Ethnoveterinary practices of Covasna County, Transylvania, Romania

Abstract

Background

Ethnoveterinary medicine is a topic of growing interest among ethnobiologists, and is integral to the agricultural practices of many ethnic groups across the globe. The ethnoveterinary pharmacopoeia is often composed of ingredients available in the local environment, and may include plants, animals and minerals, or combinations thereof, for use in treating various ailments in reared animals. The aim of this study was to survey the current day ethnoveterinary practices of ethnic Hungarian (Székely) settlements situated in the Erdővidék commune (Covasna County, Transylvania, Romania) and to compare them with earlier works on this topic in Romania and other European countries.

Methods

Data concerning ethnoveterinary practices were collected through semi-structured interviews and direct observation in 12 villages from 2010 to 2014. The cited plant species were collected, identified, dried and deposited in a herbarium. The use of other materials (e.g. animals, minerals and other substances) were also documented. Data were compared to earlier reports of ethnoveterinary knowledge in Transylvania and other European countries using various databases.

Results

In total, 26 wild and cultivated plants, 2 animals, and 17 other substances were documented to treat 11 ailments of cattle, horses, pigs, and sheep. The majority of applications were for the treatment of mastitis and skin ailments, while only a few data were reported for the treatment of cataracts, post-partum ailments and parasites. The traditional uses of Armoracia rusticana, Rumex spp., powdered sugar and glass were reported in each village. The use of some plant taxa, such as Allium sativum, Aristolochia clematitis, and Euphorbia amygdaloides was similar to earlier reports from other Transylvanian regions.

Conclusions

Although permanent veterinary and medical services are available in some of the villages, elderly people preferred the use of wild and cultivated plants, animals and other materials in ethnoveterinary medicine. Some traditional ethnoveterinary practices are no longer in use, but rather persist only in the memories of the eldest subset of the population. A decline in the vertical transmission of ethnoveterinary knowledge was evident and loss of practice is likely compounded by market availability of ready-made pharmaceuticals.

Background

The term “ethnoveterinary” refers to traditional therapeutics prepared by humans for the purposes of maintaining or restoring animal health. The ethnoveterinary pharmacopoeia often contains ingredients sourced from various locations within the environment, and may include plants, animals and minerals. Ethnoveterinary medicine dates back to ancient times and records of this practice can be found in various cultures across the globe. The study of ethnoveterinary medicine through a scientific lens began in the 1970s when it was defined by McCorkle [1], and this subject encompasses theory, taxonomy, diagnosis, practice, resource, and social organization of the health of livestock and pets. Traditional curative and preventive treatments of domesticate and semi-domesticate animals play a significant role in several regions of the world where livestock is a main source of livelihood for rural peoples [2-17].

In Romania, mostly in isolated settlements, several works have been published from the 1960s encompassing data on veterinary health problems of domesticated animals and their management [18-34]. Recently, declines in the transmission and implementation of traditional knowledge have been exacerbated by alteration and degradation of the environment, decreasing numbers of herds, and more expanded availability of officinal medicines and modern pharmaceuticals in several regions of the country. Nevertheless, several ethnic groups preserve the old traditions through home practices and oral transmission of knowledge.

Covasna County, located in the eastern part of Transylvania (situated in central Romania) is inhabited by a population of ethnic Hungarians known as the Székelys. This ethnic group has lived in the Carpathian Basin since the 9th century.

The flora of this area has been studied and published in valuable works [35-39]. Based on these descriptions, the region has a rich flora including relict and endemic species, as well as several medicinal plants used in traditional human and veterinary ethnomedicine [40,41]. In the summary of Rácz and Füzi [41], medicinal plants were listed with local Hungarian, Romanian and scientific names, used part, village and amount of collection (kg/year). Their work highlights the decreasing occurrence of some wild species due to over-harvesting.

Based on our previous ethnobotanical surveys [42,43], the aim of this study was to document and analyze the ethnoveterinary practices of 12 settlements of the Erdővidék commune of Covasna County, Romania, focusing mainly on plant uses, common ailments and homemade therapeutics for livestock (e.g., cattle, horses, sheep and pigs). As no comparative fieldwork has been conducted on veterinary care in Covasna, our collected data were evaluated and compared to records of animal health management practices in Romania and other European countries.

Methods

Study area

Covasna County is located at elevations ranging from 460 to 1,777 m.a.s.l. in eastern Transylvania, situated in central Romania (longitude: 25°28’-26°28’, latitude: 45°32’-46°18’) (Figure 1). The territory encompasses 3,705 km2. This region, which connects to the eastern part of the Carpathian Mountains, has been divided into four large zones: Baraolt Basin, Cîmpul Frumos, Superior Basin of Trei Scaune, Intorsura Buzăului and their surroundings [41]. Erdővidék (“Timberland”) is found in the Baraolt Basin at the north-western part of the county, with a total area of 600 km2. The name “Timberland” comes from the territory being covered with forestland. Average temperatures vary from 2–7°C and the region has a precipitation of 500–1,100 mm per year [44]. The rock-bed consists of vulcanian and sedimental elements. Due to the postvulcanian movement, about 150 mineral springs (“borvízforrás”) were discovered in the region, and are reputed for their medicinal effects. The geological relief of the region is diverse and comprises basins, mountains, valleys, plains and rivers (e.g. Olt, Kormos, Barót and Vargyas). The vegetation is also diverse and comprises beech, birch, hornbeam, oak, and pine forests, and alpine dwarf scrubland at different sea level. In total, the land use area of the county is divided into agriculture (48%), forestry (47.2%) and non-productive surfaces (4.8%) [41].

Figure 1.

Map of the study sites in Covasna County, Romania [58]. Image adapted from Google Earth (https://earth.google.com/).

A 2009 population survey reported the presence of 8,600 ethnic Hungarians (Székely) distributed across 23 villages in Erdővidék [44]. The following settlements were selected in our study: Aita Seacă (in Hungarian: Szárazajta), Băţanii Mari (Nagybacon), Băţanii Mici (Kisbacon), Biborţeni (Bibarcfalva), Bodoş (Bodos), Filia (Erdőfüle), Herculian (Magyarhermány), Ozunca-Băi (Uzonkafürdő), Racoşul de Sus (Felsőrákos), Tălişoara (Olasztelek), Valea Zălanului (Zalánpatak), and Vârghiş (Vargyas) (Table 1, Figure 1).

Table 1.

Study sites in Covasna County, Romania

Study area	Latitude	Longitude	Informants/Inhabitants [ 44 ]	Medical service	Veterinary practice	Pharmacy	Local features [ 63 ]
Aita Seacă	46° 02′ 17″	25° 41′ 23″	7/782	─*	─	─	saline fountain
Băţanii Mari	46° 05′ 22″	25° 41′ 29″	15/1936	+	+	─	mineral springs
Băţanii Mici	46° 06′ 13″	25° 41′ 42″	8/558	─*	─	─	mineral springs
Biborţeni	46° 05′ 37″	25° 39′ 22″	5/775	+	─	+	mineral springs
Bodos	46° 04′ 34″	25° 39′ 36″	9/446	─	─	─	charcoal-burner (“baksa”)
Filia	46° 08′ 38″	25° 37′ 17″	8/1240	+	─	+	iron forge, wooden headbords in the cemetery
Herculian	46° 08′ 02″	25° 42′ 35″	7/1168	+	─	+	mineral springs
Ozunca-Băi	46° 06′ 20″	25° 47′ 20″	3/54	─	─	─	mineral springs, medicinal bath
Racoşul de Sus	46° 04′ 45″	25° 32′ 53″	6/893	─ *	─	─	mineral springs
Tălişoara	46° 06′ 18″	25° 35′ 19″	5/743	─	─	─	mineral springs
Valea Zălanului	46° 00′ 40″	25° 45′ 22″	12/149	─	─	─	mineral springs
Vârghiş	46° 07′ 41″	25° 33′ 25″	14/1647	+	+	+	mineral springs

*Aita Seacă, Băţanii Mici, Racoşul de Sus: no permanent medical service; temporary medical service is available twice per week from from neighbouring communities.

Native people of the county speak Romanian and Hungarian, while in the selected villages the predominant language is Hungarian. The majority of villagers were born in the area and have lived there for most of their lifetime. Many are engaged in traditional agricultural and pastoral activities, working as farmers, ranchers and shepherds. Cattle, goats, horse, sheep and pigs are commonly raised in farms and around the home. They continue to play a key role in the production of dairy products and other traditional foods in the district, as has been the case for centuries. Although some of these villages have access to allopathic medical and veterinary care, as well as access to pharmaceutical drugs (Table 1), most people know of several home treatments for veterinary health problems using materials of various origins.

Field work and data collection

Field studies were carried out in the summers of 2010–2014. A total of 99 informants were asked with snow-ball technique in semi-structured interviews in Hungarian. Prior informed consent was obtained prior to conducting interviews and all researchers adhered to the ethical guidelines of the International Society of Ethnobiology [45]. During interviews, details concerning common ailments of domesticated animals, ingredients to traditional therapies (coming from plant, animal, and mineral origin) as well as local healing methods were recorded. Informants were followed into the local agro-ecosytem (e.g. fields, meadows, pastures, ploughlands and road-sides) surrounding villages in order to show and gather the cited wild and cultivated plants (Figure 2). Regarding the cited plant taxa, data concerning the following topics were collected: local name(s), frequency, habitat, time of collection, method of storage, used part, preparation, category and way of use, treated ailments and animals with local name(s), possible beliefs and rituals. Interviews were documented with tape recordings and photos were taken of plants and their habitat as well as the final therapeutic products. Voucher specimens of the cited plants were prepared and deposited at the Department of Pharmacognosy of the University of Pécs. Scientific nomenclature of for botanical taxa followed the systematic work of Tutin et al. [46].

Figure 2.

A shepherd works with his livestock in Ozunca-Băi.

Data analysis

A search for ethnoveterinary studies in some major databases was conducted and the data collected in this study was compared to earlier documented records in Transylvania and other European countries [3-5,7-17,19-22,25-31,33,34,47-57]. During comparison, similarity and differences of the records were taken into consideration.

Results and discussion

There are several small private herds widespread in the county. People keep fewer livestock nowadays than in the past, which has resulted in a significant decrease the number of cattle herds. In addition, the prevalence and increased use of agricultural mechanization has led to the reduction in the number of horses necessary for agricultural activities. Nevertheless, domesticated animals continue to play an important role in their everyday life in the region.

Among the 99 informants (63 women and 36 men) aged between 27 and 99 years, only 75 villagers reported that they currently raise cattle, horses, sheep or pigs and use ethnoveterinary treatments. While the other 24 informants do not currently rear livestock, they did in the past and where able to provide information regarding past ethnoveterinary practices used during their lifetime. Declines in the transmission of traditional ethnoveterinary knowledge are apparent, and is likely linked to emigration trends among young people seeking employment in larger cities and even foreign countries. In addition, many informants commented on a sense of greater faith in modern veterinary medicines prescribed by veterinarians than their own home remedies.

Altogether, 11 ailments reported to be most frequently treated via ethnoveterinary means (Tables 2,3,4). Among the cited ailments, “hotness” (stomach disorders), inflamed udder (mastitis), respiratory diseases (roaring = “kehesség”, infectious cold, cough, pneumonia), rumination disorders, wounds and skin injuries, diarrhea, and cataracts were listed, and local methods were also used in post-partum therapies and as anthelmintic, diuretic, antiparasitic, repellent and insecticide drugs. The majority of ethnoveterinary therapeutics were observed to treat the ailments of cattle (48 records), while 26 remedies were mentioned for horses, 15 for pigs, and 5 for sheep.

Table 2.

Plant taxa used in ethnoveterinary medicine of the selected villages

Used plants and voucher code	Family	Local name	Medicinal use	Status *	Number of citations
Achillea millefolium L. (EV-03)	Asteraceae	cickafarok, cickafarkkóró, pulykafű, egérfarkú virág, egérfarkúfű, egérfarkúfűvirág	herb as a tea for rumination [cattle]	W	3
Allium sativum L. (EV-22)	Amaryllidaceae	fokhagyma	bulb for anthelmintics [pig]	C	76
Aristolochia clematitis L. (EV-23)	Aristolochiaceae	farkasalma	leaf for wounds and skin injuries [cattle, horse, pig, sheep]	W	54
Armoracia rusticana G. Gaertn., B. Mey. & Schreb. (EV-11)	Brassicaceae	torma	root for respiratory disorders [horse]	C	71
Artemisia absinthium L. (EV-13)	Asteraceae	üröm, fehér üröm	herb for stomach heat, inflammation, and ache [cattle]	W	4
			for diarrhea [cattle, horse]		5
Calendula officinalis L. (EV-12)	Asteraceae	sárgavirág	flower as a cream for inflamed udder and mastitis [cattle]	C	4
Cucurbita pepo L. (EV-21)	Cucurbitaceae	tök	ground seed and seed oil for rumination [cattle]	C	3
			for anthelmintics [pig]		2
Daucus carota L. subsp. sativus Hoffm. (EV-04)	Apiaceae	murok	root for anthelmintics [horse]	C	4
Eryngium planum L. (EV-17)	Apiaceae	kék tilinkó, szamárcsipke, bojtorján	herb for inflamed udder and mastitis [cattle, horse]	W	7
Euphorbia amygdaloides L. (EV-01)	Euphorbiaceae	árió	herb for wounds and skin injuries [horse, pig]	W	6
Gentiana asclepiadea L. (EV-15)	Gentianaceae	gyertyagyökerű, gyertyagyükerű, sárgagyökér	root as a tea for stomach heat, inflammation, and ache [cattle]	W	4
Juglans regia L. (EV-16)	Juglandaceae	dió	leaf against flies as a rub [horse]	C	47
Juniperus communis L. (EV-14)	Cupressaceae	borsika	pseudofruit for respiratory disorders [horse]	W	6
Matricaria chamomilla L. (EV-10)	Asteraceae	kamillavirág	flower as a tea and wash for inflamed udder and mastitis [cattle]	W	11
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss (EV-09)	Apiaceae	ződ peterzselyem	leaf for rumination and after delivery [cattle]	C	9
			for diuretics [horse]		5
Plantago lanceolata L. (EV-25)	Plantaginaceae	kígyónyelvűfű hegyesútilapi, kígyónyelvű útifű, keskeny útifű lándzsás/keskeny útilapi	leaf for stomach heat, inflammation, and ache [cattle]	W	12
Polygonum minus Huds. (EV-02)	Polygonaceae	árió, veresszárúfű	herb as a washing for wounds and skin injuries [cattle, horse]	W	11
Potentilla anserina L. (EV-05)	Rosaceae	pipefű, lúdlábfű, lúdfű	leaf for diarrhea [cattle, horse, pig, sheep]	W	71
Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl. (EV-19)	Fagaceae	cserefa, cseremakk, cserháncs	nut for anthelmintics [pig, cattle]	W	4
			young bark as a tea for diarrhea [pig]		5
Quercus robur L. (EV-20)	Fagaceae	cserefa, cseremakk, cserháncs	nut for anthelmintics [pig, cattle]	W	4
			young bark as a tea for diarrhea [pig]		5
Rumex acetosella L. (EV-07)	Polygonaceae	lósósdi, lósóska	fruit for diarrhea [cattle, horse, pig, sheep]	W	75
Rumex obtusifolius L. (EV-06)	Polygonaceae	lósósdi, lósóska	fruit for diarrhea [cattle, horse, pig, sheep]	W	75
Salix alba L. (EV-24)	Salicaceae	fűzfa	leaf as fodder for stomach heat, ache, inflammation, and rumination, leafy branches and bark for rumination [cattle]	W	24
Secale cereale L. (EV-26)	Poaceae	rozs	fruit for anthelmintics [horse]	C	4
Symphytum officinale L. (EV-18)	Boraginaceae	fekete nadály, nadály, forrasztófű	root with bran for rumination [cattle]	W	5
Veratrum album L. (EV-08)	Melanthiaceae	ászpa, (fehér)zászpa	ground root as a rub against lice [horse]	W	5

^* Status: W = growing in wild habitat; C = cultivated in gardens.

Table 3.

Animals and other materials used in ethnoveterinary medicine of the study area

Animals	Medicinal use	Number of citations
Menyet (Mustela nivalis L.)	skin as an embrocation by itself or soaked in milk for mastitis [cattle]	29
Tetű (lices)	put into the urethra as a diuretic [horse]	3
Minerals and other substances		Number of citations
Bread	for rumination [cattle]	11
Clay	by itself or with salt as an embrocation for mastitis [cattle]	9
Cobweb	as an embrocation for skin injuries [horse]	3
“hótszén” (hot embers quenched in water)	for diarrhea [pig]	4
Glass (powdered)	blown into the eyes for cataract [cattle]	63
“szénamurha” (hay)	by itself or poured with urine for respiratory diseases [horse]	31
Injection	for respiratory diseases [horse]	3
Milk	for stomach heat, inflammation, ache [cattle], with Allium sativum as an anthelmintic [pig]	22
Oil	for stomach heat, inflammation, ache, rumination [cattle]	25
Salt	with water and vinegar as a wash or embrocation for mastitis [cattle]	7
Sugar (powdered)	blown into the eyes for cataract [cattle]	61
Turpentine	for respiratory diseases [horse]	2
Toast	for rumination [cattle]	9
Urine (human)	poured onto “szénamurha” for respiratory diseases [horse]	5
Vinegar	with water and salt as a wash or embrocation for mastitis [cattle]	18
Water	with vinegar and salt as a wash or embrocation for mastitis [cattle]	19
	poured beside the animals as a diuretic [horse]	7
	put into the shed to vaporize and induce urination [sheep]	6
Whey powder	anthelmintics [pig]	3

Table 4.

Ethnoveterinary practices in the study area compared with earlier records in Romania and some European countries

Diseases treated in ethnoveterinary practice	Ethnomedicinal treatments in the studied villages *		Earlier reported data in Romania		Data in other countries
	Used ingredients	Parts used and preparation	Used ingredients	Parts used and preparation	Used ingredients	Parts used and preparation
“hotness” (stomach heat, inflammation, ache)	Artemisia absinthium	herb1,4 [cattle]	Centaurium erythraea Rafn. (Gentianaceae)	herb as tea [pig] [47]	Achillea millefolium	flowers as infusion [53]
	Plantago lanceolata	leaf with the herb of A. absinthium 1 [cattle]	Levisticum officinale W.D.J. Koch (Apiaceae)	herb with rancid pork fat and bitter salt [48]	Matricaria chamomilla	flowers as infusion [calves] [51]
	Gentiana asclepiadea (Figure 3)	root with P. lanceolata as a tea12 [cattle]	Peucedanum oreoselinum Moench (Apiaceae)	herb as fodder [48]	Potentilla erecta (L.) Raeusch. (Rosaceae)	root as a tea [51]
	Salix alba	leaf as fodder12 [cattle]	Rumex crispus L. (Polygonaceae)	seed soaked in brandy for digestive problems [48]	milk	[7]
	milk	[cattle]5
	oil	[cattle]5,9
inflamed udder, mastitis	Calendula officinalis	flower as a cream2 [cattle, horse]	Brassica oleracea	sour leaf sap with human urine and dung of horse as a cream [47]	Brassica oleracea	roasted leaf as an embrocation [14]
	Eryngium planum	herb as a tea2 or washing12 [cattle, horse]	Calendula officinalis	flower as a cream [47]	Calamintha nepeta (L.) Savi (Lamiaceae)	leaf as a wash [15]
	Matricaria chamomilla	flower as a tea and wash12 [cattle]	Digitalis grandiflora Mill. (Plantaginaceae)	herb [26]	Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill. (Rosaceae)	cider vinegar of fruit with grain as fodder [11]
	Mustela nivalis	skin as an embrocation by itself2,6,9,11 or soaked in milk7 [cattle]	Malus sylvestris	vinegar of fruit on slate as impregnant, as an embrocation [cattle] [28,47]	Malva sylvestris	fresh leaf boiled and placed into sack using as a warm compress [15]
	cold water	as a wash1,2,6,12; with vinegar2,3 and salt7 as a wash2,7 or embrocation3 [cattle]	Mustela nivalis	as a rubber [49]	Olea europaea L. var. europaea (Oleaceae)	fruit as an ointment [16]
	clay	by itself or with salt as an embrocation7 [cattle]	Papaver somniferum L. (Papaveraceae)	seed as fodder for “reszfug” (= mastitis) [cattle, sheep] [26]	Sambucus nigra L. (Adoxaceae)	flower in fumigation [cattle] [16]
			Scrophularia nodosa L., részfugburján (Scrophulariaceae)	as a wash [26], mixed and cooked with salt and flour of Zea mays [19] dried and mixed into the flour as fodder [20]	Thymus vulgaris L. (Lamiaceae)	decoction of flowering stem as a wash [cattle, dog, sheep] [8]
			Picea abies (L.) H. Karst. (Pinaceae)	resin by itself, or with sour cream or tallow as an embrocation [Papp, unpublished data, Uz-valley]	Zea mays L. (Poaceae)	seed as a decoction in water and/or milk as a washing [cattle] [8]
			flour	with salt [26]
			water	with vinegar and salt as a washing and an embrocation [34]
			yellow mud	smeared onto the udder [cattle] [28]
respiratory diseases: roaring (“kehesség”), cold, cough, pneumonia	Armoracia rusticana	root as fodder1–12 [horse]	Allium cepa L. (Amaryllidaceae)	3 slices of the bulb grated and soaked in brandy, and mixed with saltpetre [29]	Allium cepa	bulb [16]
			Armoracia rusticana	root by itself [34,47], or with Avena sativa and urine for “száraz kehe” (dry cough) of horse [28,29], or in boiled milk with one spoon of honey, tallow, yeast, 7 slices of Allium sativum, and 9 fruits of Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr., Myrtaceae and Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry, Myrtaceae and Piper nigrum L., Pipeaceae [horse] [29], or with “büdöskővirág” (sulphur powder) [34]	Atropa belladonna L. (Solanaceae)	leaf [horse, dog] [8]
	Juniperus communis	pseudofruit as fodder7 [horse]	Avena sativa L., Poaceae	warmed by itself [28], or with urine, turpentine or “büdöskővirág” put into a sac and pull onto the head of horse as a steaming	Avena sativa	aerial part [horse] [10]
	injection	[horse] 1	Brassica oleracea	leaf sap dropped into the nostrils with dried and ground rat snake [horse] [19]	Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (Myrtaceae)	leaf [16]
	“szénamurha”	by itself1,5,12 or poured with urine7 [horse]	Datura stramonium L. (Solanaceae)	leaf [30]	Helleborus bocconei Ten. (Ranunculaceae)	petiole inserted into the ear or the neck for bronchitis [cattle] [13]
	turpentine	[horse]1	Helleborus purpurascens Waldst. & Kit. (Ranunculaceae)	leaf soaked in whey [19], or pulled into the breast [horse, cow], and into the ears [pig] [20,48,50] for dry and purulent cough [34]	Helleborus foetidus L. (Ranunculaceae) [cattle][12]	leaf inserted into the ears for bronchitis and pneumonia [cattle] [12]
			Hordeum vulgare L., H. vulgare convar. vulgare (Poaceae)	steaming with warmed seed [27,31], flour with honey and water [29]	Juniperus phoenicea L. (Cupressaceae)	leaf [cattle, sheep, dog, horse] [8]
			Juniperus communis	as a tea [horse] [25]	Mercurialis annua L. (Euphorbiaceae)	root as a tea [dog] [8]
			Levisticum officinale W.D.J. Koch (Apiaceae)	aerial part as a tea [21,48]	Origanum heracleoticum L. (Lamiaceae)	aerial part [4]
			Matricaria chamomilla	flower as a tea [pig] [47]	Sugar	on hot coal as a fumigant [4]
			Malus sylvestris	vinegar of the fruit as an embrocation [47]	tin	melted and inserted into the nose [horse] [10]
			Pulmonaria officinalis L. (Boraginaceae)	flower for pneumonia [pig] [19,20]
			Secale cereale L. (Poaceae)	flour for “fojókehe” for steaming [28,29]
			Triticum aestivum L. (Poaceae)	bran by itself [29]
			bear, goose and pork fat	for “csikókehe, fojtókehe” [horse] [29]
			salt	sprinkled onto the nose [33]
			sulphur powder	for “csikókehe, fojtókehe” [horse] [29]
			venesection	[33]
rumination	Achillea millefolium	herb as a tea [cattle]12	Allium sativum	bulb with bread [28,29], or with wine and egg [33]	Achillea millefolium	aerial part [cattle] [54,56]
	Cucurbita pepo	ground seed and seed oil [cattle]2	Angelica sylvestris L. (Apiaceae)	leaf [21]	Artemisia absinthium	aerial part as a tea [10]
	Petroselinum crispum	leaf [cattle]2	Armoracia rusticana	roasted fruit [29]	Pimpinella anisum L. (Apiaceae)	fruit as an elixir [10]
	Salix alba	leaf, leafy branches and bark [cattle]3	Artemisia dracunculus	herb as a tea [29]	Ruta chalepensis L. (Rutaceae)	aerial part as a tea [16]
	Symphytum officinale L.	root as fodder with bran [cattle]12	Avena sativa	roasted fruit [29]	Salix purpurea L., (Salicaceae)	branches [10]
	bread	[cattle]3,4	Beta vulgaris L. convar. crassa (Amaranthaceae)	grated root [21]	Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Schultz Bip. (Asteraceae)	aerial part as a tea [16]
	Toast	[cattle] 7	Cannabis sativa L. (Cannabaceae)	seed in oil [29]	Beer	[cattle] [10]
	Oil	[cattle] 7	Carum carvi L. (Apiaceae)	fruit [21]	Buttermilk	[cattle] [10]
			Cucurbita maxima Duchesne (Cucurbitaceae)	seed with bran [22]	soda (sodium bicarbonate)	[cattle] [10]
			Cucurbita pepo	ground seed with milk [28,30]	whey	[cattle] [10]
			Daucus carota ssp. sativus Hoffm.	root [21,47]
			Euonymus europaeus L. (Celastraceae)	fruit [21]
			Equisetum sylvaticum L. (Equisetaceae)	herb [27,31]
			Fragaria vesca L. (Rosaceae)	fruit [30] or root as a tea [28]
			Helianthus annuus L. (Asteraceae)	pressed seed coat [21,47]
			Iris germanica L. (Iridaceae)	root [20]
			Juniperus communis	pseudofruit with milk, roasted on bread [28], or woth the leaf of Salix alba, rusty fat, oil and bulb of Allium cepa [30,47]
			Levisticum officinale W.D.J. Koch (Apiaceae)	herb [21]
			Linum usitatissimum L. (Linaceae)	seed as a tea [21,24,31,34]
			L. usitatissimum convar. Transitorium (Linaceae)	ground seed with the seed of Helianthus annuus [29]
			Malus domestica Borkh.	vinegar with yeast and Artemisia dracunculus [29]
			Matricaria chamomilla	flower as a tea [20]
			Petroselinum crispum	leaf with bran and oil [22]
			Peucedanum oreoselinum Moench (Apiaceae)	herb [21]
			Prunus domestica L. ssp. Rotunda (Rosaceae)	leafy branches [28]
			Raphanus sativus L. cv. niger f. subglobosa (Brassicaceae)	tuber [21,24,31,34], or with cooking soda [22]
			Rumex stenophyllus Ledeb.(Polygonaceae)	herb [31]
			Rubus idaeus L. convar. hortensis provar. inermis (Rosaceae)	fruit as a syrup [29]
			Sambucus nigra	lower layer of the bark [30]
			Salix alba	leafy branches [28,30]
			Salix spp.	leafy branches [31]
			Satureja hortensis L. (Lamiaceae)	herb [28]
			Sisymbrium strictissimum L. (Brassicaceae)	root [28]
			Triticum aestivum	fruit [29]
			Zea mays	stem [29]
			copper sulphate	[34]
			white wine	with egg [sheep] [33]
wounds, skin injuries	Aristolochia clematitis	leaf as an embrocation [cattle, horse, pig, sheep]1,2,4,6–11	Achillea millefolium	herb cut and mixed with rancid fat [25]	Acer pseudoplatanus L. (Sapindaceae)	decoction of the bark as a wash [9]
	Eryngium planum	herb as a tea [cattle, horse]2	Aristolochia clematitis	decoction of the stem and leaf as a wash, or the leaf as an embrocation [21,28,30]	Althaea officinalis L. (Malvaceae)	root [9]
	Euphorbia amygdaloides	herb as a tea [horse, pig]12	Betula pendula Roth. (Betulaceae)	leaf for bruised skin (“pecsendzsia, pokolszökés”) as a tea [50]	Agave americana L. (Asparagaceae)	leaf [9]
	Polygonum minus	as a washing [cattle, horse]10	Chelidonium majus L. (Papaveraceae)	leaf sap [47]	Artemisia absinthium	aerial part with honey [horse] [10]
	cobweb	as an embrocation [horse]5	Crataegus monogyna Jacq. (Rosaceae)	fruit or leafy branches as a decoction [ox] [25]	Bovista dermoxantha Pers. (Lycoperdaceae)	old fruiting body [horse] [10]
			Daphne mezereum L. (Thymelaeaceae)	bark [sheep] [20], flower as an infusion [horse] [Papp, unpublished data, Uz-valley]	Cardopatum corymbosum (L.) Pers. (Asteraceae)	leaf [sheep,cattle, dog] [8]
			Euphorbia amygdaloides (Euphorbiaceae)	ground herb ss an embrocation [26], or as a wash ([28,30,47] Papp, unpublished data, Uz-valley)	Carpinus orientalis Mill. (Betulaceaeae)	bark as a decoction [3]
			Euphorbia cyparissias (Euphorbiaceae)	herb as a wash [28,30]	Centaurea alba L. ssp. tartesiana Talavera (Asteraceae)	leaf [horse] [8]
			Euphorbia palustris L. (Euphorbiaceae)	herb as a wash [28,30]	Daphne gnidium L. (Thymelaeaceae)	stem as a liniment [9]
			Polygonum lapathifolium L. (Polygonaceae)	leaf as an embrocation [26]	Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich. (Cucurbitaceae)	fruit [4]
			Symphytum officinale	root [20]	Euphorbia hirsuta L. (Euphorbiaceae)	[sheep, cattle, horse, dog] [51]
			Veronica beccabunga L. (Plantaginaceae)	herb as a wash [19]	Gentiana lutea L. (Gentianaceae)	root as a bath [9]
			cobweb	[19]	Geranium rotundifolium L. (Geraniaceae)	aerial part [9]
			hot fat	[19]	Hypericum perforatum	aerial part [3,8,51]
			lime	[19]	Juniperus oxycedrus L. (Cupressaceae)	pseudofruit as an ointment [9]
			urine	[19]	Lilium pyrenaicum Gouan (Liliaceae)	bulb as a liniment and a poultice [9]
					Malva neglecta Wallr. (Malvaceae)	aerial part [3], leaf [51]
					Marrubium vulgare L. (Lamiaceae)	aerial part [sheep, cattle] [8]
					Nicotiana tabacum L. (Solanaceae)	leaf [sheep] [9]
					Peucedanum ostruthium (L.) W.D.J.Koch (Apiaceae)	root as an ointment and bath [51]
					Prunus domestica	fruit by itself [8], or in fermented and distilled form [7]
					Pulicaria odora Rchb. (Asteraceae)	flowering top in alcohol or as a decoction [cattle, sheep, dog, horse] [8]
					Quercus ilex L. ssp. ilex, Q. petraea (Matt.) Liebl. (Fagaceae)	bark as a bath [9]
					Ruta chalepensis	aerial part as an embrocation and liniment [9]
					Sambucus nigra	leaf as a decoction [14]
					Symphytum officinale	root as an ointment and bath [51]
					Valeriana officinalis L. (Caprifoliaceae)	root or leaf in mules [14]
					fat	fox fat for pimples [horse], hen fat for sores [oxen] [2]
					Sulphur	in water for burns [10]
					Cobweb	[7]
anthelmintics	Allium sativum	bulb of by itself1,3–6,8–12 or soaked in milk [pig]2,12	Allium sativum	bulb by itself [28,30,34] or in milk [34]	Allium sativum	bulb mixed with oil [dog] [8,14], or in water [3]
	Cucurbita pepo	seed [pig]3,12	Armoracia rusticana	root with the pseudofruit of Juniperus communis [30]	Artemisia absinthum	leaf as a decoction [dog] [8]
	Daucus carota ssp. sativus	root [horse]7	Avena sativa	roated fruit [28]	Artemisia herba-alba Asso (Asteraceae)	aerial part [sheep] [8]
	Quercus petraea, Q. robur	nut [pig, cattle]3	Cannabis sativa	seed with lime-water, or with Allium cepa, goose fat and milk [28]	Chelidonium majus L. (Papaveraceae)	leaf in water [3]
	Secale cereale	fruit as fodder [horse]7	Cucurbita pepo	seed with the seed of Ricinus communis L., (Euphorbiaceae)	Chenopodium ambrosioides L. (Amaranthaceae)	aerial part [3,16]
	whey powder	[pig]2	Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott, (Dryopteridaceae)	dried rhizome [poultry] [29,41]	Daphne gnidium	bark [swine, cattle, sheep, dog, horse] [8]
			Hordeum vulgare	roasted seed [27,29,31]	Hypericum maculatum Crantz (Hypericaceae)	aerial part as a tea [7]
			Phaseolus vulgaris L. Fabaceae	fruit as a decoction without salt [29]	Mentha suaveolens Ehrh.(Lamiaceae)	aerial part as a tea [16]
			Quercus petraea, Q. robur	ground nut or bark as a tea [28]	Ruta chalepensis	aerial part [3,16]
			Sambucus nigra	bar kin milk [25,30]	Scabiosa columbaria L. (Caprifoliaceae)	aerial part as a tea [16]
			Secale cereale	fruit or flour [30]	Simethis mattiazzi (Vand.) Sacc. (Xanthorrhoeaceae)	root as a decoction [3]
			Triticum aestivum	bran with butter, fat, salt and soap as a decoction [29]	Teucrium scorodonia L. (Lamiaceae)	aerial part [3,16]
			bran	with ash [33]
			dove dung	dried dung mixed into the fodder [34]
			petroleum	[33]
diarrhea	Artemisia absinthium	herb as a tea [cattle, horse]3	Achillea collina (Becker ex Rchb. f.) Heimerl, A. millefolium (Asteraceae)	aerial part as a tea [22,26]	Achillea millefolium	aerial part [calf] [10]
	Potentilla anserina	leaf as a tea [cattle, horse, pig, sheep]1,2,4–6,9–12	Alchemilla vulgaris L. (Rosaceae)	aerial part as a tea [41]	Achillea ptarmica L. ssp. pyrenaica (Sibth. ex Godr.)	flower with the flower of Sambucus nigra as a tea [16]
	Rumex acetosella, R. obtusifolius, Rumex spp.	fruit as a tea [cattle, horse, pig, sheep]1–12	Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. (Betulaceae)	bark as a decoction [48]	Agrimonia eupatoria L. (Rosaceae)	aerial part as a tea [16]
	Quercus petraea, Q. robur	bark as tea [pig]3	Artemisia absinthium	aerial part as a tea [28]	Brassica oleracea ssp. oleracea	aerial part [16]
	“hótszén”	as fodder [pig]2	Aesculus hippocastanum L. (Sapindaceae)	seed [cattle, pig] [28,29,34]	Ceratonia siliqua L. (Fabaceae)	grain [51]
			Chelidonium majus	aerial part as a tea [26]	Chelidonium majus	leaf as a tea [3]
			Equisetum arvense L. (Equisetaceae)	aerial part as a tea [48]	Citrus limon (L.) Burm. (Rutaceae)	epicarp of the fruit with the seed of Oryza sativa L. (Poaceae) as a soup [51]
			Fagus sylvatica L. (Fagaceae)	bark as a decoction [cattle] [34,47]	Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. (Rosaceae)	leaf as a tea [16]
			Hordeum vulgare	roasted seed [pig, horse] [22,33], or with salty flour with the seed of Secale cereale [29]	Daphne gnidium	stem [16]
			Juniperus communis	pseudofruit as a tea [cattle] [25]	Foeniculum vulgare Miller (Apiaceae)	aerial part [16]
			Quercus cerris L.	ground bark as a tea [47]	Hypericum maculatum	aerial part as a tea [7]
			Quercus petraea	ground bark in fodder [22]	Lythrum salicaria L. (Lythraceae)	aerial part [16]
			Rumex acetosa L., R. confertus Willd., R. crispus	seed as a decoction [19,20,22,28,30,48]	Phlomis purpurea L. (Lamiaceae)	aerial part [sheep, horse, dog] [8]
			Rumex acetosella	seed as a decoction [47]	Quercus rubra L. (Fagaceae)	branch [rabbit] [8]
			Rumex patientia L., R. stenophyllus Ledeb.	[cattle, horse, pig] [31]	Polygonum aviculare L. (Polygonaceae)	aerial part as a tea [8]
			Ruta graveolens L. (Rutaceae)	aerial part as a tea [cattle] [29]	Potentilla reptans L. (Rosaceae)	aerial part as a tea [rabbit] [8]
			Sambucus racemosa L. (Adoxaceae)	fruit as a tea [48]	Rosmarinus officinalis L.	aerial part as a tea [16]
			Sisymbrium strictissimum L. (Brassicaceae)	root as a decoction [cattle] [30]	Rumex acetosella	aerial part [cattle] [5]
			Solanum tuberosum L. (Solanaceae)	tuber with the leaf of Robinia pseudoacacia L. (Fabacaeae) [48]	Rumex sp.	boiled seeds in water [pig] [64]
			Sorbus domestica L. (Rosaceae)	bark as a decoction [20]	Thymus serpyllum L. ssp. nervosus (Willk.) Nyman (Lamiaceae)	aerial part as a tea [16]
			Triticum aestivum	bran by itself [calf] [21]	Vaccinium myrtillus L. (Ericaceae)	raw or dried fruit [51]
			ash	[horse] [33]	Verbascum sinuatum L. (Scrophulariaceae)	flower as a tea [16]
			salt	[sheep] [48]
			vinegar	[sheep] [48]
diuretics	Petroselinum crispum	leaf [horse]3	Allium cepa	bulb as a decoction [cattle, horse] [34], or into the urethra [horse] [19-21]	Daphne laureola L.	aerial part [3]
	ammonia	to smell in the stable [horse]5,6	Capsicum annuum convar. longum, (Solanaceae)	fruit [29]	Herniaria hirsuta L. ssp. cinerea (DC.) Coutinho (Caryophyllaceae)	aerial part [16]
	lice	put into the urethra [horse]5	Fragaria vesca L. (Rosaceae)	root as a tea [20]	Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (L.) Hayek, (Brassicaceae)	as a decoction [pig] [8]
	water	poured beside the animals [horse]7, or put into the shed to vaporize and induce urination [sheep]7; animals guided to the edge of rivers to hear the sound of water [horse]5	Narcissus stellaris Haw. (Amaryllidaceae)	flower [cattle] [30]	Simethis mattiazzi (Vand.) Sacc. (Xanthorrhoeaceae)	root [3]
			Petroselinum crispum	leaf or root with saltpeter as a decoction [cattle, horse] [19-21,34]	Zea mays	stigma as a decoction [3]
			Peucedanum sp. (Apiaceae)	boiled herb as fodder [sheep] [48]
			Polygonum bistorta L. (Polygonacaeae)	rhizome [26]
			Sambucus nigra	flower as a decoction [cattle] [33]
			Urtica dioica L. (Urticaceae)	root as a tea [19]
cataract	powdered sugar	blown into the eyes [cattle]1–12	Anagallis arvensis L. ssp. phoenicea Vollmann (Primulaceae)	dried and ground petals mixed with powdered sugar [22]
	powdered glass	blown into the eyes [cattle]1–12	Capsicum annuum	dried and ground pungent fruit [cattle] [21,48]
			Malus sylvestris	vinegar of the fruit as an embrocation [47]
			Matricaria chamomilla	tea of the flower as a wash [22]
			Nicotiana tabacum	ground leaf spit with saliva into the eyes [47]
			Tilia cordata Mill. (Malvaceae)	yellow part under the bark with milk as an embrocation [47]
			“szentgyörgybéka” (Bombina variegata L., Bombinatoridae)	put into the eyes [19,49]
			ash	blown into the eyes [cattle] [49]
			salt	blown into the eyes [horse] [19,33]
			sugar	blown into the eyes [cattle] [19,33,49]
			powdered glass	blown into the eyes [horse] [19,33]
			powdered porcelain	blown into the eyes [33]
after delivery	Petroselinum crispum	leaf to promote expulsion of the placenta as fodder [cattle]3	Hordeum vulgare convar. vulgare	roasted seed as fodder [cattle] [29]
antiparasitic, repellent, and insecticide effect; for scab	Juglans regia	leaf against flies as a rub [horse]6	Aconitum moldavicum Hacq. (Ranunculaceae)	root against lice and ticks [26]	Capsicum annuum	fruit in oil [16]
	Veratrum album	ground root as a rub against lice, flies and mosquitos [horse]6	Artemisia absinthium	aerial part strewed against lice, spray with lime in the chicken pen [33]	Cestrum parqui L 'Hér. (Solanceae)	herb [52]
			Ballota nigra L. (Lamiaceae)	aerial part put under hen against lice [31]	Juglans regia	leaf against flies as a decoction [horse] [16]
			Brassica oleracea, B. oleracea var. capitata	sour sap of the leaf against scab [sheep] [19,20], salty leaf sap against ox warble fly [28] and lice [29]	Laurus nobilis L. (Lauraceae)	fruits in olive oil [52]
			Cucurbita pepo	runner against flies as a rub [29]	Matricaria chamomilla	flowering top against fleas [cattle, sheep, dog] [8]
			Dryopteris filix-mas	leaf as bed of straw [pig] [25]	Olea europaea var. europaea	seed oil as a repellent poultice [16]
			Euonymus europaeus L. (Celastraceae)	dried and ground fruit against lice [cattle, hen, pig] [28,29]	Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn (Dennstaedtiaceae)	leaf against fleas [16]
			Helianthus annuus	seed oil smeared onto the animals against lice [cattle, hen, pig] [28,29]	Ruta chalepensis	aerial part against flies as a rub [horse] [8], and against fleas [16]
			Helleborus purpurascens	root as a decoction against scab [30]	Sonchus oleraceus	aerial part in oil and as a poultice against flies [horse, cattle] [14], leaf and root as a decoction against lices, and as a bath against scabs [17], root as a decoction and wash against lice and scabs [sheep] [9]
			Juglans regia	leaf against flies as a rub [29]	Urginea maritima (L.) Baker (Asparagaceae)	bulb in oil [16], or placed in shed as a repellent [cattle] [13]
			Nicotiana tabacum	leaf as a wash against lice, scabs and moths [20,33]	Veratrum album	aerial part as a tea [sheep] [16], root [calves] [55]
			Persica vulgaris Mill. (Rosaceae)	sap of the ground leaf smeared onto the body against flies [pig] [33]
			Polygonum lapathifolium	leaf as a wash against lice, scabs and moths [26,30]
			Rumex crispus	root against scab as a decoction [26]
			Tussilago farfara L. (Asteraceae)	leaf against scab as a decoction [26]
			Veratrum album	root dried and smeared onto the hair [19,20,22,25,33,41,48], or boiled with the leaf sap of Brassica oleracea against lice [sheep, cattle], or with goose fat [hen] [30]
			cart-grease	as a rub against lice [34]
			copper sulphate	in water with vinegar as a wash [sheep] [34]
			fat	rancid fat against lice [hen], or with mercury [34]
			lye-ashes	smeared onto the body [pig, sheep] [33]
			petroleum	smeared onto the body [pig, sheep] [33]
			potash-lye	in water as a bath [poultry] [33]

*Number superscipts refere to the specific villages studied in Covasna: Biborţeni¹, Bodoş ² , Filia³, Racoşul de Sus⁴, Băţanii Mici⁵, Băţanii Mari⁶, Herculian⁷, Tălişoara⁸, Aita Seacă⁹, Ozunca-Băi¹⁰, Vârghiş¹¹, Valea Zălanului¹². Full botanical citations for plants documented in this study are provided in Table 2.

A total of 45 ingredients were documented in this survey, including 26 plant taxa (18 wild and 8 cultivated species; 57.8%), 2 animals (4.4%), and 17 animal-based substances, minerals or materials of other source (37.8%). Considering the frequency of citations, the use of Allium sativum, Aristolochia clematitis, Armoracia rusticana, Potentilla anserina, Rumex acetosella, and R. obtusifolius, as well as Mustela nivalis, “szénamurha”, powdered glass, sugar and water showed the highest prevalence (Tables 2 and 3).

The highest number of remedies involving plants were for the treatment of diarrhea (7 taxa), as anthelmintics (6), for rumination (5), stomach problems and wounds (4), while a few taxa were cited for mastitis (3), respiratory ailments and as a repellent drug (2) (Table 2). Local names of plants varied from 1 to 6 per species. Some names correspond with the official Hungarian terminology using in single form or with vernacular names together (vernacular names are listed in italics in Table 2).

Regarding the plant parts used, the whole herb was the most frequently used part of the cited taxa (21.9%) followed by leaf and fruit (18.6% each), root (15.6%), bark (9.4%), flower (6.3%), pseudofruit, seed and bulb (3.2% each) (Table 4). Herbal remedies were applied internally and externally as a single tea (40%) or tea mixture (2.8%), in raw form as fodder (37.2%), in washes (8.6%), rubbing agents (5.7%), creams and liniments (2.8% each). Plants containing toxic compounds (e.g. Aristolochia clematitis, Veratrum album) are only reported for external use. In the case of Eryngium planum and Matricaria chamomilla, two types of preparation were mentioned, similarly to the application of salt, vinegar and water.

Preparations based on other substances are commonly used with other materials (73.7%), with plants (5.3%), or in single form (21%) as a liniment, wash or fodder (Table 4). Although modern veterinary practice is expensive and not as easily available as homemade remedies, the use of injectable medicaments was also noted in the region (Table 3).

Comparing data recorded in the selected 12 villages, the use of Armoracia rusticana for respiratory illness in horses, Rumex spp. for diarrhea, and the application of sugar and glass powders for cataracts in cattle proved to be consistent and a commonly used treatment in each community surveyed (Table 4). Intracultural variance was documented in the frequency of some records, such as in the use of Allium sativum as an anthelmintic drug (in 10 villages), Aristolochia clematitis for wounds and Potentilla anserina against diarrhea (in 9 villages). There were also some interesting cases of unique ethnoveterinary practices that were restricted to one village each. For example, Gentiana asclepiadea (Figure 3) was used with milk for stomach disorders; clay or water with salt for mastitis; Juniperus communis, “szénamurha” with urine and turpentine for respiratory ailments; cooking oil, Cucurbita pepo and Petroselinum crispum to improve rumination; the use of Eryngium planum and Euphorbia amygdaloides for wounds; Quercus species for diarrhea and as an anthelmintic drug used similarly to whey powder; “hótszén” against diarrhea; and Petroselinum crispum to dispel the placenta in cattle after delivery.

Figure 3.

Root of Gentiana asclepiadea L.

Some similarities were found between the indications reported earlier in other Transylvanian regions and other countries, and the present uses of home remedies for mastitis, skin problems, diarrhea, cataract, and in anthelmintic and diuretic drugs (Table 4).

Compared to the earlier records in Transylvania, we found 18 similar uses of the following (Table 4, Figure 4): Calendula officinalis flowers, as well as water with vinegar and salt to treat mastitis; Armoracia rusticana for respiratory ailments in Racu [34] and Lueta [47]; Aristolochia clematitis for external injuries in Ţara Călatei [21] and Homoród; and Euphorbia amygdaloides in Homoród [28,30] and Ghimeş [26]. Allium sativum has been documented in Romania for its widespread use as a vermifuge [29,34], similar to reports from Spain [3], Algeria [8], and Italy [14]. Similar to our findings, Quercus spp. fruits have been reported as vermifuges in Homoród [28]. The anti-diarrheal effect of Q. rubra has been observed in Morocco [8], and similar use of Q. ilex ssp. ilex have been reported in Catalonia [16], corresponding to our data on Quercus petraea and Q. robur. Furthermore, the use of Artemisia absinthium has been reported for diarrhea in Homoród [28], while for Rumex species (which are well-known for their anti-diarrheal effects), the use of R. acetosella has also been described in Lueta [47] and Croatia [5]. In contrast to the documented use of Petroselinum crispum leaves in the present work, the root has been recorded as a diuretic drug in Racu [34], Ţara Călatei [21], and Ghimeş [19,20].

Figure 4.

Overlaps of ethnoveterinary data involving plant- and animal-based materials and other substances used in Covasna County, Pyrenees, Italian and Albanian Alps [3,7,10,11,16,53-57,59-62].

For respiratory disorders, the cones of Juniperus communis were mentioned as a fodder in our survey, but as a tea in Moldova [25], while in Algeria the leaf of J. phoenicea has been documented [8]. The use of Salix alba has been similarly reported for rumination in Homoród [28,30], while S. purpurea has been documented in Albania [10]. In addition to the treatment of rumination disorders, Petroselinum crispum is used by itself in Covasna, but with bran in Trei Scaune [22]. In contrast to the use of Polygonum minus, the leaf of P. lapathifolium has been observed for wounds in Ghimeş [26]. The seed of Cucurbita pepo has been used for skin problems by itself in Covasna, but with castor oil in Harghita County [29].

Veratrum album root has been reported as a widespread repellent and antiparasitic drug in Covasna [41], Ghimeş [19], Ţara Călatei [21,48], Trei Scaune [22], Moldova [25,33], and Lueta [47]. Juglans regia leaves have also been reported for their use as a repellent in Harghita County [29]. Similar use of sugar and powdered glass has been observed for cataract in Ghimeş [19], Ţrei Scaune [22], and Moldova [33].

Comparison is represented between our data and those of the mountain regions of Pyrenees, Italian and Albanian Alps, which covers the overlap of each ingredient (Figure 4). Similar to our records, the use of Achillea millefolium was mentioned for rumination and digestive disorders in the Lombardy [54] and Albanian Alps [56]. As anti-lice treatment, the root of Veratrum album was mentioned in Italy [55], and the aerial part of the plant in Catalonia [16]. Similar to our records, Allium sativum was documented as vermifuge in Galicia [3], Rumex species against diarrhea [64], and haemostatic use of cobweb and milk for intestinal aches in the Albanian Alps [7].

Rituals and beliefs connected to local uses were sporadically mentioned in the region. The skin of Mustela nivalis was reported against udder inflammation caused by weasel bites, similarly to data recorded in Uz-valley [49]. To stimulate urination, animals should hear the sound of rippling stream or poured water (Table 4).

Some of the present uses were not found in earlier Transylvanian reports nor in databases of other countries, such as remedies for “hotness” and for applications following delivery (e.g. for stimulating expulsion of the placenta). In addition, several practices are no longer used today, but rather survive only in the memory of the villagers, such as the use of cobweb for wounds, “hótszén” for diarrhea, and the placement of lice into the urethra as a diuretic.

Conclusions

From an ethnoveterinary point of view, Covasna has proven to be one of the most interesting regions of Romania due to the diversity of knowledge concerning plant-, animal- and other substances-derived remedies. These traditions are practiced mostly by the more elderly subset of the population, forming a significant part of the local animal healthcare and cultural heritage of the region. Although some data survive only as memories from the past, people are proud of their traditional knowledge, which is still maintained in rural areas. In addition, holders of this knowledge have an important role as natural resource managers.

Although ethnoveterinary service is cheaper and easily available compared to modern veterinary medicine and pharmaceuticals, factors such as the size and prevalence of herds, as well as the frequency of citation of traditional ethnoveterinary practices are diminished in comparison to earlier records of Romania, and other European countries. This change has also been influenced by shifting socio-cultural factors concerning local economies and emigration patterns, as well as less frequent opportunities for the vertical transmission of traditional knowledge. Future studies to support our further understanding of the role that ethnoveterinary practices can play in managing animal health are certainly merited. Such studies are useful not only for the purposes of folkloric preservation, but can also form a foundation on which to support sustainable development efforts aimed at promoting environmentally friendly, cost-effective means of maintaining livestock health.