Abstract
Studies have shown that higher than usual intakes of trans fatty acids (TFAs) have adverse effects on blood lipids. Because of this, in 2006 the US FDA mandated labeling of TFAs on food packages. The food and restaurant industries, including the potato industry, reformulated their foods to reduce or eliminate partially hydrogenated vegetable oils and TFAs. Before mandatory labeling, grain-based desserts, yeast breads, and French-fried potatoes (FFPs) were the top sources of TFAs in the food supply; by 2007, potato food manufacturers and quick-service restaurants had reduced or eliminated TFAs without increasing saturated fatty acids (SFAs). FFPs are no longer a source of TFAs in the food supply. This study examined energy and fatty acid intake among children aged 6–11 y, adolescents aged 12–18 y, and adults aged ≥19 y across 3 time periods by using data from the NHANES 2005–2006, 2007–2008, and 2009–2010. On average, intakes of total energy, total fat, SFAs, and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) decreased significantly between 2005–2006 and 2009–2010 among children and adolescents; however, the intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) did not change. Among adults, intakes of total fat, SFAs, and MUFAs decreased; however, total energy and PUFA intake did not change. On the day of the 2009–2010 survey, ∼13% of children and 10% of adolescents reported consuming fried FFPs, whereas <7% of adults reported consumption of fried FFPs. Intakes of SFAs and TFAs from fried FFPs decreased significantly between 2005–2006 and 2009–2010 among children, adolescents, and adults. This study confirms that intake of TFAs from FFPs is trivial.
Keywords: fatty acids, trans fatty acids, NHANES, potatoes, partially hydrogenated vegetable oil, fat
Introduction
Hydrogenation of liquid vegetable oils is a process developed by French chemist M Mége Mouries in the mid-1800s, which created vegetable-based substitutes for animal fats, such as butter and lard (1). Total hydrogenation forms SFAs because all of the carbon-carbon double bonds in unsaturated FAs are eliminated. Partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils results in lower amounts of SFAs, but the process produces trans FAs (TFAs)3 (2). TFAs are also found in meat and dairy products because the bacteria in the digestive tract of ruminants hydrogenate the unsaturated FAs in the plants eaten by the animals.
Research on TFAs began in the 1950s when most studies focused on production of TFAs in ruminants and certain nonruminant animals (3–5). In 1990, however, research focused on the effect of TFAs on human heart health. Mensink and Katan (6) demonstrated the negative effects of TFAs on blood cholesterol in humans. A cross-sectional epidemiologic study of TFA intake showed minimal, but statistically significant effects on some blood lipid concentrations in men (7). Additional clinical studies in humans showed that TFAs, in excess of average consumption, increased blood concentrations of LDL cholesterol but to a lesser extent than did SFAs (8). Blood concentrations of HDL cholesterol were not affected by SFAs but were decreased when TFAs were consumed in excess of average consumption. High amounts of TFAs may be associated with small increases in lipoprotein(a) concentrations among susceptible individuals. TFAs consumed at amounts exceeding usual intakes increased lipoprotein(a) concentrations to the same degree as did SFAs; however, other studies found no significant effect on lipoprotein(a) concentrations when TFAs were substituted for corn oil or oleic acid at more typical intakes (3–6% of energy) (9, 10).
In 1993 and 1994, 2 petitions were submitted to the US FDA requesting the agency to require TFA labeling on food packages and revoking the Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status of partially hydrogenated vegetable oils (PHVOs) used in food products. The Institute of Medicine of The National Academies published a report in 2002 recommending that the consumption of TFAs be as low as possible (11). The FDA published a final rule on the labeling of TFAs on food packages in 2003 (12). The rule became effective 1 January 2006, at which time nearly all packaged foods and certain dietary supplements were required to disclose TFA content on food labels. The agency established that any food product containing <0.5 g TFAs/serving could be labeled as having 0 g of TFAs. Most recently, the FDA published a tentative determination that PHVOs are not GRAS (13). If the FDA determines that PHVOs are not GRAS, the food industry would have to seek prior FDA approval for their use as a food additive.
Evidence of changes in intakes of certain FAs is often reflected in adipose and other tissues (14). Changes in the TFA content of the food supply in the United States and Canada have been marked by substantial reductions in TFA content of biomarkers of intake. For example, a Canadian study showed a significant decrease in TFAs in human milk between 1998 and 2006 (15). Plasma concentrations of TFAs decreased between 2002 and 2004 among overweight and obese adults with type 2 diabetes (16). Plasma TFAs decreased by 58% among non-Hispanic white adults between 2000 and 2009 (17).
Before mandatory labeling of TFAs, Hunter and Applewhite (18) estimated the availability of TFAs in the food supply using market research data. They estimated that the availability of TFAs was 8.1 g/(person ⋅ d) in 1989. The average intake of TFAs in the United States was estimated to be 2.6% of total energy or 7.4% of energy from fat using data from the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals 1989–1991 (19). By using data from the NHANES 1999–2002, the mean intake of TFAs was ∼2.3–2.7% of calories, or 5.0–7.8 g/d, among children and adults (20). By 2003–2006, the intake of TFAs decreased to 1.3 g/(person ⋅ d) (21).
The decline in TFA intake reflected reformulations and innovations made by the food industry to reduce TFAs in its food products as much as possible. Before mandatory labeling of TFAs, the top 5 food sources of TFAs were as follows: 1) cakes, cookies, pies, and pastries; 2) yeast breads; 3) French-fried potatoes (FFPs); 4) grains and ethnic dishes; and 5) tortilla chips (20). Several studies confirmed that potato manufacturers and quick-service restaurants switched to TFA-free oils. An FDA survey found that frozen potato and onion ring products contained no partially hydrogenated oils and all were trans fat free, in compliance with the labeling regulations established by the FDA (21). A 2012 study published by FDA scientists found that 5 of 7 samples of FFPs purchased from quick-service restaurants contained <0.5 g TFAs per 120 g serving (22). In a survey of packaged foods, a 2013 study showed that the largest (88%) decline in TFAs was seen in FFPs and other potato foods. Of 18 potato products sampled that contained TFAs in 2007, all were reformulated to contain <0.5 g TFAs per the Nutrition Facts Panel serving by 2008 (23).
The purpose of this study was to examine the trend in intakes of energy, total fat, and FAs among children, adolescents, and adults. We also examined total fat and FA intakes from deep-fried (fried) FFPs and oven-baked, par-fried (baked) FFPs using the 3 most recent releases of NHANES (2005–2006, 2007–2008, and 2009–2010).
Methods
Intakes of energy, total fat, total SFAs, total PUFAs, and total MUFAs among children aged 6–11 y, adolescents aged 12–18 y, and adults aged ≥19 y were analyzed by using data from NHANES 2005–2006, 2007–2008, and 2009–2010 (24). Pregnant and lactating women were excluded from the analysis. Total fat, SFAs, and TFAs from fried FFPs and baked FFPs were also estimated by using the same data cycles, as well as the US FDA Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies (FNDDS) version 3.0 for NHANES 2005–2006, FNDDS version 4.1 for NHANES 2007–2008, and FNDDS version 5.0 for NHANES 2009–2010.
NHANES is a continuous, population-based survey designed to collect information on the health and nutrition of the US household population. NHANES is conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics of the CDC, and survey data are released in 2-y cycles. All NHANES data collections receive approval from the National Center for Health Statistics Research Ethics Review Board. This analysis used data from the first day of the 24-h dietary recall (24HR) and the total nutrient intake files from NHANES 2005–2006, 2007–2008, and 2009–2010. The 24HR is administered in the mobile examination center where dietary interviews are conducted in English or Spanish by trained interviewers. Survey participants aged ≥12 y complete the dietary interview on their own. Proxies report for children aged ≤5 y. Children aged 6–11 y old are assisted by a proxy. Beginning in 2002, all participants were asked to complete a second 24HR. Further details of data collection are available on the CDC website (25).
Only day 1 dietary recall data were used because “the mean of the population’s distribution of usual intake can be estimated from a sample of individuals’ 24HR, without sophisticated statistical adjustment (26).” In addition, day 1 24HR data are collected in person, whereas 24HR data for day 2 are collected on a substantially smaller subsample by telephone interview. Dietary data from NHANES 2009–2010 are the most recent data available to the public.
The category of white potatoes (WPs) was defined as those that were baked, boiled, fried, hash-browned, home-fried, mashed, roasted, stewed, stuffed, with sauce added, potato skins, and potato salad. The FFP category included both fried FFPs and baked FFPs unless specified as “fried FFPs” or “baked FFPs.”
For this study, all food codes that were included as WPs and FFPs were identified by using the corresponding FNDDS for each data cycle. The data were then aggregated to the individual level and merged with the demographic data. We used the corresponding National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference to estimate TFA content of fried FFPs and baked FFPs for each data cycle (27).
Group means for each data cycle were estimated in STATA 9.2 by using the “svyreg” procedure to adjust for the complex design of the survey and the “subpop” option to calculate the group means for the age groups (28). This procedure used a Taylor linearization approach to correct the estimated SEs for survey design effects. The statistical significance of differences of intakes between data cycle means (P < 0.05) was calculated by using the STATA “test” procedure, which calculates the probability that any 2 estimated means are equal to one another. WP consumers were defined as individuals who reportedly consumed any type of WP on the given survey day.
Results
Demographic characteristics.
Demographic information for children, adolescents, and adults is shown in Table 1. In general, the sample populations of children and adolescents included ∼50% males, 60–65% Caucasians, 13–14% African Americans, 11–13% Mexican Americans, and 9–14% other races/ethnicities. In the adult sample, ∼70–73%, 11%, 8%, and 8–11% were Caucasians, African Americans, Mexican Americans, and other races/ethnicities, respectively. Mean BMI among children, adolescents, and adults did not change over the time period examined.
TABLE 1.
Demographic characteristics and BMI for children, adolescents, and adults1
| NHANES 2005–2006 | NHANES 2007–2008 | NHANES 2009–2010 | |
| Children aged 6–11 y | |||
| n | 1009 | 1117 | 1147 |
| Male, % | 50.2 ± 1.9 | 48.9 ± 2.6 | 51.1 ± 2.2 |
| African American, % | 14.8 ± 2.8 | 14.6 ± 3.0 | 13.2 ± 1.4 |
| Mexican American, % | 13.8 ± 1.3 | 13.6 ± 2.2 | 13.6 ± 3.1 |
| Caucasian, % | 59.3 ± 4.6 | 60.1 ± 4.2 | 58.7 ± 4.0 |
| Other race/ethnicity, % | 12.0 ± 2.4 | 11.7 ± 2.2 | 14.6 ± 1.8 |
| BMI, kg/m2 | 18.1 ± 0.2 | 18.5 ± 0.2 | 18.5 ± 0.2 |
| Adolescents aged 12–18 y | |||
| n | 1853 | 999 | 1097 |
| Male, % | 53.6 ± 2.0 | 49.3 ± 2.2 | 47.7 ± 2.5 |
| African American, % | 14.5 ± 3.0 | 13.9 ± 1.6 | 13.5 ± 1.4 |
| Mexican American, % | 11.0 ± 1.8 | 10.9 ± 1.4 | 13.1 ± 3.1 |
| Caucasian, % | 65.5 ± 3.9 | 63.9 ± 3.9 | 60.4 ± 4.3 |
| Other race/ethnicity, % | 8.9 ± 1.6 | 11.3 ± 3.3 | 13.0 ± 2.3 |
| BMI, kg/m2 | 23.5 ± 0.2 | 23.3 ± 0.3 | 23.6 ± 0.2 |
| Adults aged ≥19 y | |||
| n | 4367 | 5411 | 5784 |
| Male, % | 49.3 ± 0.7 | 47.9 ± 0.7 | 48.9 ± 0.7 |
| African American, % | 11.6 ± 2.0 | 11.2 ± 2.0 | 11.1 ± 0.9 |
| Mexican American, % | 7.4 ± 0.9 | 8.1 ± 1.5 | 8.0 ± 2.1 |
| Caucasian, % | 73.0 ± 2.9 | 70.8 ± 3.6 | 70.2 ± 3.3 |
| Other race/ethnicity, % | 7.9 ± 1.0 | 9.9 ± 1.6 | 10.6 ± 1.6 |
| BMI, kg/m2 | 28.5 ± 0.3 | 28.6 ± 0.2 | 28.7 ± 0.1 |
Values are sample-weighted means or proportions ± SEs derived by using STATA, 2006.
Mean intake of energy and FAs.
The AHA, the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, and the Institute of Medicine recommend eating between 25% and 35% of calories from fat. Across the time period examined, children, adolescents, and adults consumed ∼32–34% of calories from fat, which is in the high, but acceptable range. Recently, the AHA recommended limiting SFAs and TFAs to <5–6% and <1% of total calories, respectively; therefore, the mean intake of 11–12% of calories from SFAs observed in this study is substantially higher than recommended by the AHA.
This study did show small, but statistically significant changes in energy and FA intake over the 5-y time period examined. Mean intakes of total energy, total fat, SFAs, and MUFAs and the percentage of calories from SFAs among children aged 6–11 y and adolescents aged 12–18 y decreased significantly over time (Tables 2 and 3). The percentage of calories from total fat decreased significantly for children aged 6–11 y but did not change for adolescents aged 12–18 y. On average, PUFA intake did not change for either age group. Among adults aged ≥19 y, mean total energy and PUFA intakes did not change over time; however, the mean intake of total fat and the percentage of calories from total fat, SFAs, and from SFAs and MUFAs decreased between 2005–2006 and 2009–2010 (Table 4).
TABLE 2.
Mean intakes of energy, total fat, and FAs from all sources and from WPs among children aged 6–11 y1
| NHANES 2005–2006(n = 1009) | NHANES 2007–2008(n = 1117) | NHANES 2009–2010(n = 1147) | |
| Intake from all sources | |||
| Energy, kcal/d | 1990a ± 35.6 | 1920a,b ± 29.5 | 1870b ± 20.4 |
| Total fat, g/d | 75.5a ± 1.8 | 71.4b ± 1.4 | 67.2b ± 0.7 |
| Total fat, % of energy | 33.8a ± 0.3 | 33.1a ± 0.4 | 32.0b ± 0.4 |
| SFAs, g/d | 26.8a ± 0.6 | 25.2a ± 0.7 | 23.4b ± 0.3 |
| SFAs, % of energy | 12.0a ± 0.1 | 11.6b ± 0.2 | 11.1c ± 0.1 |
| PUFAs, g/d | 14.7a ± 0.5 | 13.9a ± 0.3 | 14.1a ± 0.2 |
| MUFAs, g/d | 27.7a ± 0.7 | 26.1a ± 0.5 | 23.7b ± 0.3 |
| WP consumption, % | |||
| WP consumers | 25.9 ± 2.2 | 30.6 ± 2.9 | 27.4 ± 2.5 |
| Fried FFP consumers | 12.9 ± 2.1 | 12.8 ± 2.4 | 13.5 ± 2.2 |
| Baked FFP consumers | 1.4 ± 0.9 | 1.1 ± 0.4 | 1.2 ± 0.4 |
| Intake from WPs | |||
| All WPs, g/d | 24.2a,b ± 2.0 | 32.5a ± 4.9 | 21.5b ± 2.1 |
| Energy from all WPs, kcal/d | 51.1a ± 5.2 | 62.9a ± 8.3 | 48.5a ± 6.0 |
| All FFPs,2 g/d | 11.5a ± 2.0 | 14.4a ± 2.4 | 12.3a ± 1.8 |
| Energy from all FFPs,2 kcal/d | 33.5a ± 5.4 | 42.1a ± 7.2 | 36.9a ± 5.4 |
| Fat energy from all FFPs,2 % | 0.7a ± 0.1 | 0.8a ± 0.2 | 0.7a ± 0.1 |
| Total fat from baked FFPs, g/d | 0.07a ± 0.04 | 0.02a ± 0.01 | 0.03a ± 0.01 |
| SFAs from baked FFPs, g/d | 0.01a ± 0.01 | 0.005a ± 0.002 | 0.005a ± 0.002 |
| Total fat from fried FFPs, g/d | 1.4a ± 0.3 | 1.6a ± 0.4 | 1.4a ± 0.2 |
| SFAs from fried FFPs, g/d | 0.3a ± 0.1 | 0.4a,b ± 0.1 | 0.2b ± 0.03 |
| TFAs from fried FFPs, g/d | 0.4a ± 0.1 | 0.4a ± 0.1 | 0.01b ± 0.002 |
Values are based on 24-h dietary recalls from day 1 and are presented as sample-weighted means or proportions ± SEs derived by using STATA, 2006. Labeled means or proportions in a row without a common letter differ, P < 0.05. FFP, French-fried potato; TFA, trans FA; WP, white potato.
Values include baked and fried FFPs.
TABLE 3.
Mean intakes of energy, total fat, and FAs from all sources and from WPs among adolescents aged 12–18 y1
| NHANES 2005–2006(n = 1853) | NHANES 2007–2008(n = 999) | NHANES 2009–2010(n = 1097) | |
| Intake from all sources | |||
| Energy, kcal/d | 2310a ± 51.1 | 2090b ± 36.0 | 2150b ± 54.5 |
| Total fat, g/d | 86.7a ± 1.8 | 78.5b ± 2.9 | 78.8b ± 2.5 |
| Total fat, % of energy | 33.3a ± 0.4 | 33.1a ± 0.4 | 32.7a ± 0.5 |
| SFAs, g/d | 30.3a ± 0.7 | 28.7a,b ± 1.7 | 26.9b ± 1.0 |
| SFAs, % energy | 11.6a ± 0.1 | 11.3a,b ± 0.2 | 11.1b ± 0.2 |
| PUFAs, g/d | 17.1a ± 0.4 | 14.6b ± 0.8 | 17.1a ± 0.7 |
| MUFAs, g/d | 31.9a ± 0.7 | 28.6b ± 1.1 | 27.7b ± 1.0 |
| WP consumption, % | |||
| WP consumers | 29.9 ± 3.4 | 26.6 ± 2.5 | 27.5 ± 2.3 |
| Fried FFP consumers | 13.6 ± 1.5 | 9.3 ± 1.4 | 10.2 ± 1.6 |
| Baked FFP consumers | 1.2 ± 0.3 | 1.1 ± 0.7 | 1.9 ± 0.8 |
| Intake from WPs | |||
| All WPs, g/d | 37.1a ± 5.4 | 29.1a ± 3.2 | 31.6a ± 2.9 |
| Energy from all WPs, kcal/d | 78.7a ± 10.8 | 68.7a ± 6.1 | 59.9a ± 7.0 |
| All FFPs,2 g/d | 18.9a ± 2.1 | 13.4a,b ± 2.0 | 12.2b ± 1.7 |
| Energy from all FFPs,2 kcal/d | 56.2a ± 6.2 | 40.5a,b ± 4.9 | 35.4b ± 4.6 |
| Fat energy from all FFPs,2 % | 0.9a ± 0.1 | 0.5b ± 0.1 | 0.5b ± 0.1 |
| Total fat from baked FFPs, g/d | 0.05a ± 0.02 | 0.04a ± 0.02 | 0.06a ± 0.02 |
| SFAs from baked FFPs, g/d | 0.1a ± 0.004 | 0.01a ± 0.004 | 0.01a ± 0.005 |
| Total fat from fried FFPs, g/d | 2.3a ± 0.3 | 1.2b ± 0.2 | 1.2b ± 0.1 |
| SFAs from fried FFPs, g/d | 0.5a ± 0.1 | 0.3b ± 0.04 | 0.2c ± 0.02 |
| TFAs from fried FFPs, g/d | 0.6a ± 0.1 | 0.3b ± 0.1 | 0.01c ± 0.001 |
Values are based on 24-h dietary recall from day 1 and are presented as sample-weighted means or proportions ± SEs derived by using STATA, 2006. Labeled means or proportions in a row without a common letter differ, P < 0.05. FFP, French-fried potato; TFA, trans FA; WP, white potato.
Values include baked and fried FFPs.
TABLE 4.
Mean intakes of energy, total fat, and FAs from all sources and from WPs among adults aged ≥19 y1
| NHANES 2005–2006(n = 4367) | NHANES 2007–2008(n = 5411) | NHANES 2009–2010(n = 5784) | |
| Intake from all sources | |||
| Energy, kcal/d | 2200a ± 33.2 | 2130a ± 30.0 | 2140a ± 19.4 |
| Total fat, g/d | 83.9a ± 1.7 | 81.3a,b ± 1.5 | 79.3b ± 1.0 |
| Total fat, % of energy | 33.8a ± 0.3 | 33.7a ± 0.2 | 32.8b ± 0.2 |
| SFAs, g/d | 28.1a ± 0.6 | 26.9a,b ± 0.5 | 26.0b ± 0.4 |
| SFAs, % of energy | 11.3a ± 0.1 | 11.1a ± 0.1 | 10.7b ± 0.1 |
| PUFAs, g/d | 17.7a ± 0.4 | 17.3a ± 0.3 | 17.6a ± 0.3 |
| MUFAs, g/d | 30.9a ± 0.6 | 29.7a,b ± 0.5 | 28.6b ± 0.3 |
| WP consumption, % | |||
| WP consumers | 27.0 ± 1.5 | 27.2 ± 1.0 | 28.0 ± 1.0 |
| Fried FFP consumers | 8.2 ± 0.9 | 7.5 ± 0.5 | 6.9 ± 0.4 |
| Baked FFP consumers | 0.8 ± 0.9 | 1.2 ± 0.3 | 0.6 ± 0.2 |
| Intake from WPs | |||
| All WPs, g/d | 37.4a ± 2.9 | 37.1a ± 2.5 | 39.2a ± 1.5 |
| Energy from all WPs, kcal/d | 68.7a ± 5.2 | 65.7a ± 2.0 | 70.8a ± 2.5 |
| All FFPs,2 g/d | 10.5a ± 1.2 | 8.7a ± 0.6 | 9.5a ± 0.5 |
| Energy from all FFPs,2 kcal/d | 31.1a ± 3.7 | 27.3a ± 1.7 | 28.4a ± 1.4 |
| Fat energy from all FFPs,2 % | 0.5a ± 0.1 | 0.4a ± 0.03 | 0.4a ± 0.03 |
| Total fat from baked FFPs, g/d | 0.03a ± 0.006 | 0.04a ± 0.01 | 0.02a ± 0.01 |
| SFAs from baked FFPs, g/d | 0.01a ± 0.001 | 0.01a ± 0.002 | 0.004a ± 0.001 |
| Total fat from fried FFPs, g/d | 1.2a ± 0.2 | 1.0a ± 0.07 | 1.0a ± 0.06 |
| SFAs from fried FFPs, g/d | 0.3a ± 0.04 | 0.2a ± 0.02 | 0.1b ± 0.01 |
| TFAs from fried FFPs, g/d | 0.3a ± 0.04 | 0.3a ± 0.02 | 0.01b ± 0.0005 |
Values are based on 24-h dietary recall from day 1 and are presented as sample-weighted means or proportions ± SEs derived by using STATA, 2006. Labeled means or proportions in a row without a common letter differ, P < 0.05. FFP, French-fried potato; TFA, trans FA; WP, white potato.
Values include baked and fried FFPs.
On the day of the survey, in 2009–2010, ∼27% of children aged 6–11 y reported consuming WPs, with 13.5% reporting consumption of fried FFPs and 1.2% consuming baked FFPs (Table 2). The proportion of children consuming these foods was similar across NHANES 2005–2006, 2007–2008, and 2009–2010. The mean intake of WPs decreased significantly by 33.8% between 2007–2008 and 2009–2010, but no change in WP consumption was observed between 2005–2006 and 2009–2010. Mean intakes of all FFPs—baked and fried—and energy intake from WPs and FFPs also did not change between 2005–2006 and 2009–2010.
The consumption of FFPs contributed <1% of calories from fat to the diets of children. Baked FFPs contributed negligible amounts of fat and SFAs. Fried FFPs contributed 1.4–1.6 g/d total fat to children’s diets, which did not change over time. Between 2005–2006 and 2009–2010, there was a 33% and 98% decrease, respectively, in SFAs and TFAs from fried FFPs. Mean intakes of SFAs and TFAs from fried FFPs decreased significantly, with fried FFPs contributing only 0.01 g/d TFAs to children’s diets in 2009–2010.
Among adolescents aged 12–18 y, less than one-third reported consuming WPs on the day of the survey and 1 in 10 reported consuming fried FFPs in 2009–2010 (Table 3). A smaller proportion of adolescents reported consuming fried FFPs in 2009–2010 than in 2005–2006. Mean intakes of WPs did not change over time; however, the mean intake and percentage of calories from fat from all FFPs decreased significantly by 35% and 44%, respectively. On average, the intake of all FFPs among adolescents was ∼12 g/d in 2009–2010, which represents ∼3 FFP strips. A typical small serving of FFPs from a quick-service restaurant weighs ∼71 g. Intakes of SFAs from fried FFPs decreased significantly across the time periods examined, with a 60% decrease in SFAs from fried FFPs. TFA intake from fried FFP decreased by 98%.
Similar to the children and adolescents, there was no change in the proportion of adults who reported consumption of WPs on the day of the survey; however, fewer adults consumed fried FFPs in 2009–2010 (Table 4). Less than 1% of calories from fat were consumed from FFPs and this did not change over the time period examined. Mean intakes of total fat from fried FFPs did not change between 2005–2006 and 2009–2010, although intakes of SFAs and TFAs from fried FFPs decreased significantly.
Intake among WP consumers.
Among WP consumers aged 6–11 y, total energy did not change across the 3 time periods examined (Table 5). Mean intakes of total fat, SFAs, and MUFAs, but not PUFAs, decreased significantly over time.
TABLE 5.
Mean intakes of energy, total fat, and FAs among WP consumers aged 6–11 y1
| NHANES 2005–2006(n = 317) | NHANES 2007–2008(n = 342) | NHANES 2009–2010(n = 330) | |
| Energy, kcal/d | 1970a ± 63.6 | 1990a ± 60.3 | 1890a ± 44.1 |
| Total fat, g/d | 78.2a ± 3.2 | 76.7a ± 2.4 | 69.8b ± 2.0 |
| SFAs, g/d | 27.0a ± 1.0 | 26.1a ± 0.8 | 23.1b ± 0.7 |
| PUFAs, g/d | 14.7a ± 0.7 | 15.3a ± 0.6 | 15.2a ± 0.6 |
| MUFAs, g/d | 30.6a ± 1.3 | 29.1a ± 1.0 | 25.4b ± 0.8 |
| All WPs, g/d | 92.3a ± 3.1 | 101a,b ± 11.4 | 78.7b ± 5.5 |
| Energy from all WPs, kcal/d | 195a ± 10.4 | 197a ± 15.9 | 178a ± 10.1 |
| All FFPs,2 g/d | 43.8a ± 5.0 | 45.2a ± 5.2 | 45.1a ± 3.1 |
| Energy from all FFPs,2 kcal/d | 128a ± 13.2 | 132a ± 16.1 | 135a ± 9.7 |
| Total fat from baked FFPs, g/d | 0.2a ± 0.1 | 0.1a ± 0.04 | 0.1a ± 0.03 |
| SFAs from baked FFPs, g/d | 0.05a ± 0.03 | 0.02a ± 0.01 | 0.02a ± 0.01 |
| Total fat from fried FFPs, g/d | 5.4a ± 0.7 | 4.9a ± 1.0 | 5.0a ± 0.5 |
| SFAs from fried FFPs, g/d | 1.3a ± 0.2 | 1.2a ± 0.2 | 0.6b ± 0.1 |
| TFAs from fried FFPs, g/d | 1.4a ± 0.2 | 1.3a ± 0.3 | 0.04b ± 0.004 |
Values are based on 24-h dietary recall from day 1 and are presented as sample-weighted means or proportions ± SEs derived by using STATA, 2006. Sample sizes for WP consumers are unweighted. Labeled means or proportions in a row without a common letter differ, P < 0.05. FFP, French-fried potato; TFA, trans FA; WP, white potato.
Values include baked and fried FFPs.
The mean intake of WPs decreased significantly between 2005–2006 and 2009–2010, although the intake of FFPs among consumers aged 6–11 y did not change over time. Among WP consumers aged 6–11 y, 57% of WP intake consisted of FFPs; however, the mean intake of FFPs was ∼45 g/d or less than two-thirds of a small serving (71 g) of FFPs from a quick-service restaurant. Energy from WPs tended to decrease, but there was no change in energy from FFPs. Total fat intake from baked FFPs and fried FFPs did not change among WP consumers, but intakes of SFAs and TFAs from fried FFPs decreased significantly over time by 54% and 97%, respectively. In 2009–2010, fried FFPs contributed 5.0 g/d of total fat consumed. This suggests that 93% of total fat consumed among WP consumers aged 6–11 y was from other foods and beverages. Fried FFPs contributed <1 g/d of SFAs (or 2.6% SFAs); therefore, 97% of SFA intake was from foods other than fried FFPs.
Adolescent WP consumers consumed, on average, 2330 kcal/d of total energy in 2009–2010 (Table 6). Energy from WPs and FFPs decreased significantly over time. Intakes of total fat, SFAs, and MUFAs decreased significantly, but there was no change in total energy or PUFA intake.
TABLE 6.
Mean intakes of energy, total fat, and FAs among WP consumers aged 12–18 y1
| NHANES 2005–2006(n = 565) | NHANES 2007–2008(n = 254) | NHANES 2009–2010(n = 336) | |
| Energy, kcal/d | 2460a ± 79.7 | 2270a ± 83.1 | 2330a ± 85.6 |
| Total fat, g/d | 97.2a ± 3.7 | 89.5a,b ± 4.5 | 83.1b ± 3.3 |
| SFAs, g/d | 32.4a ± 1.2 | 31.1a ± 1.5 | 27.1b ± 1.2 |
| PUFAs, g/d | 19.6a ± 0.9 | 16.9a ± 1.1 | 18.5a ± 0.9 |
| MUFAs, g/d | 37.7a ± 1.6 | 34.3a,b ± 2.5 | 30.1b ± 1.3 |
| All WPs, g/d | 124a ± 7.2 | 116a ± 9.6 | 116a ± 7.3 |
| Energy from all WPs, kcal/d | 264a ± 11.5 | 257a,b ± 13.4 | 220b ± 15.3 |
| All FFPs,2 g/d | 63.1a ± 2.5 | 53.4a,b ± 4.4 | 44.7b ± 4.1 |
| Energy from all FFPs,2 kcal/d | 189a ± 7.8 | 151b ± 14.2 | 130b ± 11.1 |
| Total fat from baked FFPs, g/d | 0.2a ± 0.1 | 0.1a ± 0.1 | 0.2a ± 0.1 |
| SFAs from baked FFPs, g/d | 0.03a ± 0.01 | 0.03a ± 0.01 | 0.04a ± 0.02 |
| Total fat from fried FFPs, g/d | 7.7a ± 0.6 | 4.7b ± 0.8 | 4.3b ± 0.5 |
| SFAs from fried FFPs, g/d | 1.8a ± 0.1 | 1.1b ± 0.2 | 0.6c ± 0.1 |
| TFAs from fried FFPs, g/d | 2.0a ± 0.2 | 1.2b ± 0.2 | 0.03c ± 0.004 |
Values are based on 24-h dietary recall from day 1 and are presented as sample-weighted means or proportions ± SEs derived by using STATA, 2006. Sample sizes for WP consumers are unweighted. Labeled means or proportions in a row without a common letter differ, P < 0.05. FFP, French-fried potato; TFA, trans FA; WP, white potato.
Values include baked and fried FFPs.
Although there was no change in consumption of WPs, consumption of FFPs decreased significantly over time. In 2009–2010, the mean intake of FFPs among adolescent consumers was 38.5% of WP intake and 29% lower than in 2005–2006. Total fat from fried FFP intake was 4.3 g/d, providing <2% of total energy among adolescent consumers. SFA and TFA intake from fried FFPs decreased over time. In 2009–2010, fried FFPs contributed <1 g/d SFAs, on average, and negligible amounts of TFAs (0.03 g/d).
Total energy intake and intakes of total fat and PUFAs among adult WP consumers did not change, although intakes of SFAs and MUFAs decreased significantly over time (Table 7). The consumption of WPs and FFPs did not change among adult consumers, but energy from WPs decreased. Among adult WP consumers, FFPs comprised 24% of WP consumption at ∼34 g/d in 2009–2010, or less than half of a small serving of FFPs from a quick-service restaurant. Intakes of total fat and SFAs from baked FFPs were negligible. Total fat from fried FFPs contributed 1.5% of total energy consumed by adult WP consumers. SFAs and TFAs from fried FFPs decreased significantly over time. Fried FFPs contributed 0.5 g/d SFAs and a negligible amount of TFAs (0.03 g/d) in 2009–2010.
TABLE 7.
Mean intakes of energy, total fat, and FAs among WP consumers aged ≥19 y1
| NHANES 2005–2006(n = 1284) | NHANES 2007–2008(n = 1460) | NHANES 2009–2010(n = 1660) | |
| Energy, kcal/d | 2360a ± 42.4 | 2310a ± 50.3 | 2350a ± 30.2 |
| Total fat, g/d | 93.4a ± 1.7 | 91.5a ± 2.4 | 90.6a ± 1.2 |
| SFAs, g/d | 30.9a ± 0.7 | 29.6a,b ± 0.9 | 29.2b ± 0.6 |
| PUFAs, g/d | 19.5a ± 0.3 | 19.7a ± 0.5 | 20.1a ± 0.3 |
| MUFAs, g/d | 35.3a ± 0.6 | 34.6a,b ± 1.0 | 33.3b ± 0.4 |
| All WPs, g/d | 138a ± 5.7 | 137a ± 4.2 | 141a ± 2.6 |
| Energy from all WPs, kcal/d | 254a,b ± 9.9 | 242b ± 3.2 | 255a ± 4.6 |
| All FFPs,2 g/d | 38.6a ± 3.7 | 32.1a ± 2.4 | 34.1a ± 1.3 |
| Energy from all FFPs,2 kcal/d | 115a ± 11.9 | 101a ± 6.8 | 102a ± 3.8 |
| Total fat from baked FFPs, g/d | 0.1a ± 0.02 | 0.1a ± 0.04 | 0.1a ± 0.02 |
| SFAs from baked FFPs, g/d | 0.02a ± 0.004 | 0.03a ± 0.01 | 0.01a ± 0.004 |
| Total fat from fried FFPs, g/d | 4.3a ± 0.5 | 3.6a ± 0.3 | 3.8a ± 0.2 |
| SFAs from fried FFPs, g/d | 1.0a ± 0.1 | 0.9a ± 0.1 | 0.5b ± 0.02 |
| TFAs from fried FFPs, g/d | 1.1a ± 0.1 | 0.9a ± 0.1 | 0.03b ± 0.001 |
Values are based on 24-h dietary recall from day 1 and are presented as sample-weighted means or proportions ± SEs derived by using STATA, 2006. Sample sizes for WP consumers are unweighted. Labeled means or proportions in a row without a common letter differ, P < 0.05. FFP, French-fried potato; TFA, trans FA; WP, white potato.
Values include baked and fried FFPs.
Limitations
The continuous NHANES is a large, well-executed, nationally representative survey that is widely used in health research. Like any data set, however, it has certain limitations. The 24HR used in NHANES has been extensively tested, but it is likely to have some measurement error for the variables used in this analysis. Dietary intake may be underestimated because respondents fail to remember, or choose not to report, certain eating/drinking occasions. However, the multipass system used attempts to minimize underreporting. As with other types of dietary collection instruments, most validation studies of 24HR instruments indicate that there is some degree of misreporting, particularly among children (29).
Discussion and Conclusions
This study showed that total energy intake decreased among children and adolescents but not among adults. Despite the significant decrease in mean energy intake, BMIs of children and adolescents did not change over this 5-y time period. Although there was no change in PUFA intake, intakes of total fat, SFAs, and MUFAs decreased significantly among children, adolescents, and adults in the 5 y marked by NHANES 2005–2006 and 2009–2010. This time period coincides with the mandatory labeling of TFAs on food packages in 2006 and highly publicized policy initiatives, such as Mayor Bloomberg’s ban of TFAs in New York City’s restaurants.
The food industry made many advances in reformulating its products to reduce SFAs and TFAs (i.e., solid fats) in its foods. Studies published by the FDA and the CDC documented this progress (21–23). The potato industry, in particular, successfully reduced TFAs and did not increase SFA content, thus improving the FA profile of potato products offered at retail and in restaurants. The CDC study, in fact, showed an 88% reduction in TFAs in potato products offered at retail grocery stores.
Quick-service restaurants also changed frying oils to those with a healthier FA profile. Angell et al. (30) documented the changes made in SFAs and TFAs of FFPs served by New York City’s quick-service restaurants after the TFA ban in that city.
Blood concentrations of TFAs decreased by 58% among a small sample of non-Hispanic white adults between 2000 and 2009; however, to our knowledge, there are no follow-up studies that examined the effects on blood concentrations of TFAs among other race/ethnic groups, children, and adolescents (17). In addition, there are no studies published that examined the downstream health effects, such as positive changes in LDL- or HDL-cholesterol concentrations or, ultimately, the true goal of reducing incidence of coronary events that can be traced back to the TFA ban.
News stories, medical websites, blogs, and even professional journals that continue to show images of FFPs when conveying information to the public about TFAs are inaccurate and do not reflect current data. FFPs are no longer a major source of TFAs in the American diet and the intake of TFAs from FFPs is trivial.
Acknowledgments
Both authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Footnotes
Abbreviations used: FFP, French-fried potato; FNDDS, Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies; GRAS, Generally Recognized as Safe; PHVO, partially hydrogenated vegetable oil; TFA, trans fatty acid; WP, white potato; 24HR, 24-h dietary recall.
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