A cross-cultural comparison of folk plant uses among Albanians, Bosniaks, Gorani and Turks living in south Kosovo

Abstract

Background

Kosovo represents a unique hotspot of biological and cultural diversity in Europe, which allows for interesting cross-cultural ethnobotanical studies. The aims of this study were twofold: 1) to document the state of traditional knowledge related to local (esp. wild) plant uses for food, medicine, and handicrafts in south Kosovo; and 2) to examine how communities of different ethnic groups in the region (Albanians, Bosniaks/Gorani, and Turks) relate to and value wild botanical taxa in their ecosystem.

Methods

Field research was conducted in 10 villages belonging to the Prizren municipality and 4 villages belonging to the Dragash municipality, located in the Sharr Mountains in the southern part of Kosovo. Snowball sampling techniques were used to recruit 139 elderly informants (61 Albanians, 32 Bosniaks/Gorani and 46 Turks), for participation in semi-structured interviews regarding the use of the local flora for medicinal, food, and handicraft purposes.

Results

Overall, we recorded the local uses of 114 species were used for medicinal purposes, 29 for food (wild food plants), and 20 in handicraft activities. The most important species used for medicinal purposes were Achillea millefolium L., Sambucus nigra L., Urtica dioica L., Tilia platyphyllos Scop. Hypericum perforatum L., Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert, Thymus serpyllum L. and Vaccinium myrtillus L. Chamomilla recutita was the most highly valued of these species across the populations surveyed. Out of 114 taxa used for medicinal purposes, only 44 species are also included in the European Pharmacopoeia. The predominantly quoted botanical families were Rosaceae, Asteraceae, and Lamiaceae. Comparison of the data recorded among the Albanian, Bosniak/Gorani, and Turkish communities indicated a less herbophilic attitude of the Albanian populations, while most quoted taxa were quoted by all three communities, thus suggesting a hybrid character of the Kosovar plant knowledge.

Conclusion

Cross-cultural ethnobiological studies are crucial in the Balkans not only for proposing ways of using plant natural resources, which could be exploited in sustainable local development projects (e.g. focusing on eco-tourism and small-scale trade of medicinal herbs, food niche and handicrafts products), but also for fostering collaboration and reconciliation among diverse ethnic and religious communities.

Introduction

Over the last decade, the Western Balkans have become the arena of a remarkable number of ethnobiological field studies, which have focused on territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina [1-7], Serbia [8-12], Montenegro [13], Albania [14-19], Macedonia [20-24], and Kosovo [25,26]. Moreover, a few of these studies addressed cross-cultural comparisons in an attempt to try to understand cultural concepts underpinning perceptions and uses of specific plants, especially among Albanian vs. Slavic populations [10,15,21]. Much of this focus on Balkan ethnobotany is linked to the long and ongoing history of gathering and trading local wild medicinal plants from this territory into Western European markets. It is also supported by the growing appreciation of ethnobotanical bio-cultural heritage as a starting point for fostering a peaceful and sustainable development in the area.

As part of our ongoing long-term project of documenting the ethnobotanical knowledge of diverse multi-cultural and religious areas in the Balkans, here we focused our attention on the Prizren and Dragash municipalities (South Kosovo), where traditionally diverse ethnic groups (Albanians, Turks, Bosniaks, Serbians, Gorani, Roma/Gypsies, Egyptians and Ashkali) have lived in close contact for many centuries. Previous ethnobotanical and ethnolinguistic studies conducted in Kosovo have demonstrated that medicinal plants still play a crucial role in the sphere of human health, especially in isolated rural areas [25-27]. Oftentimes, these mountainous communities have limited access to Western biomedical facilities, and they rely heavily on traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) to meet their dietary and medical needs. It is for this reason that we project that investigation of Kosovo’s diverse ethnobotanical heritage will have a tremendous impact on rural development projects aimed at improving the holistic and long-term well-being of the local populations via sustainable use of local natural resources and integration of emic concepts of health and dietary care into development plans.

The aims of this study were twofold: 1) to document the state of traditional knowledge related to local (esp. wild) plant uses for food, medicine, and handicrafts in southwest Kosovo; and 2) to examine how communities of different ethnic groups in the region (Albanians, Bosniaks/Gorani, and Turks) relate to and value wild botanical taxa in their ecosystem.

Methods

The study area

In this study, we investigated traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) concerning the use of local plants in villages situated in the territory of Prizren, which lies in the southwestern part of the Sharr Mountains (in Albanian known as Malet e Sharrit; in Serbo-Croatian as Šar Planina). The Sharr Mountains lie in the Republic of Macedonia and Kosovo and have a total area of 1,600 km². The Republic of Macedonia is home to 51% (827 km²) of this mountain range, while the Republic of Kosovo is home to the rest (780 km²) [28]. The Sharr Mountains provide an interesting site of plant life richness and diversity, with an estimated 2,000 vascular plant species. Indeed, a special characteristic of the Sharr Mountains is the presence of endemic, relict, and rare species and plant communities [29]. The most representative vegetation includes black alder communities (Alnetum glutinosae), which is widespread along the streams and rivers, oriental hornbeam forest (Carpinetum orientalis scardicu), hop hornbeam mixed with oriental hornbeam forest (Ostryo-Carpinion orientalis), thermophilous oak forests (Quercetum frainetto-cerris scardicum, and Quercetum pubenscens, Quercetum montanum, Quercetum trojanae dukagjini), beech forests (Fagetum montanum), and pine forests (Pinetum heldreichii, Pinetum peucis, Pinetum mughi typicum) [30].

In recognition of the rich levels of biodiversity in this region, in 1986 the Kosovo Assembly (former Autonomous Province of Kosovo within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslav) declared that a part of the Sharr Mountains would be a National Park with the size of around 30,000 hectares. In 2012, the borders of the National Park were expanded and at the same time the massif of Koritnik was included, increasing the park’s territory by around 23,469 hectares. Now recognized as the Sharr National Park (Figure 1), it occupies 53,469 hectares, and includes the territories of five municipalities: Kaçanik, Shtërpcë, Suharekë, Prizren and Dragash [31].

Figure 1.

Landscape of the Sharr National Park.

Over the past two millennia, this region has been continuously occupied and was part of three great empires (Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman). In the intervals between the decline of one emperor and empowerment of another, Kosovo was occupied mainly by Bulgarians and Serbs. According to Schmitt [32], when the Romans arrived in the Kosovar territory, they were faced with various Illyrian tribes. In late antiquity, the Dardanians became mainly Christian (Catholic); Byzantine and Slavic invasions led to the Catholicism of a significant proportion of indigenous Albanian population, despite a great resistance to the acceptance of Orthodox religion. The later Ottoman occupation spanning about five centuries resulted in conversion to Islam as the dominant religion. Because of this complex history, today the territory surrounding Prizren is occupied by diverse ethnic groups (Albanians, Serbs, Turks, Bosniaks, Gorani and Romani) and diverse religions (Muslim (Albanians, Turks, Bosniaks and Gorani), Catholic (Albanians) and Orthodox (Serbians)). The intercultural mixing of various communities in the same area has resulted in a dynamic form of TEK, with the impact of one traditional culture on another illustrated in both the uses and names of useful plants found in the local flora.

Before World War II, healthcare in this region was almost entirely based on traditional medicine, and these traditions continued after the war as well. Healthcare was commonly attended to within the family, and all physical and mental illnesses were treated with traditional medicines and rituals. These folk-medical traditions continue even now, especially in the more mountainous and isolated areas. Local people have withstood the extreme conditions of this region for centuries – including very harsh winters. Until very recent decades, limitations in infrastructure and communication forced local residents to be self-sufficient in the provision of their food and healthcare. As a result, their primary pharmacopoeia consisted of local medicinal plants.

Today, the residents southwest Kosovo are ethnic Albanians (who speak Gheg varieties of the Albanian language), Serbians (Serbian language), Turks (Turkish language), Bosniaks (Bosnian language), Gorani (Slavic language, Gora dialect or "Našinski" which is similar to Bosnian language) and Roma (Romani language). Regarding the population census conducted in 2011, there were 177,781 inhabitants in the Prizren municipality (145,718 Albanians, 237 Serbians, 9,091 Turks, 16,896 Bosniaks, 2,899 Roma, 1,350 Ashkali, 168 Egyptians, 655 Gorani and 386 others) and 33,997 in the Dragash municipality (20,287 Albanians, 7 Serbians, 202 Turks, 4,100 Bosniaks, 3 Roma, 4 Ashkali, 3 Egyptians, 8,957 Gorani, and 283 others) [33]. Population numbers and the ethnic structure of these municipalities have fluctuated over time due to the natural growth and the migration of the population. Most recently, local populations have been negatively affected by migration due to displacement and the harsh economic conditions caused by the last Kosovo War (1998–1999). The most common directions of migrations in Kosovo are from rural areas to urban areas and migration abroad. Migration patterns contribute to the rapid decline of traditional knowledge of plant species used as medicine, food and handicrafts; it has also contributed to a decline the vertical transmission of oral traditional knowledge from one generation to another. Small-scale farming and pastoral activities still represent the main economic income sources for the families in the study area. This is supplemented by remittances sent by relatives living in Germany or Switzerland, where the migrations of SW Kosovo were historically directed.

The field study

Ethnobotanical field research was conducted in 14 villages belonging to the municipalities of Prizren (10 communities) and Dragash (4), located in Sharr Mountains, which are situated in the southern part of Kosovo (Figure 2). Field studies were conducted over a series of trips in 2012 and 2014. Snowball sampling methods were used to recruit informants and we particularly focused on local people who regularly use plants for medicinal purposes. Prior informed consent was obtained prior to conducting interviews and all researchers adhered to the ethical guidelines of the International Society of Ethnobiology [34].

Figure 2.

Map of study area and location of communities included in the study. Communities included in the study are indicated by number: 1) Gërnçar (710 m.a.s.l.), 2)Skorobisht (990 m), 3) Lubizhdë e Prizrenit (495 m), 4) Prizren (421 m), 5) Vlashnje (337 m), 6) Grazhdanik (385 m), 7) Leskovecë (830 m), 8) Lez (117 m), 9) Struzhë (1169 m), 10) Zhur (461 m), 11) Glloboçicë (1270 m), 12) Krushevë (1164 m), 13) Zlipotok (1395 m) and 14) Restelicë (1470 m).

TEK was recorded using semi-structured interviews. In particular, informal conversations were conducted around the issue of local plants traditionally used for food (wild food plants), medicine, and handicrafts. We sought in particular the following information: respondent name, age, gender, and community of residence; local botanical names of useful plants; plant part(s) used; preparation/administration details; local folk uses of plants. In total, data were collected from 139 informants: 61 Albanians (43 male, 18 female), 32 Bosniaks/Gorani (Bosniaks: 11 male, 7 female; Gorani: 10 male, 4 female) and 46 Turks (28 male, 18 female). With regards to the data analysis, data collected from the Bosniak and Gorani informants were merged as both are culturally similar and share the same religion and language. Gorani communities have been claimed by Bosniaks, Serbs, and Bulgarians and recently by Macedonians, but in Kosovo they are recognized as a distinct minority group.

The respondents were older than 50 years (with a few exceptions), mainly engaged in agricultural activities and typically inherited their ethnobotanical knowledge from their direct ancestors (parents, grandparents) via oral traditions. During the interviews, fresh plants were collected to create voucher specimens for the herbarium and whenever possible, informants were followed into the field to show us the quoted species. Most plant species were collected while flowering. Taxonomic identification was undertaken using relevant standard botanical literature of the area [35-38]. Plant nomenclature largely follows the Flora Europaea [39], while plant family assignments follow the current Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III guidelines [40]. Voucher specimens of the wild taxa were deposited at the Department of Biology (Herbarium code Pz/2013), University of Prishtina.

Data analysis

Overlap analysis for cited taxa

Taxa with use-citations based on general category of use (medicinal, food or handicraft) were compared across three groups (Albanian, Turks and Bosniaks/Gorani). Data are represented in the form of a Venn Diagram (Figure 3) to illustrate overlaps in use of taxa.

Figure 3.

Venn diagram representing the overlap of taxa cited by Albanians, Bosniaks/Gorani, and Turks in the study area for: a) medicinal use, b) food use and c) handicraft use.

Use-value for individual species

The use-value citation (UV_c) index was calculated for each species for each ethnic group [41]. Here, we modified this method to calculate UV values in three different categories of use: medicinal, food, and handicraft. This index is useful for examination of relative importance of each species for a general category of use based on the number of use-citations. Briefly, it was calculated as follows:

$$U{V}_c=\frac{{\displaystyle \sum }{N}_{uc}}{N}$$

Where N_uc is the number of use citation reports concerning a given species in a use category (e.g. medicinal, food, handicraft), divided by the total number of informants (N) in a specific group (e.g. Albanian, Turkish, or Bosniak & Gorani). In a recent paper by Quave and Pieroni [42], UV values were plotted on a two-dimensional matrix framework to assess relative values for individual species between two ethnic groups. Here, we expand upon this concept and apply it to a three-dimensional matrix for comparison of plant use-values for individual species between three ethnic groups that share access to the same environmental and botanical resources.

Three-dimensional (3-D) use-value matrix design and analysis

We propose a new approach for the comparative analysis of how use-values differ in three ethnic groups, and across different general categories of use. The UV_c data for each category of use (medicinal, food, handicraft) were normalized to allow for comparison on a scale of 0–1. This was achieved by identifying the maximum UV_c value for each category of use (UV_max). The UV_c for each species (and ethnic group) was then divided by the UV_max to create the adjusted UV value (UV_adj) and plotted onto a 3-D scatterplot using MATLAB® software. Eight 3-D overlay quadrants were created to assist in classifying the UV_adj clusters (Figure 4A). They were defined as follows in relationship to the three ethnic groups being compared (Group 1: Bosniak/Gorani; Group 2: Turkish; Group 3: Albanian):

• Quadrant I: Taxa with UV_adj ≤0.05 for all three groups, indicating consensus in low use-value across groups.

• Quadrant II: Group 1 UV_adj > 0.05; Group 2 UV_adj ≤0.05; Group 3 UV_adj ≤0.05, indicating consensus on lower use-value among Group 2 and 3, but higher use-value for Group 1.

• Quadrant III: Group 1 UV_adj ≤0.05; Group 2 UV_adj >0.05; Group 3 UV_adj ≤0.05, indicating consensus on lower use-value among Group 1 and 3, but higher use-value for Group 2.

• Quadrant IV: Group 1 UV_adj >0.05; Group 2 UV_adj >0.05; Group 3 UV_adj ≤0.05, indicating consensus on higher use-value among Group 1 and 2, but lower use-value for Group 3.

• Quadrant V: Group 1 UV_adj ≤0.05; Group 2 UV_adj ≤0.05; Group 3 UV_adj >0.05, indicating consensus on lower use-value among Group 1 and 2, but higher use-value for Group 3.

• Quadrant VI: Group 1 UV_adj >0.05; Group 2 UV_adj ≤0.05; Group 3 UV_adj >0.05, indicating consensus on higher use-value among Group 1 and 3, but lower use-value for Group 2.

• Quadrant VII: Group 1 UV_adj ≤0.05; Group 2 UV_adj >0.05; Group 3 UV_adj >0.05, indicating consensus on higher use-value among Group 2 and 3, but lower use-value for Group 1.

• Quadrant VIII: Taxa with UV_adj >0.05 for all three groups, indicating consensus in high use-value across groups.

Figure 4.

Use-value matrix comparison of three groups with access to the same flora and ecological resources. a) Matrix design. Each quadrant corresponds to a specific relationship concerning the adjusted plant use-value (details provided in the methods). Adjusted use-values (UV_adj) are represented for cited taxa by ethnic group and general category b) medicinal use, c) food use and d) handicraft use.

Quadrant assignments are also reported in Tables 1, 2 and 3.

Table 1.

Medicinal plant used in the study area

Botanical taxon, family and voucher specimen code	Status	Folk name(s) a	Part(s) used	Administration	Treated disease(s) or folk medical uses(s)	Alb N uc b	Bo/Go N uc b	Tur N uc b	UV Alb c	UV Bo/Go c	UV Tur c	Q d
Abies alba Mill. (Pinaceae) 14/Pz/2013	W	BredhiALB	Wood	Resin, mixed with fat	Anti-fungal	2	0	0	0.033	0	0	I
Agrimonia eupatoria L. (Rosaceae) 08/Pz/2013	W	PetrovacBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion	Anti-allergic,	0	3	1	0	0.219	0.065	I
		Kezell japrakTUR			Earache,	0	1	0
					Anti-inflammatory,	0	2	2
					Anti-diarrheal	0	1	0
Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. (Poaceae) 07/Pz/2013	W	Bari i magaritALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Anti-hemorrhoidal,	2	0	0	0.049	0.125	0.065	I
		PriovinaALB			Respiratory system disorders,	0	3	0
		PriovinaBOG
					Urinary tract disorders	1	1	0
Alchemilla vulgaris L. (Rosaceae) 05/Pz/2013	E	AlhemılaALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Improve fertility in women	2	0	0	0.033	0	0	I
Achillea millefolium L. (Asteraceae) 03/Pz/2013	W	BarëpezmatimiALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Anti-cholesterolemic,	0	4	0	0.557	2.656	0.652	I
		Hajdutska travaBOG			Anti-coagulant,	3	6	0
		Hajdut otiTUR			Appetizing,	5	3	6
					Anti-microbial,	12	28	8
					Antiemetic,	2	0	0
					Carminative and spasmolytic,	7	31	11
					Anti-diabetic,	0	4	1
					Antacid,	0	1	0
					Menstrual pains,	0	1	0
					Influenza,	2	5	3
					Stomachache	3	2	1
Allium cepa L. (Amaryllidaceae) 11/Pz/2013	C	KepaALB	Bulbs	Eaten raw,	Anti-cholesterolemic	3	7	1	0.656	1.125	0.5	I
		Cerveni lukBOG		Topically in wound	Anti-bacterial	37	29	22
		KepiTUR
Allium porrum L. (Amaryllidaceae) 09/Pz/2013	C	PurriALB	Leaves	Eaten	Thyroid disorders	2	4	0	0.033	0.125	0	I
		PrazıllukBOG
Allium sativum L. (Amaryllidaceae) 10/Pz/2013	C	HudraALB	Bulbs	Eaten	Anti-hypertensive,	16	24	11	1.361	3.188	1.63	II
		Beli llukBOG SarimsakTUR			Anti-fungal,	11	8	3
					Anti-ageing,	0	3	5
					Urinary tract infections,	2	5	3
					Anti-hypertensive,	18	14	12
					Bronchitis
						12	6	8
				Mixed with honey	Bronchitis,	14	7	7
					Anti-tussive,	2	8	3
					Skeletal system enhancement,	0	2	2
					Immunostimulant,	0	5	3
					Anti-anemic,	0	2	1
					Respiratory system disorders,	8	17	13
					Skin regeneration	0	1	4
Althaea officinalis L. (Malvaceae)	W	MullagaALB	Flowers	Infusion	Anti-tussive/expectorant	12	18	9	0.197	0.563	0.196	I
		Beli slezBOG
		Gul hatemTUR
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (Xanthorrhoeaceae) 06/Pz/2013	C	AloaALB	Leaves	Eaten fresh with honey	Anti-tumor	3	0	0	0.049	0	0	I
Amanita caesarea (Scop.) Pers. (Amanitaceae)	W	KërpurdhaALB	Fruiting body	Topically applied	Skin infections	2	0	0	0.033	0	0	I
Apium graveolens L. (Apiaceae) 12/Pz/2013	C	KerevizTUR	Aerial parts	Infusion	To treat sterility	0	0	2	0	0	0.109	I
			Roots	Infusion	Diuretic, appetizing	0	0	3
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. (Ericaceae) 02/Pz/2013	W	Çaj uvinALB	Leaves	Infusion	Urinary tract infections	12	16	0	0.344	1	0	I
		Rrush arusheALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Urinary tract infections and pains	9	16	0
		Medvegje ushiBOG
Artemisia absinthium L. (Asteraceae) 01/Pz/2013	W	FshisaALB	Leaves	Infusion	Anti-anemic, Anti-malarial	2	3	0	0.377	1.25	0	I
		PeliniALB				0	2	0
		Divli pelinBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion	Anti-diabetic,	0	2	0
					Appetizing,	4	5	0
					Improve hormonal balance in women,	0	2	0
					Anti-parasitic,	1	1	0
					Relaxant, stomachache	12	16	0
			Fruits	Infusion	Lithontriptic,	0	1	0
					Anti-asthmatic,	2	3	0
					Anti-diabetic
						2	5	0
Avena sativa L. (Poaceae) 15/Pz/2013	C	TheknaALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Skeletal system enhancement	2	0	4	0.033	0	0.087	I
		Jullaf TUR
Betula alba L. (Betulaceae) 16/Pz/2013	W	MështeknaALB		Infusion	Diuretic,	0	1	0	0.164	0.563	0.217	I
		Plep i bardhëALB			Edema,	0	2	2
		BrezaBOG			Urinary disorders	2	4	2
		Hush agagjiTUR		Infusion used for hair wash	Alopecia	8	11	6
Brassica rapa L. (Brassicaceae)	C	RrepaALB ShalgamTUR	Taproot	Eaten	Eye disorders, Immunostimulant	4	0	3	0.066	0	0.065	I
Calendula officinalis L. (Asteraceae) 27/Pz/2013	C	Lule dukatiALB NevenBOG	Aerial parts	Extracted with different oils	Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal,	0	14	0	0	0.938	0	I
					Vulnerary for burn wounds and sunburns	0	16	0
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. (Brassicaceae) 28/Pz/2013	C	Më do s’më donALB TarqushakBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion	Anticoagulant	2	5	0	0.033	0.156	0	I
		HoqunequBOG
Castanea sativa Mill. (Fagaceae) 19/Pz/2013	W/C	GështajaALB	Flowers	Infusion	Anti-anemic,	3	0	0	0.131	0	0	I
					Bronchitis,	2	0	0
					Anti-tussive	2	0	0
			Cortex	Infusion	Anti-tussive	1	0	0
Centaurium erythraea Rafn (Gentianaceae) 29/Pz/2013	W	Kantarioni i kuqALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Anticoagulant,	0	2	0	0.426	1.063	0.391	I
		Bari i etheveALB			Anti-pyretic,	13	18	9
		KicicaBOG			Anti-malarial,	9	12	6
					Appetizing,	2	1	0
					Anti-anemic,	0	1	0
					Antacid,	0	0	1
					Immunostimulant	2	0	2
Centaurea cyanus L. (Asteraceae) 20/Pz/2013	W	KokoçeliALB	Flower	Infusion	Respiratory disorders	3	1	0	0.049	0.031	0	I
		KicicaBOG
Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert (Asteraceae) 43/Pz/2013	W	Lule qeniALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Antimicrobial,	31	37	25	3.115	5.5	2.543	VI
		KamomilALB			Infections of the digestive tract,	12	10	0
		KamilicaBOG			Urinary tract infections,	20	6	13
					Eye infections	11	8	2
		BabunecBOG				25	15	17
		PapatjaTUR
		Sari çiçekTUR
			Flowers	Infusion	Anti-tussive,	14	26	22
					Anti-bacterial,	31	35	12
					Influenza,	11	9	9
					Oral cavity infections,	9	3	4
					Anti-hemorrhoidal,	1	0	7
					Alopecia,	2	0	0
					Wound healing,	20	23	6
					Relaxant	3	4	0
Chelidonium majus L. (Papaveraceae) 30/Pz/2013	W	TamelqakALB	Latex	Topically used	Skin infections, warts	11	0	7	0.18	0	0.152	I
		Kena qıqegıTUR
Cichorium intybus L. (Asteraceae) 21/Pz/2013	W	CikorjaSHQ	Aerial parts	Infusion	Hepatic disorders	2	0	4	0.033	0	0.087	I
		Mavi çiçekTUR
		Satali bitki TUR
Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck (Rutaceae) 31/Pz/2013	C	LimunBOG	Fruits	Lemon juice mixed with sugar	Anti-tussive, bronchitis	0	6	3	0	0.188	0.065	I
		LimonTUR
Cornus mas L. (Cornaceae) 23/Pz/2013	W	ThanaALB	Fruits	Infusion	Anti-anemic,	0	5	1	0.148	0.656	0.304	I
		DreniljeBOG			Anti-hypertensive,	5	3	6
		DirninaTUR			Anti-diarrheal,	0	4	2
					Anti-malarial,		1	1
					Anti-emetic in early stage of	2
					pregnancy (for morning sickness),		5	2
					Improve immunity,	2
					Anti-hemorrhoidal	0	2	1
							1	1
Corylus avellana L. (Betulaceae) 24/Pz/2013	W	LejthıALB	Leaves	Infusion	Anti-tussive,	0	2	1	0	0.18	0.022	I
		Adi findikTUR			Antacid,	0	3	0
					Hepatic disorders	0	1	0
Cotinus coggygria Scop. (Anacardiaceae) 64/Pz/2013	W	RujTUR	Leaves	Infusion	Stomach disorders,	0	0	2	0	0	0.174	I
		Boyaci sumakTUR			Kidney disorders,	0	0	1
					Anti-diarrheal	0	0	4
			Fruits	Infusion	Anti-diarrheal	0	0	1
Crataegus monogyna Jacq. (Rosaceae) 18/Pz/2013 05/Pz/11	W	MurriziALB	Fruits	Infusion	Improve blood circulation,	27	21	18	1.279	2.406	1.174	I
		GllogBOG			Anti-hypertensive,	22	20	12
		Adi aliçTUR			Neurorelaxant	2	6	1
			Leaves and flowers	Infusion	Anti-hypertensive,	12	20	12
					Anti-diabetic,	2	6	2
					Anti-cholesterolemic	13	4	9
Cucumis sativus L. (Cucurbitaceae) 26/Pz/2013	C	KastravecALB	Fruits and seeds	Eaten fresh	Kidney disorders,	4	3	0	0.131	0.375	0	I
		KastravacBOG			Improve blood circulation,	3	7	0
					Improve skin vitality,	1	1	0
					Eye disorders	0	1	0
Cucumis melo L. (Cucurbitaceae) 25/Pz/2013	C	PjepniALB	Fruits	Eaten fresh	Infection of digestive system	4	0	0	0.066	0	0	I
Cydonia oblonga Mill. (Rosaceae)	C	FtuaALB	Leaves	Infusion	Anti-diarrheal	7	4	0	0.115	0.125	0	I
		DunjaBOG
Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott (Dryopteridaceae)	W	PapratBOG	Leaves	Infusion	Anti-parasitic	0	2	0	0	0.063	0	I
Equisetum arvense L. (Equisetaceae) 07/Pz/11	W	Konksi repBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion	Hepatic disorders,	0	2	0	0	0.281	0	I
					Kidney infections and pain	0	7	0
Euphorbia amygdaloides L. (Euphorbiaceae)	W	Mali mleqBOG	Latex	Topically used	Warts	0	3	0	0	0.094	0	I
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Apiaceae) 32/Pz/2013	W	KopërALB RezeneBOG	Fruits	Infusion	Eye disorders,	0	2	0	0.197	0.375	0.130	I
		AnasonTUR			Galactogogue,	0	1	1
					Spasmolytic	12	9	5
Fragaria vesca L. (Rosaceae)	W	DredhzaALB	Fruits	Infusion	Digestive, Spasmolytic	2	0	3	0.082	0	0.174	I
		Divla jagodaBOG				3	0	5
Fumaria officinalis L. (Papaveraceae) 33/Pz/2013	W	ShatereTUR	Aerial parts	Infusion	Diuretic,	0	2	3	0	0.188	0.087	I
					Relaxant,	0	1	1
					Anti-hypertensive	0	3	0
Galium verum L. (Rubiaceae) 35/Pz/2013	W	/	Aerial parts	Infusion	Kidney disorders,	0	0	2	0	0	0.130	I
					Skin regeneration	0	0	4
Gentiana lutea L. (Gentianaceae) 34/Pz/2013	W	GecianaALB	Roots	Infusion	Digestive disorders,	5	12	0	0.180	0.375	0	I
		LincuraBOG			Flavor additive for alcoholic beverage	6	0	0
Geranium sanguineum L. (Geraniaceae)	W	ZdrvacBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion	Respiratory disorders, laryngitis	0	3	0	0	0.094	0	I
Helianthus annuus L. (Asteraceae)	C	Lule djellıALB	Seeds	Extracted with animal fat	Skin infections	6	5	0	0.098	0.156	0	I
		SuncokretBOG
Hordeum vulgare Jess. (Poaceae)	C	ElbiALB	Seeds	Flour, mixed with oil	Wound healing	5	0	2	0.082	0	0.043	I
		JeçmenikTUR
		Arpa elbiTUR
Humulus lupulus L. (Cannabaceae) 37/Pz/2013	W	Bari sherbetitALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Insomnia,	3	3	1	0.180	0.563	0.217	I
		Amel brumitTUR			Appetizing,	2	5	2
		AmelTUR			Neurorelaxant	0	2	2
			Fruits	Infusion	Insomnia,	6	5	3
					Diuretic,	0	3	1
					Prostate disorders	0	0	1
Hypericum perforatum L. (Hypericaceae) 36/Pz/2013 08/Pz/11	W	KantarioniALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Anti-anemic, Wound healing, Anticoagulant, Neurorelaxant, Antacid	0	4	0	0.475	1.844	0	I
		KantarionBOG				12	32	0
						0	1	0
						16	21	0
						1	1	0
Inula sp. (Asteraceae)	W	OmaniTUR	Roots	Infusion	Anti-tussive, Bile simulation, Diuretic	0	0	2	0	0	0.130	I
		Safra otiTUR				0	0	3
						0	0	1
Juglans regia L. (Juglandaceae) 40/Pz/2013	C	ArraALB	Fruits	Eaten	Anti-parasitic, Thyroid disorders	3	0	0	0.115	0	0	I
						4	0	0
Juncus effusus L. (Juncaceae)	W	XukllaTUR	Aerial parts	Infusion	Urinary tract disorders	0	0	3	0	0	0.065	I
Juniperus communis L. (Cupressaceae) 39/Pz/2013	W	GëllijaALB	Wood	Extracted with oil, topically used in skin	Anti-fungal, Skin depigmentation	6	17	5	0.623	2.094	0.696	I
		KlekaBOG				2	11	2
		ArdeqTUR
			Fruits	Extracted with alcohols	Anti-rheumatic	5	3	0
				Infusion	Tuberculosis,	6	2	9
					Anti-rheumatic,	3	11	5
					Lithontriptic,	9	21	11
					Anti-asthmatic,	4	1	0
					Anti-diabetic	3	1	0
Lactuca sativa L. (Asteraceae) 41/Pz/2013	C	SallataALB	Aerial parts	Eaten fresh	Headache,	0	0	2	0	0	0.043	I
		MarrolliTUR			Galactogogue	0	0	4
Leonurus cardiaca L. (Lamiaceae)	W	Ayslan kuyrguTUR	Aerial parts	Infusion	Cardiotonic,	0	0	3	0	0	0.065	I
					Improve blood circulation,	0	0	2
					Memory enhancement	0	0	4
Lycoperdon sp. (Agaricaceae) 60/Pz/2013	W	PufkaALB	Powder	Topically applied	Wound healing, Hemostatic	4	1	0	0.066	0.031	0	I
		MantariBOG				8	4	0
Lycopodium clavatum L. (Lycopodiaceae)	W	Bari qibrititALB	Aerial parts	Topically applied to skin	Anti-microbial	2	0	0	0.033	0	0	I
				Infusion	Hepatitis	1	0	0
Malva sylvestris L. (Malvaceae) 44/Pz/2013	W	MullagaALB	Aerial parts	Extracted with fat (melhem)	Wound healing,	3	5	2	0.262	0.250	0.283	I
		Mali slez BOG			Anti-acne	5	2	0
		Ebe gumeciTUR
			Flowers	Infusion	Anti-tussive,	2	1	3
					Bronchitis,	2	0	4
					Antimicrobial	4	0	4
Mespilus germanica L. (Rosaceae) 47/Pz/2013	C	MushmollaALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Anti-diarrheal,	4	0	0	0.115	0	0	I
					Anti-diabetic,	2	0	0
					Ear disorders	1	0	0
Melissa officinalis L. (Lamiaceae) 42/Pz/2013	W	Bari i bletësALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Neurorelaxant,	3	8	5	0.475	0.406	0.413	I
		MatoqınaBOG			Headache,	3	1	4
		MolshvatravaBOG			Anti-hypertensive,	2	0	1
					Appetizing,	6	0	1
					Improve blood circulation,
					Bronchitis,	3	0	1
					Anti-anemic,	7	2	3
					Anti-hallucinogenic,	0	1	3
					Respiratory disorders	5	1	1
Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. (Lamiaceae) 45/Pz/2013	C	Çaj nanaALB NanaBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion	Stomach disorders,	0	3	0	0.311	0.75	0	I
					Carminative,	3	4	0
					Influenza,	2	6	0
					Respiratory system infections,	8	9	0
					Anti-tussive,	4	1	0
					Expectorant	2	1	0
Mentha pulegium L. (Lamiaceae) 46/Pz/2013	W	Divla mentaBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion	Neurorelaxant,	0	3	0	0	0.625	0	I
					Improve blood circulation,	0	7	0
					Respiratory system infections,	0	9	0
					Antitussive	0	1	0
Momordica charantia L. (Cucurbitaceae) 50/Pz/2013	C	Kudret nareTUR	Fruits	Mixed with oil –internal use	Wound healing,	0	0	7	0	0	0.435	I
		Sari kadakTUR			Anti-diabetic,	0	0	1
					Anti-cancer	0	0	4
				Mixed with oil - topically applied	Vulnerary for burn wounds	0	0	8
Morus alba L. (Moraceae) 49/Pz/2013	C	Mani i bardheALB	Leaves	Infusion	Anti-diabetic	0	0	4	0	0	0.087	I
		AkdutTUR
Morus nigra L. (Moraceae) 48/Pz/2013	C	Mani i ziALB	Fruits	Eaten fresh	Infections of upper part of respiratory system	3	0	5	0.148	0	0.196	I
		DutTUR
		KaradutTUR
			Leaves	Infusion	Anti-pyretic, Diuretic	6	0	4
Ocimum basilicum L. (Lamiaceae) 51/Pz/2013	C	BosiljakBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion	Carminative,	0	3	0	0	0.219	0	I
					Kidney infections,	0	1	0
					Tuberculosis	0	3	0
Olea europaea L. (Oleaceae) 15/Pz/11	C	UlliniALB	Fruits	Eaten fresh	Tuberculosis, Spasmolytic	0	1	0	0.131	0.219	0.283	I
		MaslinaBOG				6	5	2
		Zejtın tanesiTUR
			Leaves	Infusion	Improve blood circulation,	0	1	5
					Anti-diabetic,	1	0	3
					Anti-hypertensive	1	0	3
Orchis morio L. (Orchidaceae) 53/Pz/2013	W	SalepBOG	Tubers	Infusion	Influenza,	0	2	1	0	0.219	0.043	I
		SahlepTUR			Stomach disorders,	0	1	1
					Wound healing	0	4	0
Origanum vulgare L. (Lamiaceae) 52/Pz/2013	W	Çaj maliALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Anti-tussive,	6	4	2	0.279	0.750	0.304	I
		OriganoBOG			Influenza,	2	3	1
		ToqillaTUR			Respiratory system infections	9	17	11
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss (Apiaceae) 61/Pz/2013	C	MajdanozALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Anti-cholesterolemic	2	0	4	0.148	0	0.304	I
		MagdenozTUR			Anti-diabetic,	4	0	1
					Galactogogue,	2	0	5
					Anticoagulant	1	0	4
Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Fabaceae) 62/Pz/2013	C	PasulALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Anti-diabetic	2	0	3	0.033	0	0.065	I
		Jer pasulTUR
Pimpinella anisum L. (Apiaceae)	C	Bati i gjinitALB AnasonTUR	Aerial parts	Infusion	Spasmolytic,	0	0	5	0	0	0.283	I
					Carminative,	0	0	5
					Anti-ageing,	0	0	2
					Galactogogue	0	0	1
Pinus nigra J.F. Arnold. (Pinaceae)	W/C	PishaALB	Resin	Extracted with oil	Skin infections	3	0	6	0.049	0	0.130	I
		Kara qamTUR
Plantago major L. (Plantaginaceae) 54/Pz/2013	W	DejziALB	Leaves	Infusion	Wound healing	0	6	0	0	0.313	0	I
		BokvicaBOG	Arial parts	Infusion	Skin infections	0	3	0
		Zenska bokvicaBOG	Flowers	Infusion	Digestive and urinary disorders	0	1	0
Polygonum aviculare L. (Polygonaceae)	W	BarthekALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Urinary system disorders,	2	0	4	0.082	0	0.109	I
		KusekmeziTUR			Anti-coagulant	3	0	1
		TroketTUR
Populus alba L. (Salicaceae)	W	PlepiALB	Aerial parts	Topically uses	Wound healing	0	0	3	0	0	0.087	I
		Ak kavakTUR	Leaves	Infusion	Urinary tract disorders	0	0	1
		Beyaz kavakTUR
Primula veris L. (Primulaceae) 56/Pz/2013	W	Myzhdja e pranverësALB	Flowers	Infusion	Headache,	0	2	1	0.508	1.094	0.543	I
		JaglikaBOG			Anti-tussive,	11	14	9
		Zuti vetBOG			Respiratory system disorders,	14	7	9
		JagorcevinaBOG			Improve blood circulation	3	1	1
		Quha çicegiTUR
			Aerial parts	Infusion	Anti-tussive,	2	4	0
					Expectorant,	1	6	4
					Bronchitis	0	1	1
Prunus avium L. (Rosaceae)	C	QershiaALB	Fruits	Decoction	Anti-hypertensive,	2	0	0	0.262	0	0	I
					Improve blood circulation,	5	0	0
					Anti-bacterial,	3	0	0
					Digestive tract disorders	1	0	0
			Resin	Topically used	Scabies	5	0	0
Prunus domestica L. (Rosaceae) 55/Pz/2013	C	SljivaBOG	Fruits	Decoction	Hepatic disorders,	0	1	0	0	0.438	0	I
					Anti-hemorrhoidal,	0	5	0
					Anti-parasitic,	0	2	0
					Constipation	0	6	0
Prunus spinosa L. (Rosaceae)	W	KulumrijaALB	Flowers	Infusion	Constipation	0	3	1	0.131	0	0.065	I
		TerninaBOG	Fruits	Infusion	Anti-diabetic,	7	2	4
		KurumliaTUR			Hepatic disorders	0	1	1
			Leaves	Infusion	Improve digestion,	1	1	2
					Appetizing	0	2	1
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. (Dennstaedtiaceae)	W	FiriALB	Leaves	Extracted with oil	Wound healing	0	0	3	0	0	0.065	I
		Qiban otuTUR
Pulmonaria officinalis L. (Boraginaceae)	W	Bar ı mushkerıveALB PluqnjakBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion	Anti-tussive,	1	3	0	0.016	0.125	0	I
					Bronchitis	0	1	0
Pyrus communis L. (Rosaceae) 58/Pz/2013	W	DardhaALB	Fruits	Infusion	Cardiotonic,	0	3	0	0	0.125	0.043	I
		Dardha egerALB			Hepatic disorders	0	1	2
		ArmutTUR
Raphanus sativus L. (Brassicaceae) 63/Pz/2013	C	RotkvaBOG	Taproot	Infusion	Digestive system infections,	0	2	0	0	0.375	0	I
		CveklaBOG			Bronchitis,	0	4	0
					Anti-anemic,	0	1	0
					Anti-rheumatic	0	5	0
Ribes rubrum L. (Grossulariaceae)	C	RibizlaBOG	Fruits	Infusion	Anti-rheumatic,	0	3	0	0	0.344	0	I
					Anti-malarial,	0	1	0
					Anti-allergic,	0	2	0
					Heart disorders	0	5	0
Robinia pseudoacacia L. (Fabaceae) 68/Pz/2013	W	BagremiALB	Flowers	Infusion	Skin infections	3	0	2	0.049	0	0.043	I
		AkasyaTUR
Rosa canina L. (Rosaceae) 67/Pz/2013	W	KaçaALB	Fruits	Infusion	Improve immunity,	3	1	0	0.328	0.594	0	I
		ShipakBOG			Hepatic disorders,	1	2	0
		SipurakBOG			Anti-anaemic,	1	5	0
					Influenza,	6	3	0
					Digestive tract disorders.	9	8	0
Rubia tinctorum L. (Rubiaceae)	W	CrvenkaBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion	Kidney disorders,	0	3	0	0	0.281	0	I
					Skeletal disorders, tuberculosis	0	1	0
					“Saraxha” (cutaneous tuberculosis)	0	5	0
Rubus fruticosus L. (Rosaceae) 65/Pz/2013	W	ManaALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Anti-anemic,	0	3	0	0	1.031	0	I
		KupinaBOG			Improve blood circulation,	0	1	0
					Anti-hypertensive,	0	4	0
					Wound healing	0	3	0
					Anti-diabetic,	0	4	0
					Antimycotic	0	1	0
			Fruits	Infusion	Anti-anemic,	0	4	0
					Anti- diarrheal,	0	1	0
					Kidney infections,	0	2	0
					Oral cavity infections,	0	5	0
					Hypertensive,	0	2	0
					Anti-parasitic,	0	1	0
					Anti-tussive	0	2	0
Rubus idaeus L. (Rosaceae) 66/Pz/2013	W	MjedraALB	Leaves	Infusion	Improve blood circulation,	0	5	0	0	1.188	0	I
		MalinaBOG			Anti-hypertensive,	0	5	0
					Anti-diarrheal,	0	3	0
					Anti-tussive,	0	2	0
					Anti-pyretic,	0	1	0
					Oral cavity infections	0	5	0
			Roots	Infusion	Anti-hypertensive,	0	3	0
					Wound healing	0	4	0
			Fruits	Infusion	Dysentery,	0	1	0
					Tonsillitis,	0	3	0
					Digestive disorders	0	2	0
			Flowers	Extracted with olive oil	To treated skin wounds caused by insects and snakes	0	4	0
Salix alba L. (Salicaceae) 70/Pz/2013	W	VrbaBOG	Leaves	Infusion	Hepatic disorders	0	3	0	0	0.313	0	I
			Cortex	Infusion	Antipyretic,	0	5	0
					Analgesic	0	2	0
Salvia officinalis L. (Lamiaceae)	C	ZalfijaBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion, then added honey	Tonsillitis and other infection of respiratory system,	0	7	0	0	0.344	0	I
					Anti-diabetic	0	2	0
					Antiperspirant	0	2	0
Sambucus nigra L. (Adoxaceae) 69/Pz/2013	W	ShtoguALB	Flowers	Infusion	Bronchitis,	14	7	15	0.787	1.250	0.891	I
		ZovaBOG			Anti-tussive,	8	5	3
		Bos zovaBOG			Expectorant, Antiperspirant,	3	7	8
		MurverTUR			Anti-halitosis,	2	1	4
		ForbozTUR			Influenza,	0	1	4
					Anti-asthmatic,	6	8	2
					Stomach disorders,	9	4	1
					Urinary tract disorders	4	1	1
						1	1	1
				Extracted with fish oil	Anti-anemic, Improve immunity	0	3	1
				Extracted with oil – topically used	Vulnerary for burns, skin infections	1	2	1
Satureja montana L. (Lamiaceae) 19/Pz/11	W	CubarTUR	Aerial parts	Infusion	Spasmolytic,	0	5	0	0	0.563	0	I
		CurbiceBOG			Anti-diabetic,	0	2	0
					Anti-parasitic,	0	2	0
					Respiratory tract infections,	0	5	0
					Anti-tussive,	0	2	0
					Expectorant	0	2	0
Scrophularia nodosa L. (Scrophulariaceae)	W	/	Aerial parts	Topically applied	“Saraxha” (cutaneous tuberculosis), Tuberculosis	0	3	2	0	0.094	0.043	I
Sempervivum tectorum L. (Crassulaceae) 71/Pz/2013	W	Bar veshiALB	Leaves	Extracted with fat (cow or pig fat) - topically applied	Wound healing	6	3	0	0.279	0.531	0	I
		CuvarkucaBOG
				Juice from fresh leaves, 2–3 drops	Earache, ear infections	11	14	0
Symphytum officinale L. (Boraginaceae) 73/Pz/2013	W	Crni gavezBOG GanezTUR	Roots	Extracted with fat	Wound healing	0	4	2	0	0.188	0.109	I
				Extracted with wine	Anticoagulant	0	2	3
Tanacetum vulgare L. (Asteraceae) 75/Pz/2013	W	Pire otuTURR	Seeds	Infusion	Anti-parasitic (intestinal parasites),	0	0	3	0	0	0.304	I
					Anti-rheumatic	0	0	2
			Flowers	Powder	Insect repellent, anti-parasitic	0	0	4
			Aerial parts	Infusion	Digestive tract disorders,	0	0	2
					Anti-hemorrhoidal,	0	0	1
					Eczema	0	0	2
Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg. (Asteraceae)84/Pz/2013	W	Tamëlçak i	Flowers	Infusion	Hepatitis	2	1	0	0.295	0.375	0.304	I
		livadhitALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Improve blood circulation,	7	4	9
		MaslacakBOG
		KaraındıbaTUR			Digestive tract disorders,	3	5	1
					Urinary tract disorders,	1	1	1
					Anti-anemic.	5	1	3
Teucrium chamaedrys L. (Lamiaceae) 79/Pz/2013	W	MamudiaBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion	Appetizing,	0	2	0	0	0.250	0	I
					Stomachache,	0	4	0
					Anti- diarrheal,	0	1	0
					Anti-hemorrhoidal	0	1	0
Teucrium polium L. (Lamiaceae) 78/Pz/2013	W	Bar saraxhaALB	Aerial parts	Mixed with fat	Tuberculosis,	2	2	0	0.131	0.281	0	I
		Bar majasiliALB			“Saraxha” (cutaneous tuberculosis)	4	2	0
		PodobicaBOG
				Infusion	Anti-hemorrhoidal,	1	1	0
					igestive tract disorders,	1	3	0
					Stomachache	0	1	0
Thymus serpyllum L. (Lamiaceae) 76/Pz/2013	W	Majcina dusicaBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion	Improve blood circulation,	3	5	2	1.525	2.5	1.087	I
		Qeklik otiTUR
					Anticholesterolemic,	1	2	0
					Respiratory inflammations,	21	26	16
					Immunostimulant,	4	0	2
					Neurorelaxant,	11	5	3
					Carminative,	19	22	13
					Spasmolytic,	13	9	12
					Bronchitis,	16	6	1
					Anti-asthmatic,	2	4	1
					Expectorant	3	1	0
Thymus vulgaris L. (Lamiaceae) 77/Pz/2013	W	Majcina dusicaBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion	Anti-tussive,	0	3	0	0	0.281	0	I
					Anti-cholesterolemic	0	6	0
Typha latifolia L. (Typhaceae) 82/Pz/2013	W	ShavarALB	Fruits	Infusion	Respiratory system inflammations	0	0	3	0	0	0.065	I
		HubaboTUR
Tilia platyphyllos Scop. (Malvaceae) 80/Pz/2013	W/C	BliniALB	Flowers	Infusion	Respiratory system inflammations,	8	13	8	0.689	1.469	0.804	I
		LipaBOG
		FlamurTUR			Anti-anemic,	2	5	4
		IlhamurTUR			Stomach infections,	9	3	5
					Headache,	1	0	1
					Anti-tussive	2	0	1
			Leaves and Flowers	Infusion	Anti-tussive,	2	4	6
					Expectorant,	1	3	1
					Respiratory system inflammations	17	19	11
Trifolium arvense L. (Fabaceae)	W/C	TërfojaALB	Aerial part	Infusion	Anti-rheumatic	0	6	0	0	0.188	0	I
		DeklinaBOG
Triticum vulgare L. (Poaceae) 74/Pz/2013	W	GruniALB	Flour	Mixed with hot water – topically used	Skin inflammation and ulcers	0	0	4	0	0	0.087	I
		BogdayTUR		Mixed with hot water – internal used	Anti-diarrheal	0	0	2
Tussilago farfara L. (Asteraceae) 83/Pz/2013	W	PotbelBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion	Expectorant,	0	7	0	0	0.313	0	I
					Anti-tussive	0	3	0
Ulmus minor Mill. (Ulmaceae) 86/Pz/2013	W	VidhiALB	Leaves	Extracted with fat	Anti-mycotic,	11	0	7	0.197	0	0.217	I
		KarragaqTUR			Anti-bacterial, “Saraxha” (cutaneous tuberculosis).	1	0	3
Urtica dioica L. (Urticaceae) 85/Pz/2013	W	HithiALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Anti-hemorrhoidal,	3	1	5	1.820	3.094	1.652	II
		KoprivaBOG			Anti-anemic,	32	21	11
		YakiciTUR			Influenza,	12	10	6
					Anti-cancer,	1	0	0
					Eczemas,	3	7	9
					Bronchitis,	11	19	14
					Headache,	1	3	1
					Anti-rheumatic,	9	4	6
					Anti-bacterial,	12	19	13
					Alopecia,	5	1	1
					Anti-dandruff,	18	12	9
					Digestive disorders	2	1	1
					Urinary disorders	2	1	0
Vaccinium myrtillus L. (Ericaceae) 87/Pz/2013	W	BoronıcaALB	Fruits	Juice of fresh fruits	Digestive tract infections,	6	9	5	0.984	1.563	1.152	I
		BorovnicaALB
					Anti-anemic,	25	21	11
					Eye inflammations,	1	0	5
					Hepatitis,	0	0	3
					Digestive disorders,	0	1	3
					Urinary disorders	1	1	1
			Fruits and leaves	Infusion	Lithontriptic,	4	2	7
					Respiratory inflammations,	6	5	3
					Anti-anemic	17	11	15
Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. (Ericaceae)	W	BrusnicaBOG	Leaves	Infusion	Urinary inflammations	0	14	0	0	2.094	0	I
					Anti-rheumatic	0	3	0
			Fruits	Infusion	Urinary tract infections	0	21	0
			Fruits and leaves	Infusion	Lithontriptic,	0	11	0
					Diuretic,	0	6	0
					Anti-rheumatic,	0	1	0
					Wound healing,	0	3	0
					Antipyretic,	0	1	0
					Anti-diabetic,	0	6	0
					Anticonvulsant	0	1	0
Veratrum album L. (Melanthiaceae)	W	ShtaraALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Anti-hypertensive.	3	5	0	0.049	0.156	0	I
		CemenikaBOG
Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae) 89/Pz/2013	W	DivizmaBOG DivizaTUR	Aerial parts	Infusion and Mixed with fat “mehlem”	Anti-tussive,	0	2	1	0	0.250	0.087	I
					Bronchitis,	0	5	2
		Sigir kuyruguTUR			Digestive tract disorders	0	1	1
Veronica officinalis L. (Plantaginaceae) 88/Pz/2013	W	Paskalya otuTUR	Leaves	Infusion	Anticoagulant,	0	0	3	0	0	0.196	I
		Yavshan otuTUR			Respiratory system inflammations,	00	0	2
					Wound healing		0	4
Vitis vinifera L. (Vitaceae) 90/Pz/2013	C	RrushıALB	Leaves	Infusion	Increase immunity,	4	1	0	0.311	0.438	0.435	I
		GrozhgjeBOG			Hepatitis	2	1	3
		Siyah üzümTUR
			Fruits	Eaten fresh	Anti-anemic,	3	4	2
					Hepatic disorders,	1	2	3
					Urinary system inflammations	6	2	1
			Juice of fruits (semi fermented)	Internal used	Anti-anemic,	1	1	10
					Anti-cholesterolemic	2	3	1
Zea mays L. (Poaceae) 92/Pz/2013	C	MisriALB	Female flower	Infusion	Urinary tract inflammations,	2	0	3	0.115	0	0.152	I
		KollomoqALB
					Edema,	1	0	1
		KollomoqiTUR			Stomach disorders,	2	0	0
					Anti-parasitic	1	0	0
			Ripe seeds	Infusion	Anti-parasitic	1	0	3

^a Folk Names. ^ALBfolk name(s) recorded among Albanians; ^BOGfolk name(s) recorded among Bosniaks/Gorani; ^TURfolk name(s) recorded among Turks

^b Alb N _uc : Number of use citations provided by Albanian informants; Bo/Go N _uc : Number of use citations provided by Bosnian and Gorani informants; Tur N _uc : Number of use citations provided by Turkish informants.

^c UV _Alb : Use-value for one species by the Albanian group; UV _Bo/Go : Use-value for one species by the Bosniaks and Gorani; UV _Tur : Use-value for one species by the Turkish group. This index measures the relative importance of each species based on its reported use by informants from each cultural group under study.

^d Q: Quadrant assignments are based on adjusted use-values (UV_adj), which were calculated by dividing the use-value (UV) of each group by the maximum use-value (UV_max) for medicinal citations (UV_adj not shown).

Table 2.

Wild plant or mushroom species used as local food in the study area

Botanical taxon, family and voucher specimen code	Folk name(s) a	Part(s) used	Preparation	Folk uses(s)	Alb N uc b	Bo/Go N uc b	Tur N uc b	UV Alb c	UV Bo/Go c	UV Tur c	Q d
Amanita caesarea (Scop.) Pers. (Amanitaceae)	KërpurdhaALB	Aerial parts	Fresh or conserved	Food used in small quantities,	3	0	0	0.08	0	0	I
				Food additive	2	0	0	2
Castanea sativa Mill. (Fagaceae) 19/Pz/2013	GështajaALB	Fruits	Fresh, beaked	Food	6	4	4	0.098	0.125	0.087	I
Cichorium intybus L. (Asteraceae) 21/Pz/2013	CikorjaSHQ	Aerial parts	Dried and ground	Coffee substitute, prepared as Turkish coffee	2	0	3	0.033	0	0.065	I
	Mavi çiçekTUR
	Satali bitki TUR
Cornus mas L. (Cornaceae) 23/Pz/2013	ThanaALB DirninaTUR	Fruits	Eaten fresh	Food	5	6	0	0.082	0.563	0	I
			Mixed and boiled with sugar for short period	Beverage	0	6	0
			Mixed and boiled with sugar for longer period	Jam	0	6	0
Corylus avellana L. (Betulaceae) 24/Pz/2013	LejthıALB	Fruits	Fresh or dried	Food, Sweetener	9	15	5	0.148	0.469	0.109	I
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Apiaceae) 32/Pz/2013	KopërALB RezeneBOG	Leaves, seeds	Dried	Food additive for flavoring	0	0	2	0	0	0.043	I
	AnasonTUR
Fragaria vesca L. (Rosaceae)	DrezaALB	Fruits	Eaten fresh	Food	15	19	7	0.295	1.406	0.196	II
	Divla jagodaBOG
			Mixed and boiled with sugar for short period	Beverage	0	15	0
			Mixed and boiled with sugar for longer period	Jam	3	11	2
Helianthus tuberosus L. (Asteraceae)	OrashkaALB	Tuber	Eaten fresh	Food	3	0	0	0.033	0.25	0	I
Malus sylvestris Mill. (Rosaceae)		Fruits	Boiled with sugar	Jams	0	3	0	0.033	0.25	0	I
			Sliced and dried (ahaf), boiled in water prior to eating	Wintertime food	2	5	0
Matricaria chamomilla L. (Asteraceae) 43/Pz/2013	Lule qeniALB	Aerial parts	Dried	Tea	0	5	3	0	0.156	0.065	I
	KamomilALB
	PapatjaTUR
	Sari çiçekTUR
	KamilicaBOG
	BabunecBOG
Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. (Lamiaceae) 45/Pz/2013	Çaj nanaALB NanaBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion	Tea	0	0	3	0	0	0.065	I
Morus alba L. (Moraceae) 49/Pz/2013	Mani i bardheALB	Fruits	Fresh	Food	6	5	0	0.098	0.156	0	I
	AkdutTUR
Morus nigra L. (Moraceae) 48/Pz/2013	Mani i ziALB	Fruits	Eaten fresh	Food	8	9	4	0.131	0.406	0.109	I
	DutTUR		Mixed and boiled with sugar for short period	Beverage	0	2	1
	KaradutTUR
			Mixed and boiled with sugar for longer period	Jam	0	2	0
Orchis morio L. (Orchidaceae) 53/Pz/2013	SalepiALB	Tubers	Dried	Hot beverage mixed with milk “salep”	0	6	11	0	0.188	0.239	I
Origanum vulgare L. (Lamiaceae) 52/Pz/2013	Çaj maliALB	Aerial parts	Infusion	Tea, Food flavoring	8	13	0	0.131	0.406	0	I
	ToqillaTUR
Prunus spinosa L. (Rosaceae)	KulumrijaALB	Fruits	Eaten fresh	Food	4	8	0	0.066	0.25	0	I
	TerninaBOG
	KurumliaTUR
Pyrus communis L. (Rosaceae) 58/Pz/2013	DardhaALB	Fruits	Fresh, conserved	Food	6	12	6	0.098	0.375	0.130	I
	Dardha egerALB
Rosa canina L. (Rosaceae) 67/Pz/2013	KaçaALB	Fruits	Infusion	Tea, Jam	0	6	4	0	0.188	0.087	I
	ShipakBOG
	SipurakBOG
Rosa damascena Mill. (Rosaceae)	TrendafiliALB	Flowers	Flowers mixed with cold water for 24 hours, and then lemon juice is added	Juice (shurup)	5	0	0	0.082	0	0	I
Rubus fruticosus L. (Rosaceae) 65/Pz/2013	ManaALB	Fruits	Eaten fresh	Food	6	5	2	0.098	0.281	0.043	I
	KupinaBOG
			Mixed and boiled with sugar for short period	Beverage	0	4	0
Rubus idaeus L. (Rosaceae) 66/Pz/2013	MjedraALB	Fruits	Eaten fresh	Food	5	4	4	0.082	0.219	0.109	I
	MalinaBOG
			Mixed and boiled with sugar for short period	Beverage	0	3	1
Sambucus nigra L. (Adoxaceae) 69/Pz/2013	ShtoguALB	Flowers	Flowers mixed with cold water for 24 hours, and then lemon juice is added	Beverage	9	11	8	0.148	0.344	0.174	I
	ZovaBOG
	BOG zovaBOG
	MurverTUR
	ForbozTUR
Thymus serpyllum L. (Lamiaceae) 76/Pz/2013	Qeklik otiTUR	Aerial parts	Infusion	Tea	0	13	0	0	0.406	0	I
	Majcina dushicaBOG
Thymus vulgaris L. (Lamiaceae) 77/Pz/2013	Majcina dushicaBOG	Aerial parts	Infusion	Tea	0	8	0	0	0.25	0	I
Tilia platyphyllos Scop. (Malvaceae) 80/Pz/2013	BliniALB	Flowers	Infusion	Tea	9	11	6	0.148	0.344	0.13	I
	FlamurTUR
	IlhamurTUR
	LipaBOG
Urtica dioica L. (Urticaceae) 86/Pz/2013	HithiALB	Aerial parts	Young and fresh	Filling in home-made savory pies (pite)	14	11	11	0.23	0.344	0.239	I
	KoprivaBOG
	YakiciTUR
Vaccinium myrtillus L. (Ericaceae) 87/Pz/2013	BoronıcaALB BorovnicaB	Fruits	Eaten fresh	Food	8	11	5	0.131	0.594	0.109	I
			Mixed and boiled with sugar for short period	Beverage	0	8	0
Vitis vinifera L. (Vitaceae) 90/Pz/2013	RrushıSHQ	Leaves	Fresh ore conserved	Sarma ingredient: leaves are rolled around a filling usually based on minced meat and rice.	9	12	10	0.148	0.375	0.217	I
	GrozhgjeBOG
Zea mays L. (Poaceae) 92/Pz/2013	MisriALB	Flour	Semi-fermented	Beverage “boza”	0	6	8	0	0.188	0.174	I
	Kollomoq ALB
	KollomoqiTUR

^a Folk Names. ^ALBfolk name(s) recorded among Albanians; ^BOGfolk name(s) recorded among Bosniaks/Gorani; ^TURfolk name(s) recorded among Turks.

^b Alb N _uc : Number of use citations provided by Albanian informants; Bo/Go N _uc : Number of use citations provided by Bosnian and Gorani informants; Tur N _uc : Number of use citations provided by Turkish informants.

^c UV _Alb : Use-value for one species by the Albanian group; UV _Bo/Go : Use-value for one species by the Bosniaks and Gorani; UV _Tur : Use-value for one species by the Turkish group. This index measures the relative importance of each species based on its reported use by informants from each cultural group under study.

^d Q: Quadrant assignments are based on adjusted use-values (UV_adj), which were calculated by dividing the use-value (UV) of each group by the maximum use-value (UV_max) for food citations (UV_adj not shown).

Table 3.

Plants used in handicraft applications in the study area

Botanical taxon, family and voucher specimen code	Status	Folk name(s) a	Part(s) used	Use Category	Specific Use(s)	Alb N uc b	Bo/Go N uc b	Tur N uc b	UV Alb c	UV Bo/Go c	UV Tur c	Q d
Abies alba Mill. (Pinaceae) 14/Pz/2013	W	BredhiALB	Wood	Carpentry	Used for home construction and different home furniture	5	4	2	0.082	0.125	0.043	I
Acer campestre L. (Sapindaceae)	W	PanjaALB	Wood	Carpentry	Used for constructing musical instruments (“çifteli”, violin etc.)	2	0	0	0.033	0	0	I
Alnus glutinosa L. (Betulaceae)	W	VerriALB	Twigs	Dye	Brown color used for textile coloring	2	1	1	0.033	0.031	0.022	I
Beta vulgaris L. (Amaranthaceae)	C	RrepaALB	Taproot	Dye	Red color, used for textile coloring	2	0	0	0.033	0	0	I
Centaurea cyanus L. (Asteraceae) 20/Pz/2013	W	KokoçeliALB	Flowers	Dye	Blue color, used for textile coloring	0	5	0	0	0.156	0	II
		KicicaBOG
Corylus avellana L. (Betulaceae) 24/Pz/2013	W	LejthıALB	Stems	Handicraft	Used to construct baskets, usually large ones for carrying animal food	10	5	0	0.164	0.156	0	VI
Cotinus coggygria Scop. (Anacardiaceae) 64/Pz/2013	W	Dru bojeALB	Fruits	Dye	Yellow color, used for leather, wool and other textile coloring	2	0	3	0.033	0	0.065	I
		RujTUR
		Boyaci sumakTUR
Juglans regia L. (Juglandaceae) 40/Pz/2013	C	ArraALB	Wood	Carpentry	Used for furniture preservation, this is characterized by a high aesthetic value.	3	2	2	0.082	0.063	0.043	I
			Fruit cortex	Dye	Coloring of hair, wool and cotton	2	0	0
Juniperus communis L. (Cupressaceae) 39/Pz/2013	W	GëllijaALB	Wood	Musical instrument	Used for construction of “lahuta”, a single-stringed musical instrument used in traditionally music.	2	0	0	0.033	0	0	I
Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. (Cucurbitaceae)	C	PocerkaALB	Dried fruits	Liquid container	Fruits opened and used as a water container	6	8	4	0.098	0.25	0.087	II
Morus alba L. (Moraceae) 49/Pz/2013	C	Mani i bardhëALB	Wood	Liquid container	Used to construct casks for storing alcohol, which gives it a characteristic light yellow color	4	0	1	0.066	0	0.022	I
		AkdutTUR
Morus nigra L. (Moraceae) 48/Pz/2013	C	Mani i ziALB DutTUR	Wood	Liquid container	Used to construct casks for storing alcohol, which gives it a characteristic light yellow color	4	0	1	0.066	0	0.022	I
		KaradutTUR
Pinus nigra J.F. Arnold. (Pinaceae)	W/C	PishaALB	Wood	Carpentry	Used for home construction and construction of different furniture.	0	6	1	0	0.188	0.022	II
		Kara qamTUR
Polygonum aviculare L. (Polygonaceae)	W	MadimakBOG	Aerial parts	Dye	Blue color, used for wool coloring	0	0	3	0	0	0.065	I
		KusekmeziTUR
Pyrus communis L. (Rosaceae) 58/Pz/2013	W	DardhaALB	Wood	Musical instrument	Used for construction of “Zurla”, an oboe-like woodwind instrument.	2	0	0	0.033	0	0	I
		Dardha egerALB
Rhamnus frangula (Rhamnaceae)	E	Druni barutitALB	Wood	Weaponry	Used as a gunpowder ingredient	0	0	1	0	0	0.022	I
		Barut agaqiTUR
Rubia tinctorum L. (Rubiaceae)	W	Boj kuqeALB CrvenkaBOG	Roots and fruits	Dye	Red color, used for textile coloring	0	4	0	0	0.125	0	I
Salix purpurea L. (Salicaceae)	W	RakitaALB	Twigs	Handicraft	To construct different type of baskets	5	2	0	0.082	0.063	0	I
Sambucus ebulus L. (Adoxaceae)	W	KinlaALB	Fruits	Dye	Blue color, used for textile coloring	0	4	0	0	0.125	0	I
		Crna zovaBOG
Zea mays L. (Poaceae) 92/Pz/2013	C	MisriALB	Mature leaves	Handicraft	Used to construct different types of baskets	0	0	4	0	0	0.087	I
		Kollomoq ALB
		KollomoqiTUR

^a Folk Names. ^ALBfolk name(s) recorded among Albanians; ^BOGfolk name(s) recorded among Bosniaks/Gorani; ^TURfolk name(s) recorded among Turks.

^b Alb N _uc : Number of use citations provided by Albanian informants; Bo/Go N _uc : Number of use citations provided by Bosnian and Gorani informants; Tur N _uc : Number of use citations provided by Turkish informants.

^c UV _Alb : Use-value for one species by the Albanian group; UV _Bo/Go : Use-value for one species by the Bosniaks and Gorani; UV _Tur : Use-value for one species by the Turkish group. This index measures the relative importance of each species based on its reported use by informants from each cultural group under study.

^d Q: Quadrant assignments are based on adjusted use-values (UV_adj), which were calculated by dividing the use-value (UV) of each group by the maximum use-value (UV_max) for handicraft citations (UV_adj not shown).

Results and discussion

In total, TEK on the local uses of 124 taxa (belonging to 51 families) was recorded; of these, 114 species were used for medicinal purposes, 29 wild species for food, and 20 for handicrafts. Some of the cited species were used for multiple purposes. The total number of use citation (N_uc) for each species is reported by ethnic group and category of use: medicinal (Table 1), food (Table 2), and handicraft (Table 3) applications.

Medicinal plants

TEK on the recorded local uses of 114 medicinal plant taxa, representing 49 taxonomic families, are reported in Table 1. Of these species, Achillea millefolium L., Sambucus nigra L., Urtica dioica L., Tilia platyphyllos Scop., Hypericum perforatum L., Matricaria chamomilla L., Thymus serpyllum L., and Vaccinium myrtillus L. were cited by more than 30% of the informants. Of the 114 cited for medicinal purposes, 44 are also included in the official Pharmacopoeia of Europe (European Pharmacopoeia. 6 ed.). The predominantly quoted botanical families were Rosaceae (13%), Asteraceae (11%), and Lamiaceae (10%). These same three “top” families were found to also be predominant among the wild medicinal taxa used in the folk medicine of the Albanian Alps (Kosovo), Alps in Montenegro, Albania, and in the Gollak region of Kosovo [13,17-19,25,26].

The total number species quoted by each ethnic group were roughly equivalent: 67, 66, and 71 for the Albanians, Turks and Bosniaks, respectively. Figure 3A illustrates the overlap in citation of medicinal plant among the three populations, with 10 species used only by Albanians, 18 by Turks and 21 only by Bosniaks/Gorani. Furthermore, common uses were shared between certain groups: 15 only between Albanians and Turks, 8 only between Bosniaks/Gorani and Turks and 17 only between Albanian and Bosniaks/Gorani. A total of 25 species were cited for medicinal use by all three study populations.

The most frequently cited medicinal uses referred to gastrointestinal (17.8%), respiratory (15.1%) ailments, heart disease (13.6%), illnesses affecting the urogenital system (12.4%) and the skin (10.5%). These categories were the most frequently quoted in the ethnobotanical studies conducted in Gollak (Kosovo) [26], while the gastrointestinal and respiratory troubles were also the most frequently quoted in the ethnobotanical studies conducted in the Albanian Alps (Kosovar, Montenegrin and Albanian sides) [13,17-19,25].

Our 3-D analysis of the data revealed that of the cited species, Chamomila recutita had the highest use-value across groups, and was assigned to Quadrant VI, demonstrating high value among Albanians and Bosniaks/Gorani, with moderately high (UV_adj = 0.46) use-value among the Turkish population studied as well. While most taxa fell into Quadrant I, representing low to moderate level use-values among all three populations, two additional species stood out from the majority and fell into Quadrant II: Allium sativum and Urtica dioica. Both of these taxa demonstrated high use-value scores among Bosniaks/Gorani , with moderate use-values among Albanians and Turks.

Upon cross-cultural comparative analysis of our findings with those reported in the medico-ethnobotanical literature available on the Southern Balkans [1-4,6,8-10,12,13,15,17,19-21,25-27], we identified the following novel uses of several plants, which could merit further phytochemical and bioactivity analyses:

• the topical application of the fruiting body of Amanita caesarea in the treatment of skin infections;

• the drinking of an infusion of the aerial parts of Apium graveolens to treat sterility;

• the drinking of an infusion of the aerial parts of Avena sativa (Figure 5)for its skeletal system enhancement effect;

• the consumption of Brassica rapa taproot to treat eye disorders and stimulate the immune system;

• the drinking of an infusion of aerial parts of Geranium sanguineum to treat respiratory disorders;

• the topical application of Hordeum sativum flour, mixed with oil, for wound healing;

• the drinking of an infusion of the aerial parts of Juncus effusus (Figure 6) to treat urinary tract disorders;

• the drinking of an infusion of the aerial parts of Leonurus cardiaca as cardiotonic, to improve blood circulation and memory enhancement; and

• the drinking of an infusion of aerial parts of Trifolium arvense as an anti-rheumatic.

Figure 5.

The aerial parts of Avena sativa L. (Poaceae) are prepared as an infusion and drunk for the purpose of enhancing the skeletal system.

Figure 6.

The aerial parts of Juncus effusus L. (Juncaceae) are prepared as an infusion and drunk to treat urinary tract disorders.

Food plants

The food uses of 29 wild species, representing 16 families, were recorded (Table 2). Of these, 3 were quoted only by Albanians, 2 only by Turks and 2 only by Bosniaks/Gorani. Figure 3B illustrates the high level of overlap of cited plant species for food uses, with 12 species being cited by all three populations. Regarding common overlaps in species uses, 1were shared in common only between Albanians and Turks, 4 only between Bosniaks/Gorani and Turks and 5 only between Albanian and Bosniaks/Gorani. Regarding the preparation of traditional foods, some of these, such as salep (beverage from Orchis spp. tubers) and shurup (syrup from Rosa damascena flowers), were prepared quite frequently in the past, but nowadays have nearly disappeared. The most frequently cited food uses of local plants referred to foods that are eaten fresh or processed (33.3%), beverages (22.2%), teas (17.8%), jams (17.8%) and food additives (8.9%). Our 3-D analysis of adjusted use values revealed that all taxa with the exception of one are placed in Quadrant I, indicating a common low to moderate level of use-value shared among populations. Wild strawberries (Fragaria vesca), on the other hand, fell in Quadrant II, and is highly valued by Bosniaks/Gorani for its use as a food, beverage ingredient and jam ingredient. Its use as a beverage by the Bosniak/Gorani, prepared by boiling with sugar, was not cited by either Albanians or Turks in this study.

Handicraft plants

The handicraft uses of 20 species, representing 18 families, were recorded (Table 3). Of these, 5 were quoted only by Albanians, 3 by Turks and 2 by Bosniaks/Gorani. Figure 3C illustrates a moderate level of overlap of the handicraft uses of plant species, with only 4 being cited by all 3 populations. Regarding common overlaps in species uses, 3 were shared in common only between Albanians and Turks, 1 only between Bosniaks/Gorani and Turks and 2 only between Albanian and Bosniaks/Gorani. The most frequently cited form of handicraft uses of local flora included dyes (38.1%), musical instruments (28.6%), carpentry (19.0%) and liquid containers (14.3%).

As might be expected with lower levels of overlap between taxa cited for use for this purpose, we also observed greater distinction in the spread of taxa in our 3-D comparative analysis of adjusted use-values. Of note, Corylus avellana, which is a key resource for basket weaving in this region, fell into Quadrant VI, indicating its high use-value among Albanians and Bosniaks/Gorani. It had no cited use among Turks. Lagenaria siceraria, whose fruits are used as a container for carrying water, had a top use-value among Bosniaks/Gorani, with moderate scores among Albanians and Turks (Quadrant II). Pinus nigra, used for home and furniture construction, likewise has a high use-value score among Bosniaks/Gorani, but a very low use-value among Turks, and no citations for Albanians.

Cross-cultural comparison

Both the distinct and overlapping patterns of TEK reported by the 3 ethnic groups are illustrated in Figure 3. Although the number of informants was slightly uneven among the three populations, a general tendency can be observed nevertheless, also because “saturation” plateaus in which no new plant uses quoted by new interviewees were commonly reached after approximately 15–20 interviews. While we could not observe any remarkable differences among the wild plants used in the food and handicraft domains by the three populations, a difference is notable in the medicinal domain. When it comes to medicinal TEK, Albanians appear less herbophilic than both Slavs and Turks. This finding confirms what has already been pointed out by other field studies conducted in other Western Balkans areas and involving both Slavs and Ghegh Albanians [10,15]. This phenomenon may be best explained by the fact that the traditional economy of Ghegh Albanians was for many centuries based upon a pure pastoralist/transhumant economy, whereas they have rarely traded herbs. For the Slavs, however, the gathering of herbs from the wild has persisted as their well-known main occupation within a mixed system of small-scale agriculture and pastoralism. This is especially the case among Islamicized Slavs living in the mountainous areas of SE Europe.

Conclusion

For the first time in European ethnobotany, this study presents data comparing the medicinal, food, and handicraft plant use practices of three different ethnic populations living in the same area. We have introduced a new analytical method (3-D adjusted use-value plots) for comparison of taxa across different populations living in the same environment, with access to the same taxa and other environmental resources. While we have documented the presence of some small distinct sets of TEK in these populations, this is overwhelmingly coupled by a substantial overlap in the use of local taxa, suggesting a hybrid character to the Kosovar TEK in this region, especially with regards to TEK in the food and handicraft domains. Such cross-cultural studies could be important for proposing culturally-sensitive ways of using plant natural resources in future sustainable economic development initiatives. Indeed, the success of any future development efforts involving natural resources must take into account local perceptions and attitudes concerning plants, which can vary greatly in some cases, among different ethnic groups living in the same territory. Examples of such initiatives could include a focus on eco-tourism and the small-scale trade of foods, aromatic plants, medicinal herbs, and handicraft products. Findings from studies such as this one should be implemented in projects aimed at fostering collaboration and reconciliation among the diverse ethnic and religious communities living in Kosovo.