.23 (2.46, 4.25) 2351 1720 4.49 (4.06, 4.98)
 >30 to 40 24 36 2.07 (1.10, 3.89) 331 153 6.79 (5.34, 8.64) 198 184 3.05 (2.29, 4.08) 2027 1317 4.31 (4.24, 5.27)
 >40 14 8 4.15 (1.50, 11.4) 114 79 4.56 (3.21, 6.47) 93 64 3.93 (2.62, 5.88) 1106 849 3.78 (3.33, 4.30)
 Missing 3 11 – – 28 26 – – 17 31 – – 197 163 – –
p-trend <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Pack-yearsa
 Never smoker 231 848 1.00 1144 4003 1.00 251 950 1.00 1101 698 1.00
 >0 to 10 80 321 1.00 (0.72, 1.39) 299 758 1.60 (1.35, 1.90) 175 581 1.19 (0.94, 1.52) 703 2170 1.26 (1.12, 1.41)
 >10 to 20 69 143 1.85 (1.26, 2.72) 324 437 2.93 (2.44, 3.51) 253 433 2.09 (1.65, 2.66) 1018 1983 1.89 (1.69, 2.11)
 >20 to 30 49 64 2.59 (1.60, 4.18) 357 335 3.91 (3.24, 4.71) 347 338 3.40 (2.66, 4.35) 1596 1871 3.14 (2.83, 3.48)
 >30 to 40 35 24 5.21 (2.75, 9.90) 355 256 5.13 (4.19, 6.28) 185 115 5.29 (3.85, 7.26) 2176 1803 4.20 (3.79, 4.65)
 >40 to 50 19 10 7.09 (2.89, 17.3) 334 165 6.75 (5.37, 8.47) 112 70 4.52 (3.11, 6.56) 1786 1290 4.81 (4.31, 5.36)
 >50 17 10 6.50 (2.59, 16.3) 673 254 8.40 (6.93, 10.1) 163 82 5.41 (3.79, 7.71) 4549 2476 5.90 (5.37, 6.49)
 Missing 5 18 – – 36 30 – – 19 35 – – 243 211 – –
p-trend <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
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aORs adjusted by sex, race, age, education level and drink day of alcohol (study centre as random intercept).

Table 3.

Tobacco smoking and the risk of head and neck cancer by age group, separately according to cancer subsite. International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium

Subsite ≤45 yo
 >45 yo
Cases Controls OR (95% CI) Cases Controls OR (95% CI)
Oral cavity cancer
 Tobacco smokinga
  Never 220 1793 1.00 1009 8463 1.00
  Ever 519 2207 1.91 (1.53, 2.38) 3825 13 513 2.18 (1.99, 2.39)
  Missing 2 12 – – 17 25 – –
 Pack-yearsa
  Never smoker 220 1793 1.00 1009 8463 1.00
  >0 to 10 93 894 1.11 (0.83, 1.49) 293 277 0.92 (0.79, 1.08)
  >10 to 20 117 569 1.87 (1.39, 2.51) 361 2312 1.39 (1.20, 1.61)
  >20 to 30 129 397 2.80 (2.06, 3.81) 528 2136 2.22 (1.94, 2.54)
  >30 to 40 71 136 4.09 (2.75, 6.07) 677 1998 2.82 (2.47, 3.21)
  >40 to 50 39 78 3.73 (2.28, 6.11) 554 1413 3.25 (2.82, 3.74)
  >50 64 92 4.99 (3.22, 7.73) 1360 2663 3.49 (3.10, 3.92)
  Missing 8 53 – – 69 241 – –
p-trend <0.001 <0.001
Oropharynx cancer
 Tobacco smokinga
  Never 133 1793 1.00 71 8463 1.00
  Ever 414 2207 1.86 (1.47, 2.37) 3755 13 513 2.77 (2.50, 3.08)
  Missing 1 12 – – 06 25 –
 Pack –yearsa
  Never smoker 133 1793 1.00 571 8463 1.00
  >0 to 10 66 894 1.01 (0.73, 1.40) 317 277 1.36 (1.16, 1.58)
  >10 to 20 90 569 1.81 (1.31, 2.50) 371 2312 1.81 (1.56, 2.10)
  >20 to 30 113 397 2.69 (1.94, 3.72) 503 2136 2.56 (2.22, 2.95)
  >30 to 40 60 136 4.55 (3.02, 6.87) 641 1998 3.39 (2.95, 3.89)
  >40 to 50 37 78 4.09 (2.48, 6.73) 481 1413 3.69 (3.17, 4.29)
  >50 45 92 3.99 (2.46, 6.48) 1396 2663 4.96 (4.37, 5.62)
  Missing 4 53 – – 52 241 – –
p-trend <0.001 <0.001
Larynx cancer
 Tobacco smokinga
  Never 23 1371 1.00 243 7048 1.00
  Ever 285 184 6.34 (3.98, 10.1) 4237 11 448 8.31 (7.21, 9.58)
  Missing 2 9 – – 28 20 – –
 Pack-yearsa
  Never smoker 23 1371 1.00 243 7048 1.00
  >0 to 10 40 759 2.86 (1.65, 4.97) 229 2441 2.41 (1.98, 2.93)
  >10 to 20 48 481 5.16 (2.99, 8.91) 359 2054 4.35 (3.63, 5.21)
  >20 to 30 84 319 12.8 (7.51, 22.0) 581 1825 8.23 (6.94, 9.76)
  >30 to 40 43 109 18.6 (10.1, 30.3) 784 1718 11.15 (9.44, 13.2)
  >40 to 50 32 68 20.9 (10.8, 40.8) 684 1199 12.97 (10.9, 15.4)
  >50 33 69 20.2 (10.4, 39.8) 1535 2010 18.03 (15.3, 21.1)
  Missing 7 48 – – 93 221 – –
p-trend <0.001 <0.001
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aORs adjusted on sex, age, study, education level and drink/day of alcohol (study centre as random intercept).

The association with ever drinking in YA was weaker than in the older group. However, risks according to strata of frequency, duration and cumulative consumption were similar across age groups, with the exception of the highest category of frequency of intake (≥5 drinks/day), which showed stronger associations in older than in young individuals (Table 4, Supplementary Table 3 available as Supplementary data at IJE online). Associations with alcohol intake remained in the specific assessment of ever smokers, whereas in never smokers associations were observed only among older men (Supplementary Table 4, Supplementary Table 5, available as Supplementary data at IJE online). With respect to the duration of alcohol intake, differences by sex were observed: duration was not associated with HNC risk in young women, whereas direct associations were observed among young men, older women and older men (Table 4). The attributable fraction for alcohol drinking on the risk of HNC was 5.3% (95% CI = −11.2%, 18.0%) in young women, 20.0% (95%CI = 14.5%, 25.0%) in older women, 21.5% (5.0%, 34.9%) in young men and 50.4% (46.1%, 54.3%) in older men.

Table 4.

Alcohol drinking and the risk of head and neck cancer according to sex and age subgroups. International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium

Alcohol drinkinga Women ≤45 yo
 Women >45 yo
 Men ≤45 yo
 Men >45 yo
Case Control OR (95% CI) Case Control OR (95% CI) Case Control OR (95% CI) Case Control OR (95% CI)
Never 208 675 1.00 1242 3010 1.00 171 533 1.00 911 2845 1.00
Ever 297 736 1.10 (0.84, 1.44) 2263 3218 1.45 (1.29, 1.63) 1326 2051 1.32 (1.06, 1.65) 12 188 13 615 2.18 (1.98, 2.40)
Missing 0 27 – – 17 10 – – 8 20 – – 73 42 – –
Duration (years)a
 Never drinker 207 663 1.00 1205 2913 1.00 16 529 1.00 897 2774 1.00
 >0 to 20 130 386 0.92 (0.67, 1.26) 282 434 1.41 (1.15, 1.73) 386 858 1.23 (0.96, 1.58) 660 1076 1.46 (1.27, 1.69)
 >20 to 30 113 230 1.34 (0.93, 1.92) 388 521 1.67 (1.39, 2.02) 708 945 1.50 (1.17, 1.92) 1653 1921 2.10 (1.86, 2.37)
 >30 to 40 9 24 0.67 (0.25, 1.78) 584 827 1.65 (1.40, 1.94) 12 105 1.65 (1.13, 2.42) 3789 3999 2.26 (2.03, 2.52)
 >40 to 50 0 0 – – 389 630 1.24 (1.03, 1.49) 0 2 – – 3183 3264 2.31 (2.06, 2.58)
 >50 to 60 0 0 – – 160 248 1.26 (0.97, 1.64) 0 0 – – 1284 1347 2.20 (1.92, 2.51)
 >60 0 0 – – 41 42 1.33 (0.80, 2.23) 0 0 – – 221 202 2.07 (1.62, 2.65)
 Missing 46 135 – – 673 623 – – 124 165 – – 1485 1919 – –
p-trend 0.353 <0.001 0.001 <0.001
Frequency (drinks/day)a
 Never 208 675 1.00 1242 3011 1.00 171 533 1.00 912 2850 1.00
 >0 to <1 149 468 0.90 (0.66, 1.22) 1034 1982 1.12 (0.98, 1.28) 251 687 0.93 (0.72, 1.21) 1893 4253 1.17 (1.05, 1.31)
 1 to <3 62 17 1.29 (0.86, 1.96) 548 841 1.59 (1.35, 1.87) 298 554 1.34 (1.03, 1.75) 2630 4162 1.72 (1.54, 1.91)
 3 to <5 31 34 2.43 (1.30, 4.54) 238 151 3.34 (2.55, 4.36) 157 297 1.31 (0.96, 1.79) 1891 2095 2.62 (2.33, 2.95)
 ≥5 36 30 2.48 (1.35, 4.55) 301 66 5.90 (4.32, 8.06) 559 437 2.68 (2.04, 3.53) 5159 2660 4.75 (4.26, 5.30)
 Missing 19 74 – – 159 187 – – 69 96 – – 687 482 – –
p-trend <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Drinks/day x yearsa
 Never drinker 208 650 1.00 1215 2925 1.00 166 522 1.00 869 2764 1.00
 >0 to 20 143 452 0.85 (0.62, 1.16) 675 1357 1.15 (0.99, 1.34) 29 700 1.03 (0.79, 1.33) 1073 218 1.20 (1.06, .36)
 >20 to 30 19 46 1.62 (0.85, 3.08) 144 242 1.17 (0.90, 1.16) 62 162 0.99 (0.68, 1.46) 442 816 1.44 (1.23, 1.69)
 >30 to 40 12 34 0.95 (0.42, 2.11) 99 182 1.23 (0.91, 1.66) 68 130 1.31 (0.89, 1.93) 392 751 1.43 (1.21, 1.68)
 >40 to 50 10 32 1.25 (0.51, 3.03) 81 176 1.23 (0.89, 1.71) 45 106 1.14 (0.73, 1.77) 352 618 1.50 (1.26, 1.78)
 >50 to 60 6 7 4.21 (1.23, 14.4) 81 126 1.39 (0.99, 1.96) 46 46 1.19 (0.76, 1.85) 339 548 1.61 (1.35, 1.93)
 >60 56 48 2.78 (1.63, 4.74) 684 553 2.79 (2.34, 3.34) 696 663 2.31 (1.77, 3.03) 7824 6320 2.99 (2.70, 3.32)
 Missing 55 169 – – 543 677 – – 163 223 – – 1881 2167 – –
p-trend <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Open in a new tab

aORs adjusted by sex, race, age, education level and pack-year of cigarette smoking (study centre as random intercept).

The analysis that included all HNC cases and controls indicated that the frequency of drinking, rather than the duration, played a more important role in HNC development. Considering this finding, we used stratified analyses to assess the role of drinking status (ever/never drinker) and the frequency of alcohol intake by cancer subsite (Table 5). Positive associations were comparable for alcohol consumption across age groups in all cancer subsites. In addition, Ors for alcohol consumption were higher for oropharynx than for cancers of other subsites.

Table 5.

Alcohol drinking and the risk of head and neck cancer by age group, separately according to cancer subsite. International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium

Subsite ≤45 years old
 >45 years old
Case Control OR (95% CI) Case Control OR (95% CI)
Oral cavity cancer
 Alcohol drinkinga
  Never 183 207 1.00 911 5830 1.00
  Ever 557 2758 1.24 (0.97, 1.57) 3919 16 119 1.61 (1.46, 1.79)
  Missing 1 47 21
 Frequency (drinks/day)a
  Never drinker 183 1207 1.00 912 5836 1.00
  >0 to <1 131 1144 0.79 (0.59, 1.07) 900 6026 0.99 (0.88, 1.12)
  1 to <3 126 705 1.39 (1.01, 1.90) 842 4745 1.34 (1.18, 1.52)
  3 to <5 62 323 1.49 (1.01, 2.20) 524 2101 2.12 (1.83, 2.46)
  ≥5 196 464 2.77 (2.01, 3.83) 1380 2630 3.71 (3.25, 4.23)
  Missing 43 169 – – 293 663 – –
p-trend <0.001 <0.001
Oropharynx cancer
 Alcohol drinkinga
  Never 83 207 1.00 447 5830 1.00
  Ever 464 2758 1.66 (1.25, 2.21) 3875 16 781 2.16 (1.92, 2.44)
  Missing 1 47 – – 10 52 – –
 Frequency (drinks/day)a
  Never drinker 83 207 1.00 447 5836 1.00
  >0 to <1 135 1144 1.24 (0.90, 1.72) 823 6026 1.28 (1.11, 1.47)
  1 to <3 99 705 1.55 (1.09, 2.21) 819 4745 1.83 (1.59, 2.11)
  3 to <5 43 323 1.40 (0.98, 2.41) 580 2101 3.13 (2.67, 3.66)
  ≥5 171 464 4.30 (2.98, 6.20) 1452 2630 5.68 (4.91, 6.55)
  Missing 17 169 – – 211 663 – –
p-trend <0.001 <0.001
Larynx cancer
 Alcohol drinkinga
  Never 38 97 1.00 465 4698 1.00
  Ever 268 2270 1.25 (0.83, 1.87) 3999 13 781 1.90 (1.41, 1.80)
  Missing 4 7 – – 44 37 – –
 Frequency (drinks/day)a
  Never drinker 38 947 1.00 465 4704 1.00
  >0 to <1 5 889 0.89 (0.55, 1.44) 762 4726 1.03 (0.89, 1.19)
  1 to <3 61 600 1.21 (0.75, 1.95) 961 4308 1.29 (1.12, 1.48)
  3 to <5 40 296 1.33 (0.77, 2.27) 641 2016 1.76 (1.50, 2.06)
  ≥5 105 411 1.81 (1.13, 2.90) 1496 2372 2.82 (2.40, 3.25)
  Missing 11 81 – – 183 390 – –
p-trend <0.001 <0.001
Open in a new tab

aORs adjusted on sex, age, study, education level and pack-years of cigarette smoking (study centre as random intercept).

The frequency of fruit and vegetable intake was inversely associated with HNC risk in both age groups (Table 6, Supplementary Table 6 available as Supplementary data at IJE online). This inverse association remained in the stratified analysis by sex, cancer subsite and smoking status (Supplementary Table 7, Supplementary Table 8, available as Supplementary data at IJE online). No association was observed between meat and cereal consumption and HNC risk in YA (Table 6). Conversely, positive associations were found for the highest quartile of intake of meat products in older men and the highest quartile of intake of cereals in women.

Table 6.

Diet and the risk of head and neck cancer according to sex and age subgroups. International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium

Diet Women ≤45 yo
 Women >45 yo
 Men ≤45 yo
 Men >45 yo
Case Control OR (95% CI) Case Control OR (95% CI) Case Control OR (95% CI) Case Control OR (95% CI)
Vegetablesa
 1st quartile 114 233 1.00 741 1012 1.00 403 601 1.00 3602 3550 1.00
 2nd quartile 97 258 0.87 (0.59, 1.27) 624 1229 0.84 (0.71, 0.99) 294 514 0.86 (0.68, 1.07) 2407 3503 0.73 (0.68, 0.80)
 3rd quartile 85 65 0.84 (0.57, 1.24) 606 1344 0.81 (0.69, 0.96) 188 473 0.60 (0.47, 0.76) 2046 3255 0.70 (0.64, 0.76)
 4th quartile 78 303 0.67 (0.45, 0.99) 579 1565 0.72 (0.61, 0.84) 186 446 0.58 (0.45, 0.74) 1766 3753 0.59 (0.54, 0.64)
p-trend 0.052 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Fruita
 1st quartile 156 292 1.00 834 919 1.00 471 640 1.00 3388 3821 1.00
 2nd quartile 75 250 0.78 (0.54, 1.14) 553 1131 0.68 (0.58, 0.81) 237 516 0.67 (0.53, 0.84) 3482 2375 0.72 (0.66, 0.78)
 3rd quartile 69 21 0.72 (0.49, 1.06) 557 1501 0.64 (0.54, 0.75) 201 476 0.70 (0.55, 0.88) 3657 1956 0.65 (0.60, 0.71)
 4th quartile 49 235 0.58 (0.38, 0.88) 488 1481 0.55 (0.47, 0.65) 146 378 0.57 (0.44, 0.74) 3433 1571 0.56 (0.51, 0.62)
p-trend 0.008 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Meata
 1st quartile 83 258 1.00 687 1248 1.00 246 25 1.00 2287 3326 1.00
 2nd quartile 103 274 1.06 (0.70, 1.60) 647 1271 0.99 (0.84, 1.17) 221 484 0.76 (0.58, 0.99) 2221 3577 0.98 (0.89, 1.07)
 3rd quartile 91 251 1.12 (0.74, 1.69) 587 1301 1.00 (0.85, 1.19) 232 531 0.79 (0.61, 1.03) 2364 3615 1.04 (0.95, 1.14)
 4th quartile 88 249 1.12 (0.73, 1.71) 556 1157 1.05 (0.88, 1.24) 338 568 0.98 (0.76, 1.25) 2632 3277 1.17 (1.07, 1.28)
p-trend 0.556 0.609 0.857 <0.001
Cerealsa
 1st quartile 99 303 1.00 683 1521 1.00 219 547 1.00 1997 2902 1.00
 2nd quartile 86 227 0.95 (0.62, 1.46) 513 1079 0.93 (0.78, 1.12) 180 365 1.03 (0.77, 1.38) 1591 2469 0.82 (0.73, 0.91)
 3rd quartile 51 189 0.88 (0.55, 1.42) 465 948 1.21 (1.00, 1.45) 215 361 1.12 (0.84, 1.51) 1684 2778 0.91 (0.82, 1.02)
 4th quartile 69 181 1.38 (0.88, 2.18) 400 736 1.37 (1.12, 1.67) 223 421 0.97 (0.72, 1.30) 1895 2766 0.98 (0.88, 1.10)
p-trend 0.261 <0.001 0.956 0.602
Open in a new tab

aORs adjusted by sex, race, age, education level, pack-year of cigarette smoking and drink/day of alcohol (study centre as random intercept).

Family history of any cancer was directly associated with HNC only among the older group (Table 5, Supplementary Table 9 available as Supplementary data at IJE online). Borderline associations were found for family history of smoking-related cancers in the >45 age group, in which a family history of HNC was also positively associated with HNC risk. A family history of early-onset cancer was associated with HNC risk only in YA (Table 7). Among YA never smokers, a family history of any cancer was inversely associated with HNC whereas in YA ever smokers, a positive association was found. The attributable fraction for family history of early-onset cancer on the risk of HNC was 23.2% (95% CI = 8.6%, 31.4%) in young and 2.2% (−2.41%, 5.8%) in older adults.

Table 7.

Family history of cancer and the risk of head and neck cancer according to age subgroups. International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium

History ≤45 yo
 >45 yo
Case Control OR (95% CI) Case Control OR (95% CI)
Family history of cancer (all sites)a
 No 1075 1075 1.00 1.00 7535 10 455 1.00
 Yes 308 308 1.15 (0.95, 1.39) 3387 5516 1.13 (1.05, 1.21)
Family history of smoking-related cancera
 No 1041 1041 1.00 7743 10 342 1.00
 Yes 120 120 1.16 (0.87, 1.56) 1472 2093 1.80 (0.99, 1.18)
Family history of head and neck cancera
 No 1149 2442 1.00 9068 12 937 1.00
 Yes 32 35 1.45 (0.81, 2.60) 476 323 1.63 (1.37, 1.93)
Family history of cancer in young relativesa
 No 72 196 1.00 1346 2800 1.00
 Yes 51 75 2.27 (1.26, 4.10) 439 642 1.10 (0.91, 1.31)
Open in a new tab

aORs adjusted by sex, race, age, education level, pack-years of cigarette smoking and drink day of alcohol (study centre as random intercept).

Between-study heterogeneity was detected. ORs for tobacco, alcohol, diet and family history of cancer were similar in sensitivity analysis when excluding one study at time (results not shown) or according to the recruitment period of study (studies conducted before 2000 vs studies conducted after 2000). In addition, when cases with missing information on histology were excluded, the results did not significantly change (results not shown). As an exception, estimates for cigarette smoking (ever vs never smokers) in older women and men were higher in earlier studies when compared with later studies (results not shown). The geographical region of study also partially explained the effects of cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking. The risks for ever vs never cigarette smokers, as well as for ever vs never alcohol drinkers, were higher in Europe and Latin America in comparison with North America and Asia in both age groups and sexes (results not shown). Estimates for family history of cancer on HNC risk were higher in Latin America in comparison with North America and Europe. Conversely, inverse associations for family history of cancer and HNC risk were found among the young in Asia (results not shown).

Discussion

To our knowledge, this is the largest study evaluating the role of the major risk factors for HNC in YA (persons aged 45 years or less) as well as to compare risks in YA and older patients. The large sample size allowed us to elucidate any differences in the role of risk factors in HNC in YA according to age group, sex and cancer subsites. Our results supported the differences in the characteristics of cases aged 45 years or younger compared with those aged >45 years: YA comprised a lower proportion of drinkers and/or smokers and were more likely to have been diagnosed with oral and/or oropharynx cancer, as previously reported. Moreover, a higher proportion of oral tongue cancer was observed in YA compared with the older cases, as well as in women compared with men in all age groups. In addition, we found evidence that the importance of cigarette smoking in relation to HNC in YA may be limited by the lesser duration of exposure due to young age. We also found evidence that alcohol consumption is a risk factor for HNC in YA; however, a more intense association with heavy drinking was observed for the older group. Our results also indicate that the inverse association with fruit and vegetable intake is similar among young and older populations. Furthermore, aggregation of early malignancy diagnosis in the family was associated with HNC risk only among YA.

The characteristics of YA with HNC in terms of exposure to risk factors and cancer subsites are consistent with those described in previous studies performed in the USA,46,47 the UK,48 Italy,9 Sri Lanka,49 Brazil50,51 and India.52 All of these studies reported a higher percentage of women, never smokers, never drinkers and oral cavity cancer among YA with HNC compared with studies that included patients of all age groups. We also found a higher proportion of oral cavity cancer (especially oral tongue cancer) among the young cases and this proportion was higher among women. This finding agrees with those of previous studies which reported increasing rates for oral cavity tumours (especially oral tongue cancer) in individuals younger than 40 years of age in India,3 Europe,4 the USA5,53 and China.6

Association studies on HNC risk factors among YA have been performed in several countries9,10,49,50,54-68. Most of the studies only included young patients with oral49-51,57-61,63,64 and pharyngeal cancers,9,65 whereas some other studies included only laryngeal cancer patients68 and some included all HNC subsites.10,54–56,62,66,67,69 The age cut-off for the ‘young adult’ group varied across the studies, including 30 years,56,57 35 years,58 40 years,49–51,54,55,59,62,63,67–69 45 years9,60,61,64–66 and 50 years.10 Most analyses of studies with an age cut-off of 45 or 50 yearsfound associations with diet, tobacco and alcohol.9,10,61,64–66 Regarding studies with an age cut-off of 35 or 40 years, some of these studies reported that HNC in young cases was less strongly associated with drinking and smoking,49–51,57,58,62,67,69 whereas others reported stronger associations.59,69 The largest case group in studies that included persons only aged 45 years or younger comprised137 patients.9

The risk of HNC associated with the cumulative consumption of tobacco in YA found in the present study is in agreement with previous studies conducted in Europe.2,9,10 No differences by age were observed with the strata of duration and cumulative consumption of cigarettes, thus supporting the hypothesis that the carcinogenic effect of cigarette smoking does not depend on age if the level of exposure is the same among young and older individuals. In addition, the weaker associations for ever smoking observed in YA as compared with the older group support the hypothesis that the relationship between cigarette smoking and head and neck carcinogenesis in YA may be limited by a reduced length of exposure due to young age.8,64 Thus, this observation would indicate a more important role of other, unknown risk factors for HNC in YA.8,57 Consistent with this hypothesis are also the lower attributable fractions found for tobacco in YA in comparison with the older group.

Frequent alcohol consumption was associated with HNC in young subjects and this finding has been reported by other investigators.9,10,64 Kmietowicz70 suggested that the increasing incidence of mouth cancer among young British subjects may be linked to a modified alcohol consumption pattern of higher frequency of alcohol consumption at very young ages. Although our data did not allow the assessment of ‘binge’ drinking, which is an alcohol intake pattern that has been associated with other lifestyle-associated cancers,71 our findings regarding the frequency of alcohol intake suggest the impact of factors other than alcohol consumption on early head and neck carcinogenesis, as the associations with ever drinking were lower in YA than in the older group. Furthermore, drinking status in ever smokers presented a higher HNC risk in every age stratum, which supports the hypothesis that alcohol intake increases the carcinogenic effect of cigarette smoking in all age groups.72

Consistent with other studies, our results suggest that a high frequency of fruit and vegetable consumption is associated with a reduced risk of HNC in YA. Previous studies also found associations between a diet rich in fruits and vegetables and a reduced risk of HNC in all ages,43 particularly in YA.9,10,64,73 In contrast to the weaker relationship between tobacco or alcohol and HNC risk at young ages than older ages, the inverse association with fruit and vegetable consumption did not seem to be influenced by the length of exposure; the same observation was reported by Llewellyn et al.64

In our study, 20% of young cases had at least one family member with a history of any cancer. Although this proportion is similar to that observed in a previous study in Canada, which included only patients under 41 years of age,62 other studies found higher proportions, such as 66% for cases under 46 years of age in England48 and 55% for cases under 40 years of age53 in the USA. Cancer aggregation seemed to play different roles in HNC carcinogenesis in YA compared with older adults in our study. Similarly to previous findings by Negri et al.44 in a study including all age groups (that also used data from the INHANCE Consortium to assess the role of family history of cancer), family history of any cancer at any age was associated with HNC in individuals aged >45 years. However, no association was observed among individuals aged ≤45 years, which contrasts with the results of other studies that specifically assessed young patients.50,54 Caution is needed when interpreting this result, as the probability of having a family member with cancer may be higher for older than for young people. Older people are more likely to have older relatives, and since cancer risk generally increases with age, the chances of having a relative with cancer would be higher for older persons. In contrast, direct associations with family history of cancer in YA were observed in ever smokers, whereas the association was inverse in never smokers. Further studies are needed to explain whether these results may be driven by a possible familial aggregation of risk factors or by some gene-environment interaction.

A novel finding of our study is the association between the aggregation of early-onset family history of cancer and HNC risk in YA. Similar results have been reported for lung cancer,74,75 but the biological mechanisms that explain this association are still unclear. In addition, caution is needed in interpreting this result because only four studies were included and a very low percentage of patients (10%) from these studies had available relevant information. Thus, the possibility of information bias resulting from the higher proportion of missing information should be considered.

Our study has some limitations. Recall bias is a potential limitation that is difficult to overcome in case-control studies. Another limitation is that we were unable to examine HPV infection as a risk factor or adjust for it to determine whether the association between cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption in oropharyngeal cancer according to sex could be related to HPV infection status.

The major strength of our study was the large sample size of young HNC patients and controls, which allowed us to explore heterogeneity in risk by sex and cancer subsite in more detail than previously performed. We also used data from older patients as a basis for comparison and found evidence for differences in HNC aetiology according to major risk factors. Our results support the public health efforts to decrease the exposure to major risk factors for HNC in the population regardless of age. However, investigations of the role of other risk factors, such as HPV and inherited characteristics, in HNC in this age group are warranted.

Supplementary Data

Supplementary data are available at IJE online.

Funding

This work was supported by the US National Institutes of Health, the National Cancer Institute [R03CA113157] and the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Health [R03DE016611]. The individual studies were funded by the following grants: Milan study: Italian Association for Research on Cancer (AIRC); Aviano study: Italian Association for Research on Cancer (AIRC), Italian League Against Cancer and Italian Ministry of Research; France study: Swiss League against Cancer [KFS1069-09-2000], Fribourg League against Cancer [FOR381.88], Swiss Cancer Research [AKT 617] and Gustave-Roussy Institute [88D28]; Italy multicentre study: Italian Association for Research on Cancer (AIRC), Italian League against Cancer and Italian Ministry of Research; Swiss study: Swiss League against Cancer and the Swiss Research against Cancer/Oncosuisse [KFS-700, OCS-1633]; Central Europe study: World Cancer Research Fund and the European Commission INCO-COPERNICUS Program [Contract No. IC15- CT98-0332]; New York study: National Institutes of Health (NIH) US [P01CA068384 K07CA104231]; Seattle study: NIH [R01CA048996, R01DE012609]; Iowa study: NIH [NIDCR R01DE11979, NIDCR R01DE13110, NIH FIRCA TW01500] and Veterans Affairs Merit Review Funds; North Carolina study: NIH [R01CA61188] and in part by a grant from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences [P30ES010126]; Tampa study: NIH [P01CA068384, K07CA104231, R01DE13158]; Los Angeles study: NIH [P50CA90388, R01DA11386, R03CA77954, T32CA09142, U01CA96134, R21ES011667] and the Alper Research Program for Environmental Genomics of the UCLA Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center; Houston study: NIH [R01ES11740, R01CA100264]; Puerto Rico study: jointly funded by National Institutes of Health (NCI) US and NIDCR intramural programmes; Latin America study: Fondo para la Investigacion Cientifica y Tecnologica (FONCYT) Argentina, IMIM (Barcelona), Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa no Estado de Sao Paulo (FAPESP) [No 01/01768-2] and European Commission [IC18-CT97-0222]; IARC multicentre study: Fondo de Investigaciones Sanitarias (FIS) of the Spanish Government [FIS 97/ 0024, FIS 97/0662, BAE 01/5013], International Union Against Cancer (UICC) and Yamagiwa-Yoshida Memorial International Cancer Study Grant; Boston study: National Institutes of Health (NIH) US [R01CA078609, R01CA100679]; Rome study: AIRC (Italian Agency for Research on Cancer) [10068]; US multicentre study: the Intramural Program of the NCI, NIH, United States; São Paulo study: Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa no Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) [04/12054-9, 10/51168-0]; MSKCC study: NIH [R01CA51845]; Seattle study: NIH [R01CA30022]; European study: European Community (5th Framework Programme) [QLK1-CT-2001- 00182]; Germany-Heidelberg study: German Ministry of Education and Research [01GB9702/3]; Japan study: Scientific Research grant from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, Culture and Technology of Japan [17015052] and a grant for the Third-Term Comprehensive 10-Year Strategy for Cancer Control from the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan [H20-002].

Conflict of interest: None declared

Supplementary Material

Supplementary Data
supp_44_1_169__index.html (832B, html)

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