Skip to main content
PMC home page
NIHPA Author Manuscripts logoLink to NIHPA Author Manuscripts
. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2015 Apr 23.
Published in final edited form as: Vaccine. 2013 Dec 16;32(6):706–711. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.11.096

Co-colonization by Haemophilus influenzae with Streptococcus pneumoniae enhances pneumococcal-specific antibody response in young children

Qingfu Xu 1,*, Michael E Pichichero 1
PMCID: PMC4407564  NIHMSID: NIHMS549797  PMID: 24355091

Abstract

Background

Streptococcus pneumoniae (Spn), Haemophilus influenzae (Hi) and Moraxella catarrhalis (Mcat) are common bacterial pathogens of respiratory infections and common commensal microbes in the human nasopharynx (NP). The effect of interactions among theses bacteria during co-colonization of the NP on the host immune response has not been evaluated. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of co-colonization by Hi or Mcat on the systemic antibody response to vaccine protein candidate antigens of Spn and similarly the impact of co-colonization by Spn and Mcat on antibody responses to Hi vaccine protein candidate antigens.

Methods

Serum samples were collected from healthy children at 6, 9, 15, 18, and 24 months of age when they were colonized with Spn, Hi, Mcat or their combinations. Quantitative ELISA was used to determine serum IgA and IgG against three Spn antigens and three Hi antigens, and as well as whole cells of non-typeable (NT) Spn and Hi.

Results

NP colonization by Spn increased serum IgA and IgG titers against Spn antigens PhtD, PcpA and PlyD and whole cells of NTSpn, and co-colonization of Hi or Mcat with Spn resulted in further increases of serum pneumococcal-specific antibody levels. NP colonization by Hi increased serum IgA and IgG titers against Hi antigens P6, Protein D and OMP26 and whole cells of NTHi, but co-colonization of Spn or Mcat with Hi did not result in further increase of serum NTHi-specific antibody levels.

Conclusion

Co-colonization of Hi or Mcat with Spn enhances serum antibody response to NTSpn whole cells and Spn vaccine candidate antigens PhtD, PcPA and PlyD1. Co-colonization appears to variably modulate pathogen species-specific host adaptive immune response.

Keywords: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, Polymicrobial co-colonization, Antibody response

1. Introduction

Respiratory tract infections are the most common pediatric disease associated with significant morbidity and socioeconomic cost [1-3]. Streptococcus pneumoniae (Spn), Haemophilus influenzae (Hi) and Moraxella catarrhalis (Mcat) are common bacterial pathogens tocause pneumonia, acute exacerbations of bronchitis, acute sinusitis, and acute otitis media (AOM) [1]. The first step of respiratory bacterial infection is nasopharyngeal (NP) colonization [4,5], and NP colonization must precede upper and lower respiratory infections [3,6]. Bacterial NP colonization is determined by many ecological factors including bacterial–bacterial and bacterial-host immune response interactions [4].

There are numerous commensal microbiota and potential bacterial pathogens in the gastrointestinal tract [7,8], and the role of gastrointestinal commensal microbiota in normal and pathogenic host immune response has been well studied [7-9] However, although a similar situation exists in the NP [3,10], little is known about role of NP microbiota in host immune response. According to a recent metagenomic analysis of NP microbiota, there are approximately one million sequences of microbiome in the human NP representing 13 taxonomic phyla and 250 species-level phyla [2]. Spn, Hi and Mcat are common among the NP microbiota in healthy children [2,10,11]. More than half children at age 6 to 24 months, at times of good healthy may be colonized with these potential bacterial pathogens [5,11]. Co-colonization occurs in approximately 18% of healthy children and 46% of children with AOM [11]. When co-colonization occurs, Hi predominates over Spn except serotype 19A strains, and Spn predominates over Mcat to cause AOM when both are present in the NP prior to AOM [12]. The interaction between Spn, Hi and Mcat is contradictory and relevant mechanism to explain outcomes of co-colonization remain unclear [3,11,13-16].

Host immune responses may influence interactions among microbes and therefore influence the composition of the colonizing flora and invading bacteria [3]. In a mouse model host innate immune responses has been shown to play an important role in out-come of co-colonization of Spn and Hi [17]. It is unclear whether host adaptive immune response influences the outcome of colonization as well when polymicrobial co-colonization occurs. No prior work has focused on differences in human antibody responses following Snp, Hi and Mcat co-colonization. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of NP co-colonization of Spn with Hi or Mcat on the systemic antibody responses of young children to vaccine candidate antigens expressed by the organisms. Serum IgA and IgG against pneumococcal antigens PhtD, PcpA and PlyD1 and whole cells of Spn, and against Hi surface proteins P6, protein D, OMP26 and whole cells of Hi were compared among cohorts of children during Spn and Hi NP colonization and co-colonization.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Subjects and study design

This study was part of a 5-year prospective, longitudinal evaluation of human child immunity to Sp and Hi supported by the National Institute of Deafness and Communication Disorders as described previously [11,12,18-21]. NP, oropharyngeal (OP), hereafter referred to as NP samples, and serum samples were collected from healthy children at 6–24 months of age for determining NP colonization of Spn, Hi and Mcat by standard culture as described previously [12,18], and serum samples determining anti-body response by quantitative ELISA. Sole colonization was defined as detection of one potential otopathogen, and co-colonization was defined as detection of greater than one potential otopathogen in the NP at a sampling point. The data here involve children who had not received antibiotics for at least 3 weeks prior to sampling. All of the children received standard vaccinations including PCV7 (Prevnar, Wyeth Pharmaceuticals) as appropriate for age. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of University of Rochester and Rochester General Hospital.

To investigate the influence of co-colonization on serum anti-body responses, the samples from children were divided into age-matched three groups: (1) non-colonization (culture-negative for Spn, Hi and Mcat), (2) sole colonization (culture-positive for Spn or Hi or Mcat), and (3) co-colonization (culture-positive for both Spn and Hi or Mcat).

2.2. Quantitative ELISA for antigen-specific antibody

Spn antigens histidine triad protein D (PhtD), choline-binding protein A (PcpA) and detoxified pneumolysin D1 (PlyD1) were provided by Sanofi Pasteur (Canada) [22]. The Hi antigens Protein D was kindly provided as a gift from GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals (Rixensart, Belgium). P6 and OMP26 were recombinant proteins that were expressed in and purified from Escherichia coli using P6 plasmid provided by Dr. Tim Murphy (University of Buffalo, US) and OMP26 plasmid provided by Dr. Jennelle Kyd (University of Canberra, Australia).

An adult serum with high endpoint titer of IgA and IgG against all three Spn antigens was used as an in-house reference serum for Spn antigen-specific ELISA. A sera pool from three adult donors with high endpoint titers of IgA and IgG against all three Hi antigens was used as in-house reference serum for NTHi antigen-specific ELISA. Antigen-specific IgA and IgG against each individual antigen in the in-house reference sera were quantified using Human IgA and IgG ELISA Quantitation Sets (Bethyl Laboratories, Inc) according to manufacturer’s protocol with some modification [23]. The wells of a 96-well microtiter plate for generating a standard curve were coated with 100 ng/well of affinity purified human IgG or IgA capture antibodies in coating buffer (carbonate-bicarbonate, pH 9.6). The wells for measuring antigen-specific antibodies were coated with 100–500 ng/well of the corresponding individual antigens in 100 μl of coating buffer. Antigen specific antibody was calculated with the standard curve generated with SoftMax Pro version 5.2 (Molecular Devices Corp., Sunnyvale, CA) using commercial reference sera containing known amounts of total IgG and total IgA (Bethyl RS10-101).

Seum antigen specific IgG and IgA were determined as described previously with modification [24]. The IgA were run on 96-well microtiter plates with 100 μl of coating and reaction volume and IgG on 384-well microtiter plates with 20 μl of coating and reaction volume. Antigen coating concentrations were 100 ng/well for Spn antigens, and 50 ng/well for Hi antigens. The initial dilutions of sera were 1:25 for IgA and 1:200 for IgG. The lower detection limits of the IgA were 1.8 ng/ml for PhtD, 2.2 ng/ml for PcpA, 1.5 ng/ml for PlyD1, 2.7 ng/ml for P6, 8 ng/ml for protein D, and 10.5 ng/ml for OMP26. The lower detection limit of the serum IgG was 9.2 ng/ml for PhtD1, 41.1 ng/ml for PcpA, 6.1 ng/ml for PlyD, 1 ng/ml for P6, 3.5 ng/ml for protein D, and 4 ng/ml for OMP26.

2.3. Quantitative whole cell ELISA for pneumococcal, and NTHi-specific antibody

Serum IgA and IgG levels against non-typeable Spn (NTSpn) and NTHi whole cells were determined by quantitative ELISA as described previously with mini modification [24-28]. The NTSpn strain RX01, and NTHi strain 86-028NP were grown at 37°C to mid-log phase in Todd Hewitt media with 0.5% yeast extract [29], and brain heart infusion with hemin and NAD (each at 4 μg/ml) [28], respectively. The cells were harvested by centrifuge, washed twice with PBS, and then re-suspended in PBS to an OD600 (for NTSpn) or OD490 (for NTHi) of 1.0. The cells was diluted 1:10 (for NTSpn) or 1:50 (for NTHi) with coating buffer and 100 μl per well of diluted cells were fixed in 96-well microterplates at 4°C overnight. The antibodies were quantified using a four-parameter logistic-log standard curve generated with SoftMax Proversion 5.2 (Molecular Devices Corp., Sunnyvale, CA) by using affinity purified human IgG or IgA capture antibodies and a reference serum containing a known amount of total IgG and IgA (Bethyl). The lower detection limits were 18.6 ng/ml for NTSpn IgA, 41.8 ng/ml for NTSpn IgG, 76.0 ng/ml for NTHi IgA, 11.5 ng/ml for NTHi IgG.

2.4. Statistical analysis

Geometric means (GM) of antibody concentrations with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated for each group. For the purpose of statistical analysis, the antibody titers below the lower limit of detection were arbitrarily assigned to values equivalent to half the lower detection limit. Comparisons of antibody titers between groups were done with GraphPad Prism 5 software using the Mann–Whitney test after base 10 logarithmic transformations [30,31]. P < 0.05 was considered to indicate statistical significance[30,31].

3. Results

This analysis involved 455 serum samples from 494 visits of 213 children between ages of 6 and 24 months. The characteristics of the children are shown in Table 1.

Table 1.

Characteristics of children (n = 213).

Number (%)
Female 107 (50.2)
Male 106 (49.8)
Caucasian 149 (70)
Non-Caucasian 74 (30)
Breast feeding 128 (60)
Formula 83 (40)
Smoking exposure 29 (14)
No 184 (87)
Daycare 72 (33.8)
No 141 (66.2)
PCV-7 up-to-date 211 (99)
No 2 (1)
Open in a new tab

3.1. Influence of NP colonization by Spn on serum antigen specific IgA and IgG antibody responses to Spn

When Sp colonized the NP, serum specific IgA and IgG antibody were significantly higher than when Sp NP colonization was not detected (Table 2). There was a 6.8-fold increase in GM serum anti-PhtD IgA (p < 0.0001), a 2.2-fold increase in anti-PhtD IgG (p = 0.0008), a 11.5-fold increase in anti-PcpA IgA (P < 0.0001), and a 3.6-fold increase in anti-PcpA IgG (p < 0.0001), a 3.0-fold increase in anti-PlyD1 IgA (p = 0.008), and a 2.9-fold increase in anti-PlyD1 IgG (p = 0.003). The serum antibody titers to whole cells of Spn strain RX01 increased by 2.0-fold in IgA (p = 0.0002) and 1.8-fold in IgG (P = 0.0003).

Table 2.

Impact of co-colonization of Hi or Mcat with Spn on serum antibody responses to Spn.

Culture negativeGM (95% CI, n) SpnGM (95% CI, n) Spn + HiGM (95% CI, n) Spn + McatGM (95% CI, n)
IgA (μg/ml)
Anti-PhtD 0.10**** (0.058–0.178, 118) 0.68 (0.400–1.158, 80) 1.97* (0.897–4.396, 29) 2.07** (1.155–3.712, 65)
Anti-PcpA 0.098**** (0.057–0.170, 118) 1.13 (0.716–1.771, 81) 1.765 (0.894–3.486, 29) 2.232* (1.299–3.835,65)
Anti-PlyD1 0.02** (0.015–0.040, 118) 0.07 (0.043–0.117, 81) 0.143* (0.066–0.308, 29) 0.15* (0.091–0.247, 64)
Anti-whole cell 0.07*** (0.055–0.092, 125) 0.14 (0.113–0.178, 100) 0.22* (0.144–0.328, 45) 0.22** (0.171–0.282, 115)
IgG (μg/ml)
Anti-PhtD 4.86*** (3.55–6.66, 117) 10.64 (7.726–14.673, 81) 15.42 (8.931–26.616, 29) 18.66* (12.597–27.644, 65)
Anti-PcpA 3.83**** (2.524.5–5.819, 102) 13.80 (10.040–18.971, 78) 17.48 (10.332–29.563, 27) 24.73* (17.115–35.331, 55)
Anti-PlyD1 0.38** (0.242–0.597, 103) 1.10 (0.753–1.604, 76) 2.03 (1.050–3.907, 27) 2.96*** (1.969–4.455, 55)
Anti-whole cell 3.51*** (2.840–4.331, 116) 6.17 (5.105–7.449, 95) 6.90 (5.096–9.336, 42) 6.16 (5.029–7.546, 107)
Open in a new tab

Spn, S. pneumoniea; Hi, H. influenzae; Mcat, M. catarrhalsi. GM, geometric mean; CI, confidence interval.

*

P < 0.05 compared with sole Spn.

**

P < 0.01 compared with sole Spn.

***

P < 0.001 compared with sole Spn.

****

P < 0.0001 compared with sole Spn.

3.2. Influence of co-colonization of Hi or Mcat with Spn on serum pneumococcal protein specific IgA and IgG antibody responses to Spn

When co-colonization by Spn and Hi occurred, compared with sole colonization by Spn, Serum IgA further increased by 2.9-fold inanti-PhtD (p = 0.041), 1.6-fold in anti-PcpA (p = 0.32) and 2.0-fold in anti-PlyD1 (p = 0.039). The serum IgA to NTSpn RX01 whole cells further increased by 1.6-fold (p = 0.035). There was no significant difference in serum IgG against PhtD, PcpA or PlyD1 antigens, or whole Spn cells between sole Spn colonization and co-colonization by Spn and Hi (p > 0.05 for all, Table 2).

When co-colonization by Spn and Mc occurred, compared with sole colonization by Spn, serum pneumococcal-specific IgA and IgG responses were significantly increased further excepting anti-whole cell IgG (Table 2). The serum antibodies further increased by 3.0-fold in anti-PhtD IgA (p = 0.0022), 1.8-fold in anti-PhtD IgG (p = 0.013), 2.0-fold in anti-PcpA IgA (p = 0.021), 1.8-fold in anti-PcpA IgG (p = 0.037), 2.1-fold in anti-PlyD1 IgA (p = 0.01), and 2.7-fold in anti-PlyD1 IgG (p = 0.0004). The serum antibody to whole cells of NTSpn strain RX01 significantly increased further by 1.5-fold in IgA (p = 0.002), but not in IgG (p = 0.54). The results suggested that co-colonization of Hi or Mcat with Spn enhanced host pneumococcal protein-specific antibody response.

Co-colonization by Hi with Spn or co-colonization of Mcat with Spn were not significantly different in their impact on serum pneumococcal protein-specific IgA or IgG responses to Spn antigens or whole NTSpn cells (all p > 0.05, Table 2).

3.3. Influence of NP colonization by Hi on serum IgA and IgG responses to Hi proteins

When Hi colonized the NP, compared with no colonization, serum specific IgA and IgG titers were significant higher excepting anti-OMP26 antibodies (Table 3). There was a 2.5-fold increase in serum anti-P6 IgA (p = 0.0007), a 2.4-fold increase in anti-P6 IgG (p = 0.0001), a 1.5-fold in increase in anti-protein D IgA (P = 0.036), a 1.6-fold increase in anti-protein D IgG (p = 0.0021), but no significant difference in anti-OMP26 IgA (p = 0.50) or IgG (p = 0.52). The serum antibody titers to whole cells of Hi increased by 3.7-fold in IgA (p < 0.0001) and 2.1-fold in IgG (p < 0.0001). Colonization by Hi significantly elicited serum IgA and IgG responses against Hi protein antigens and whole cells as well.

Table 3.

Impact of co-colonization of Spn or Mcat with Hi on serum antibody responses to Hi.

Culture NegativeGM (95% CI, n) Hi GM (95% CI, n) Hi + SpnGM (95% CI, n) Hi + McatGM (95% CI, n)
IgG (ng/ml)
Anti-P6 42.4*** (34.1–52.6, 124) 106.1 (65.9–170.8, 44) 140.3 (82.8–238.0, 47) 140.6 (85.9–230.2, 42)
Anti-D 82.2* (66.4–101.7, 125) 121.0 (92.8–157.9, 44) 122.5 (89.4–167.9, 47) 129.7 (92.8–181.2, 42)
Anti-OMP26 71.7 (56.6–87.7, 121) 79.3 (56.6–111.3, 42) 104.5 (77.0–141.8, 46) 116.4 (82.8–163.7,41)
Anti-whole cell 22.5**** (17.7–8.5, 122) 83.2 (51.1–135.6, 43) 89.4 (49.3–162.2, 46) 121.6 (59.2–249.7, 42)
IgG (ng/ml)
Anti-P6 684.9*** (554.0–846.7, 127) 1630.0 (1115.2–2382.3, 44) 1265.7 (879.4–1821.6, 48) 1337.0 (907.8–1969.1, 43)
Anti-D 715.2** (610.0–838.6, 119) 1151.6 (910.8–1456.2, 44) 945.1 (715.8–1247.8, 43) 1007.8 (734.3–1383.2, 36)
Anti-OMP26 873.5 (749.9–1017.5, 125) 1003.6 (798.5–1261.5, 44) 973.7 (777.1–1220.0, 48) 1043.3 (831.9–1308.5, 43)
Anti-whole cell 1517.6**** (1251.4–1840.3, 126) 3165.1 (2413.6–4150.7, 43) 2531.5 (1936.8–3309.0, 47) 2644.5 (1737.2–4025.5, 43)
Open in a new tab

Spn, S. pneumoniea; Hi, H. influenzae; Mcat, M. catarrhalis. GM, geometric mean; CI, confidence interval.

*

P < 0.05 compared with sole Hi.

**

P < 0.01 compared with sole Hi.

***

P < 0.001 compared with sole Hi.

****

P < 0.0001 compared with sole Hi.

3.4. Influence of co-colonization of Spn or Mcat with Hi with on serum protein specific IgA and IgG responses to Hi

Compared with sole colonization by Hi, co-colonization by Hi and Spn did not influence the serum levels of IgG or IgA against Hi surface proteins, or Hi whole cells (p > 0.05 for all, Table 3). There was no difference in either serum IgA or IgG responses to Hi antigens studied, or whole Hi cells between co-colonization by Hi with Spn and co-colonization by Hi with Mcat (all p > 0.05, Table 3).

4. Discussion

In this study, we investigated influence of NP co-colonization by Spn and Hi or Mcat on host adaptive serum immune responses in young children. We found that NP colonization with either Spn or Hi elicited serum protein-specific IgA and IgG responses to the homologous bacterial species; co-colonization by Spn and Hi further increased serum antibody responses to Spn, but not to Hi, compared with sole colonization with Spn or Hi. The results suggest that interaction of bacterial respiratory pathogens modulates pathogen-specific host adaptive serum immune responses.

Elicitation of antibody response by bacterial colonization has been documented in previous studies by our group [19,20] and others [32-34], but the knowledge is limited regarding impact of co-colonization on host immune responses to pathogens. Lysenko et al. [17] has studied role of co-colonization by Spn and Hi in host innate immune response in mouse model. They found that the bacterial density of Spn but not Hi was lower when Spn and Hi colonized than when Spn or Hi colonized alone. They also showed that Hi activated the host innate immune response involving complement and neutrophils to kill Spn, resulting in rapid clearance of Spn from the NP when Spn and Hi co-colonized the mouse NP [4]. They also found co-colonization with Spn and Hi resulted in synergetic proinflammatory response [35]. Margolis E et al. have found in infant rat that Hi strain-specifically promoted an immune response which limited the invasion of Spn. Pro-colonization of Spn increased the intensity of Hi [4]. Bacterial interactions may influence the antibody response as well. Hollsing AE found that in cystic fibrosis patients, dual colonization with Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus inhibits serum antibody to P. aeruginosa exoproteins, alkaline protease, exotoxin A, and elastase, but enhances serum antibodies to phospholipase C, compared to sole P. aeruginosa colonization. Dual colonization also enhances serum antibody titers to S. aureus teichoic acid, compare to sole S. aureus colonization [36]. Both Spn and Hi express phosphorycholine, but phosphorycholine is necessary for survival of Spn, not Hi. Since pre-exposure to one of the two species can induce antibodies against phosphorycholine, thereby co-colonization can promote clearance of Spn, not Hi [37]. We have been studying three Spn vaccine candidate antigens PhtD, PcpA and PlyD1 because they are moving forward at this time in clinical trials as a tri-component vaccine (clinical trial # NCT01764126). The three NTHi vaccine candidate antigens P6, Protein D and OMP26 have been the targets of our research for the past 8 years for possible inclusion in a tri-component NTHi vaccine. In present report, we found that co-colonization of Spn and Hi enhanced serum anti-body responses to the three Spn vaccine candidate antigens, but Spn co-colonization did no enhance serum antibody responses to Hi antigens. We intend to further study this unexpected finding.

The mechanism to account for co-colonization of bacterial pathogens influencing the host adaptive immune responses may involve activation and crosstalk of host multiple pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) in innate immune cells, and components bridging innate and adaptive immunity. The host innate immune system detects microorganisms and responds to their stimuli mainly through Toll-like receptors (TLRs) [38]. Spn, Hi and Mcat can all be recognized by TLR2, 4 and 9 [39-41]. Clement CG et al. have found that innate immunity induced by NTHi can provide protection against Spn infection in mouse lung, probably through multiple innate immune mechanisms including formyl peptide receptors, complement receptors, and TLRs [42]. Lim JH et al. have reported that Spn synergizes with NTHi to induce inflammation via up-regulating TLR2 [40]. Spn and Hi synergistically activate NF-κB as well as the subsequent inflammatory TNFα, IL-1β, and IL-8 responses via IKKβ-IκBα and p38 MAPK pathway [43]. Such effects of co-colonization by Spn with Hi on innate immune immunity may lead to influence adaptive immunity. Dendritic cells (DC) play important roles in bridging innate and adaptive immunity [44]. TLRs and cross talk between TLRs, and complement receptors in antigen present cells (APC) control adaptive immune responses [45-47]. TLR signaling not only helps to initiate adaptive immune response, but also is required for it [45,48]. Activation of TLR in DCs results in elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines or chemokines leading to the induction of the adaptive immune response, where both T and B-lymphocytes play a crucial role [49]. Further study of the mechanism responsible for increased adaptive immune responses associated with respiratory bacterial co-colonization is warranted and underway.

We also found that co-colonization of Mcat with Spn increased pneumococcal protein specific antibody responses. Effect of co-colonization of Mcat with Spn reached statistical significances for both IgA and IgG responses to Spn, whereas co-colonization of Hi with Spn reached statistical significances only in IgA responses to Spn, not in IgG probably due to sample size effect. A previous study in the same population by our group showed that the frequency of co-colonization of Mcat with Spn is much higher than that of Hi with Spn, and when co-colonization by Spn and Mcat occurs, Spn predominates over Mcat to cause AOM [12]. Since we did not have reagents or resources to study the effect of co-colonization by Spn and Mcat on antibody responses to Mcat, we could not correlate antibody responses and outcomes of AOM when Spn and Mcat co-colonized.

This study has limitations. Sole colonization and co-colonization were defined at a moment in time when samples were collected. We cannot exclude the possibility that children had been colonized with one or co-colonized with two or more potential otopathogens just before the samples were collected. Missed colonization or co-colonization may also have occurred if the density of a second organism was very low and not detected in culture. If the frequency of missed colonization or colonization events were high, the possibility that antibody differences at a moment in time of sampling might be stochastic and cannot be excluded. The NP is the ecological niche for a variety of commensal microbiota and potential respiratory bacteria as well viruses. There are complicated interactions among potential respiratory pathogens. Investigation of Spn, Hi and Mcat co-colonization interactions with the commensal microbiota or other potential bacterial or viral pathogens is of interest to our group [50] but was not studied here. We did not quantify bacterial density and that parameter may be a critical variable influencing immune responses. We excluded children with recent antibiotic exposure so we did not assess the impact of antibiotic treatment on NP colonization outcomes and antibody responses.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by NIH, NIDCD RO1DC008671, and by Sanofi Pasteur in Canada. The authors thank Dr. Janet Casey and other staff of Legacy Pediatrics for sample collection, Virginia Judson (summer student) for assistant with ELISA. We also thank Sanofi Pasteur in Canada for Spn antigens, GlaxoSmithKline (Rixensart, Belgium) for protein D, Dr. Timothy Murphy (University of Buffalo) for P6 plasmid, Dr. Jennelle Kyd (University of Canberra, Australia) for OMP26 plasmid, and Dr. Lauren Bakaletz (Ohio State University) for NTHi strain 86-028NP.

References

  • 1.Cappelletty D. Microbiology of bacterial respiratory infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998;17(8 Suppl):S55–61. doi: 10.1097/00006454-199808001-00002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 2.Bogaert D, Keijser B, Huse S, Rossen J, Veenhoven R, van Gils E, et al. Variability and diversity of nasopharyngeal microbiota in children: a metagenomic analysis. PLoS ONE. 2011;6(2):e17035. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0017035. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3.Murphy TF, Bakaletz LO, Smeesters PR. Microbial interactions in the respiratory tract. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2009;28(10 Suppl):S121–6. doi: 10.1097/INF.0b013e3181b6d7ec. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 4.Margolis E, Yates A, Levin BR. The ecology of nasal colonization of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Staphylococcus aureus: the role of competition and interactions with host’s immune response. BMC Microbiol. 2010;10:59. doi: 10.1186/1471-2180-10-59. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 5.Bogaert D, De Groot R, Hermans PW. Streptococcus pneumoniae colonisation: the key to pneumococcal disease. Lancet Infect Dis. 2004;4(3):144–54. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(04)00938-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 6.Garcia-Rodriguez JA, Fresnadillo Martinez MJ. Dynamics of nasopharyngeal colonization by potential respiratory pathogens. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2002;50(Suppl. S2):59–73. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkf506. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7.Ivanov II, Littman DR. Modulation of immune homeostasis by commensal bacteria. Curr Opin Microbiol. 2011;14(1):106–14. doi: 10.1016/j.mib.2010.12.003. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 8.Littman DR, Pamer EG. Role of the commensal microbiota in normal and pathogenic host immune responses. Cell Host Microbe. 2011;10(4):311–23. doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2011.10.004. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 9.Abt MC, Osborne LC, Monticelli LA, Doering TA, Alenghat T, Sonnenberg GF, et al. Commensal bacteria calibrate the activation threshold of innate antiviral immunity. Immunity. 2012;37(1):158–70. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2012.04.011. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10.Laufer AS, Metlay JP, Gent JF, Fennie KP, Kong Y, Pettigrew MM. Microbial communities of the upper respiratory tract and otitis media in children. mBio. 2011;2(1):e00245–00210. doi: 10.1128/mBio.00245-10. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11.Xu Q, Almudervar A, Casey JR, Pichichero ME. Nasopharyngeal bacterial interactions in children. Emerg Infect Dis. 2012;18(11):1738–45. doi: 10.3201/eid1811.111904. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 12.Xu Q, Casey JR, Chang A, Pichichero ME. When co-colonizing the nasopharynx Haemophilus influenzae predominates over Streptococcus pneumoniae except serotype 19A strains to cause acute otitis media. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31(6):638–40. doi: 10.1097/INF.0b013e31824ba6f7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 13.Pettigrew MM, Gent JF, Revai K, Patel JA, Chonmaitree T. Microbial interactions during upper respiratory tract infections. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008;14(10):1584–91. doi: 10.3201/eid1410.080119. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 14.Jacoby P, Watson K, Bowman J, Taylor A, Riley TV, Smith DW, et al. Modelling the co-occurrence of Streptococcus pneumoniae with other bacterial and viral pathogens in the upper respiratory tract. Vaccine. 2007;25(13):2458–64. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.09.020. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 15.Madhi SA, Adrian P, Kuwanda L, Cutland C, Albrich WC, Klugman KP. Long-term effect of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on nasopharyngeal colonization by Streptococcus pneumoniae – and associated interactions with Staphylococcus aureus and Haemophilus influenzae colonization – in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected children. J Infect Dis. 2007;196(11):1662–6. doi: 10.1086/522164. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16.Zemlickova H, Urbaskova P, Adamkova V, Motlova J, Lebedova V, Prochazka B. Characteristics of Streptococcus pneumoniae: Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis and Staphylococcus aureus isolated from the nasopharynx of healthy children attending day-care centres in the Czech Republic. Epidemiol Infect. 2006;134(6):1179–87. doi: 10.1017/S0950268806006157. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 17.Lysenko ES, Ratner AJ, Nelson AL, Weiser JN. The role of innate immune responses in the outcome of interspecies competition for colonization of mucosal surfaces. PLoS Pathog. 2005;1(1):e1. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.0010001. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 18.Casey JR, Adlowitz DG, Pichichero ME. New patterns in the otopathogens causing acute otitis media six to eight years after introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2010;29(4):304–9. doi: 10.1097/INF.0b013e3181c1bc48. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 19.Pichichero ME, Kaur R, Casey JR, Xu Q, Almudevar A, Ochs M. Antibody response to Streptococcus pneumoniae proteins PhtD, LytB, PcpA, PhtE and Ply after nasopharyngeal colonization and acute otitis media in children. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2012;8(6) doi: 10.4161/hv.19820. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 20.Pichichero ME, Kaur R, Casey JR, Sabirov A, Khan MN, Almudevar A. Antibody response to Haemophilus influenzae outer membrane protein D: P6, and OMP26 after nasopharyngeal colonization and acute otitis media in children. Vaccine. 2010;28(44):7184–92. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.08.063. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 21.Pichichero ME, Casey JR. Emergence of a multiresistant serotype 19A pneumococcal strain not included in the 7-valent conjugate vaccine as an otopathogen in children. JAMA. 2007;298(15):1772–8. doi: 10.1001/jama.298.15.1772. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 22.Ljutic B, Ochs M, Messham B, Ming M, Dookie A, Harper K, et al. Formulation: stability and immunogenicity of a trivalent pneumococcal protein vaccine formulated with aluminum salt adjuvants. Vaccine. 2012;30(19):2981–8. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.02.038. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 23.Nabors GS, Braun PA, Herrmann DJ, Heise ML, Pyle DJ, Gravenstein S, et al. Immunization of healthy adults with a single recombinant pneumococcal surface protein A (PspA) variant stimulates broadly cross-reactive antibodies to heterologous PspA molecules. Vaccine. 2000;18(17):1743–54. doi: 10.1016/s0264-410x(99)00530-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 24.Sabirov A, Casey JR, Murphy TF, Pichichero ME. Breast-feeding is associated with a reduced frequency of acute otitis media and high serum antibody levels against NTHi and outer membrane protein vaccine antigen candidate P6. Pediatr Res. 2009;66(5):565–70. doi: 10.1203/PDR.0b013e3181b4f8a6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 25.Zhang Y, Masi AW, Barniak V, Mountzouros K, Hostetter MK, Green BA. Recombinant PhpA protein, a unique histidine motif-containing protein from Streptococcus pneumoniae, protects mice against intranasal pneumococcal challenge. Infect Immun. 2001;69(6):3827–36. doi: 10.1128/IAI.69.6.3827-3836.2001. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26.Roche AM, King SJ, Weiser JN. Live attenuated Streptococcus pneumoniae strains induce serotype-independent mucosal and systemic protection in mice. Infect Immun. 2007;75(5):2469–75. doi: 10.1128/IAI.01972-06. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 27.Wright AK, Ferreira DM, Gritzfeld JF, Wright AD, Armitage K, Jambo KC, et al. Human nasal challenge with Streptococcus pneumoniae is immunising in the absence of carriage. PLoS Pathog. 2012;8(4):e1002622. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002622. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 28.Khan MN, Kaur R, Pichichero ME. Bactericidal antibody response against P6: protein D, and OMP26 of nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae after acute otitis media in otitis-prone children. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2012;65(3):439–47. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-695X.2012.00967.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 29.Brown JS, Gilliland SM, Ruiz-Albert J, Holden DW. Characterization of pit: a Streptococcus pneumoniae iron uptake ABC transporter. Infect Immun. 2002;70(8):4389–98. doi: 10.1128/IAI.70.8.4389-4398.2002. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 30.Zhang Q, Lakshman R, Burkinshaw R, Choo S, Everard J, Akhtar S, et al. Primary and booster mucosal immune responses to meningococcal group A and C conjugate and polysaccharide vaccines administered to university students in the United Kingdom. Infect Immun. 2001;69(7):4337–41. doi: 10.1128/IAI.69.7.4337-4341.2001. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 31.Zhang Q, Choo S, Everard J, Jennings R, Finn A. Mucosal immune responses to meningococcal group C conjugate and group A and C polysaccharide vaccines in adolescents. Infect Immun. 2000;68(5):2692–7. doi: 10.1128/iai.68.5.2692-2697.2000. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 32.Prevaes SM, van Wamel WJ, de Vogel CP, Veenhoven RH, van Gils EJ, van Belkum A, et al. Nasopharyngeal colonization elicits antibody responses to staphylococcal and pneumococcal proteins that are not associated with a reduced risk of subsequent carriage. Infect Immun. 2012;80(6):2186–93. doi: 10.1128/IAI.00037-12. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 33.Simell B, Ahokas P, Lahdenkari M, Poolman J, Henckaerts I, Kilpi TM, et al. Pneumococcal carriage and acute otitis media induce serum antibodies to pneumococcal surface proteins CbpA and PhtD in children. Vaccine. 2009;27(34):4615–21. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.05.071. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34.Holmlund E, Quiambao B, Ollgren J, Nohynek H, Kayhty H. Development of natural antibodies to pneumococcal surface protein A, pneumococcal surface adhesin A and pneumolysin in Filipino pregnant women and their infants in relation to pneumococcal carriage. Vaccine. 2006;24(1):57–65. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.07.055. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35.Ratner AJ, Lysenko ES, Paul MN, Weiser JN. Synergistic proinflammatory responses induced by polymicrobial colonization of epithelial surfaces. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102(9):3429–34. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0500599102. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 36.Hollsing AE, Granstrom M, Vasil ML, Wretlind B, Strandvik B. Prospective study of serum antibodies to Pseudomonas aeruginosa exoproteins in cystic fibrosis. J Clin Microbiol. 1987;25(10):1868–74. doi: 10.1128/jcm.25.10.1868-1874.1987. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 37.Short KR, Habets MN, Hermans PW, Diavatopoulos DA. Interactions between Streptococcus pneumoniae and influenza virus: a mutually beneficial relationship? Future Microbiol. 2012;7(5):609–24. doi: 10.2217/fmb.12.29. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 38.Kawai T, Akira S. Pathogen recognition with Toll-like receptors. Curr Opin Immunol. 2005;17(4):338–44. doi: 10.1016/j.coi.2005.02.007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 39.Vuononvirta J, Toivonen L, Grondahl-Yli-Hannuksela K, Barkoff AM, Lindholm L, Mertsola J, et al. Nasopharyngeal bacterial colonization and gene polymorphisms of mannose-binding lectin and Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 in infants. PLoS ONE. 2011;6(10):e26198. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0026198. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 40.Lim JH, Ha U, Sakai A, Woo CH, Kweon SM, Xu H, et al. Streptococcus pneumoniae synergizes with nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae to induce inflammation via upregulating TLR2. BMC Immunol. 2008;9:40. doi: 10.1186/1471-2172-9-40. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 41.Hassan F, Ren D, Zhang W, Merkel TJ, Gu XX. Moraxella catarrhalis activates murine macrophages through multiple toll like receptors and has reduced clearance in lungs from TLR4 mutant mice. PLoS ONE. 2012;7(5):e37610. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0037610. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 42.Clement CG, Evans SE, Evans CM, Hawke D, Kobayashi R, Reynolds PR, et al. Stimulation of lung innate immunity protects against lethal pneumococcal pneumonia in mice. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;177(12):1322–30. doi: 10.1164/rccm.200607-1038OC. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 43.Kweon SM, Wang B, Rixter D, Lim JH, Koga T, Ishinaga H, et al. Synergistic activation of NF-kappaB by nontypeable H. influenzae and S. pneumoniae is mediated by CK2: IKKbeta-IkappaBalpha, and p38 MAPK. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2006;351(2):368–75. doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.10.052. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 44.Novak N, Koch S, Allam JP, Bieber T. Dendritic cells: bridging innate and adaptive immunity in atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;125(1):50–9. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2009.11.019. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 45.Pasare C, Medzhitov R. Control of B-cell responses by Toll-like receptors. Nature. 2005;438(7066):364–8. doi: 10.1038/nature04267. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 46.Hawlisch H, Kohl J. Complement and Toll-like receptors: key regulators of adaptive immune responses. Mol Immunol. 2006;43(1–2):13–21. doi: 10.1016/j.molimm.2005.06.028. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 47.Schnare M, Barton GM, Holt AC, Takeda K, Akira S, Medzhitov R. Toll-like receptors control activation of adaptive immune responses. Nat Immunol. 2001;2(10):947–50. doi: 10.1038/ni712. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 48.Medzhitov R, Janeway CA., Jr Decoding the patterns of self and nonself by the innate immune system. Science. 2002;296(5566):298–300. doi: 10.1126/science.1068883. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 49.Majewska M, Szczepanik M. The role of Toll-like receptors (TLR) in innate and adaptive immune responses and their function in immune response regulation. Postepy Hig Med Dosw (Online) 2006;60:52–63. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 50.Friedel V, Chang A, Wills J, Vargas R, Xu Q, Pichichero ME. Impact of respiratory viral infections on alpha-hemolytic Streptococci and Otopathogens in the nasopharynx of young children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2013;32(1):27–31. doi: 10.1097/INF.0b013e31826f6144. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

RESOURCES