Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants used by Maonan people in China

Abstract

Background

This paper is based on an ethnobotanical investigation that focused on the traditional medicinal plants used by local Maonan people to treat human diseases in Maonan concentration regions. The Maonan people have relied on traditional medicine since ancient times, especially medicinal plants. The aim of this study is to document medicinal plants used by the Maonans and to report the status of medicinal plants and associated traditional knowledge.

Methods

Ethnobotanical data were collected from June 2012 to September 2014 in Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County, northern Guangxi, southwest China. In total, 118 knowledgeable informants were interviewed. Following statistically sampling method, eighteen villages from 5 townships were selected to conduct field investigations. Information was collected through the approache of participatory observation, semi-structured interviews, ranking exercises, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and participatory rural appraisals.

Results

A total of 368 medicinal plant species were investigated and documented together with their medicinal uses by the Maonans, most of which were obtained from the wild ecosystems. The plants were used to treat 95 human diseases. Grinding was a widely used method to prepare traditional herbal medicines. There were significant relationships between gender and age, and between gender and informants’ knowledge of medicinal plant use. Deforestation for agricultural purposes was identified as the most destructive factor of medicinal plants, followed by drought and over-harvest.

Conclusions

The species diversity of medicinal plants used by the Maonans in the study area was very rich. Medicinal plants played a significant role in healing various human disorders in the Maonan communities. However, the conflicts between traditional inheriting system and recent socio-economic changes (and other factors) resulted in the reduction or loss of both medicinal plants and associated indigenous knowledge. Thus, conservation efforts and policies, and innovation of inheriting system are necessary for protecting the medicinal plants and associated indigenous knowledge. Awareness is also needed to be raised among local Maonans focusing on sustainable utilization and management of both medicinal plants and traditional knowledge.

Background

Traditional medicine is used to maintain people’s health, as well as to prevent, diagnose, improve or treat physical and mental illnesses all over the world [1,2]. Medicinal plants are believed to be with healing powers, and people have used them for many centuries. Aimed to modern drug discovery, traditional medicinal plants have been studied and developed which is followed the ethnobotanical lead of indigenous cures used by traditional medical systems [3-5]. Traditional medicinal knowledge, especially using medicinal plants in the developing countries, has been in existence and use, and has been a part of therapeutic practices [6]. Therefore, the investigation of plants and their uses (especially medicinal purposes) is one of the most primary human concerns and has been practiced in the world [7-12].

The traditional use of medicinal plants in China is widely accepted. The population of 55 minorities is 11.2 millions occupying 8% of China’s population, and these minorities distribute in 65% of the country’s territory. Each minority has its own medicinal characteristic, and has various experiences of medicinal knowledge [13]. Traditional medicinal plants play an important role of protecting people’s lives and health in minority regions, especially in remote and poor area [14,15]. Because of unique natural conditions and customs in the ethnic minority areas, long-term practices of using medicinal plants have formed various systems of treating diseases [16-18]. For example, Tibetan medicine is famous for treating digestive disorders, rheumatic diseases and wounds [19,20]. The Mongolians have a long history of horse riding, and their medicine is effective to deal with bone fracture and brain concussion. Yao medicine has special advantages in cancers and skin problems [21].

North Guangxi has been recognized as a rich biodiversity and world-famous karst area. With the elevation between 700–1500 m, it is obviously affected by plateau terrain and subtropical monsoon climate. Thus, the temperature difference of four seasons is small but the vertical climate changes significantly. There are more than 10 ethnic groups living in north Guangxi and formed colorful ethnic characteristic. As one of the indigenous minorities, Maonan is mainly living in Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, southwest China. The exceptional altitudinal range, topography and climatic variability in this region have fostered a center of plant species endemism. Here the majority of Maonan people rely on medicinal plants for self-medication. The Maonan medicine has made a great contribution to protect the health of local people. This is due to free access to medicinal herbs, cultural traditions and high cost of hospital treatments in the town nearby. Local people widely utilize endemic species, and they have developed their own traditional medicinal knowledge. Without writing language, Maonan people pass on their indigenous knowledge from generation to generation orally. Nowadays, the Maonan children spend most of their time in schools, where they are taught in Han language. This decreases their chances to learn about the uses of the medicinal plants from the old people. Therefore, important information about medicinal plants is easily lost in the transfer process of indigenous knowledge. With the impact of increasing modern health facilities and modern civilization in Maonan area, indigenous knowledge is depleting rapidly. Although a number of ethnobotanical documentations about several ethnic groups have been published during the past decades in China, few field ethnobotanical studies have been conducted in Maonan society. It is therefore necessary to carry out a survey to document the medicinal plants and associated indigenous knowledge in Maonan region.

Thus, the purposes of the present work were as follows: (i) to document and analyze the knowledge and use of medicinal plants by Maonan people at the study area; (ii) to circulate the results within the scientific community in order to open a door for research in other disciplines; (iii) to document the medicinal plants that could be valuable in future’s phytochemical and pharmacological discoveries, and (iv) to contribute to the knowledge and conservational possibilities of plant biodiversity, bearing in mind that biological diversity is also related to the use and applications of natural resources.

Materials and methods

Study area and the people

The study area covered 18 villages of Huanjiang County (the only Maonan autonomous County in China) in the northern part of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, southwest China (Figure 1). The villages are located in 5 townships, which were selected based on Maonan traditional settlements, namely: Chengnan, Chengbei, Luoyang, Shuiyuan, Shangnan, Youdong, Mulun, Xia’nan, Pochuan, Fengyi, Zhongnan, Tangba, Xiatang, Yuhuan, Caimen, Guzhou, Xiyuan, and Jingyang villages. Huanjiang County is situated in the subtropical zone, located between 24°83′ and 25°06′ east longitude and between 107°92′ and 108°26′ north latitude, with the annual average temperature of 20°C and annual rain fall of 1500 mm. The vegetation of the county belongs to the subtropical evergreen montane forest. It is humid in summer and relatively dry in winter. The most Maonan villages are seated on the small strips of flat land or slopes in the rocky mountainous area at 500–1000 meters above sea level. The sinkholes and underground caverns in the area have well developed because of karst landform. Despite abundant rainfall, there are no big rivers but only a small number of streams. Water shortage has been a major obstacle to economic and social development in the Maonan areas.

Figure 1.

Sketch map of the study area.

The Maonan minority, with a total population of about 107,200, is one of the 55 officially recognized ethnic groups in China. With no written language [22], the Maonans’ stories and traditions are remembered and passed down orally from generation to generation, but these are becoming less and less. The Maonan language belongs to the Dong-Shui branch of the Zhuang-Dong language group in the Chinese-Tibetan language family. The Maonan language is widely spoken in Maonan communities. Almost all of the Maonans know both Han and Zhuang languages, because they need to communicate with the Zhuang and Han people, the majorities in Guangxi. About 60% of the Maonan people live in Huanjiang County, which is the only Maonan autonomous county in China. The Maonans are polytheistic, and they pay homage to dozens of deities or immortals on various occasions. These icons include figures from myths, legends, celebrities of historical events, divinities from Taoism or Buddhism, ancestors of the family and so on [22]. Due to remote mountainous regions and poor economic environment, traditional remedies of medicinal plants are the most important and sometimes the only source of therapeutics in the Maonan villages. The long utilization history and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants had supported their livelihoods. The Maonan healers and farmers have developed their own ethnomedicinal knowledge.

Field works and ethnobotanical data collection

A total of 118 (106 males and 12 females) informants were interviewed in the study area, in which 80 were selected using snowball technique and 38 key informants were selected purposively and systematically based on the recommendations of knowledgeable elders, local authorities and development agents. All of the informants were local inhabitants aged between 21 and 85 years. Local Maonan healers were surely identified as key informants, because they were important custodians and participants of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants. Interestingly, all these traditional healers were males. A few women were also interviewed to examine their medicinal knowledge and opinions.

Ethnobotanical investigations were carried out to collect data on medicinal plants used to treat human ailments following standard methods in Maonan area. The methodological approaches were semi-structured interviews, field observations, group discussions and guided field walks. The data were collected from June 2012 to September 2014. Interviews and discussions were undertaken based on a checklist of questions prepared in Chinese and translated into Maonan language. Information was carefully recorded during interviews with each informant. Field observations were performed with traditional healers guided on the morphological features and habitats of each medicinal plant species. Voucher specimens of cited medicinal plants were collected and their local identity was re-confirmed by other informants. The information obtained was cross-checked with the other informants. The information such as the local name, habit, wild/cultivated, availability of medicinal plants, need of conservation and efforts made by inhabitants, and traditional medicinal uses of plants were recorded. Group discussions were conducted on multipurpose, conservation, threats of the medicinal plants, and transferability of knowledge with the healers and local people in the villages. Also, the key informants were selected for preference ranking exercise.

Specimen collection and identification

The listed medicinal plants were collected from field and gardens, and the habits of these plants were recorded. The voucher specimens were made and deposited in the Herbarium, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China, for future references. The botanical identities of collected specimens were confirmed by the authors and other taxonomists at Minzu University of China. Plant names were checked with Flora of China and botanical websites (e.g. http://www.tropicos.org/).

Data analysis

The data were summarized using Microsoft Office Excel sheet. Descriptive statistical methods were applied to analyze and summarize the ethnobotanical data such as frequency and percentage.

Preference ranking exercise [23,24] was conducted by 8 key informants on 7 medicinal plants used to treat traumatic injury in the study area. The highest number of medicinal plants was prescribed by informants to fight traumatic injury. The plants in this exercise were short-listed by the key informants, and then their importance to manage traumatic injury was discussed. The plants were given to the informants and were ranked based on their efficacy. Medicinal plant that was believed to be the most effective was given the highest value 7, and the one with the least effectiveness a value of 1. Rank was determined based on the total score of each species. A total rank of preference exercise was obtained by summing the number of informant given.

The reported ailments were grouped into 21 categories based on the information gathered from the interviewees. Factor of informant consensus (F_IC) was calculated for each category to test the agreements of the informants on the reported cures for the group of diseases. The F_IC was calculated as follows: number of use citations in each category (N_ur) minus the number of species used (N_t), and divided by the numbers of use citations in each category minus one [25,26]. The formula was listed as below:

$${\mathrm{F}}_{\mathrm{I}\mathrm{C}}=\left({\mathrm{N}}_{\mathrm{u}\mathrm{r}}‐{\mathrm{N}}_{\mathrm{t}}\right)/\left({\mathrm{N}}_{\mathrm{u}\mathrm{r}}‐1\right)$$

Results

Medicinal plants reported

The study recorded 368 medicinal plant species (see Table 1). Ethnomedicinal information for each species, including scientific name, Chinese name, local name, family name, life form, habitat, plant parts used, preparation and uses, was listed in Table 1. The species belonged to 295 genera and 115 families were used by Maonan people to treat various human ailments. Among the families that contributed more medicinal species were Asteraceae, represented by 24 species (6.52%), Fabaceae with 19 (5.16%) species, and Rosaceae with 16 (4.35%), while other 292 families contributed 309 (83.97%) species were mostly represented by 1 or 2 species (Table 2).

Table 1.

Inventory of Medicinal Plants Traditionally Used by Maonan People

No.	Scientific name	Chinese name	Maonan name	Family	Life form	Habit	Parts used	Preparation and uses
1	Abelmoschus sagittifolius (Kurz) Merr.	Jianyeqiukui箭叶秋葵	--	Malvaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for furuncle
2	Abrus cantoniensis Hance	Guangdong xiangsizi广州相思子	rouŋ2ra2təp7	Fabaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for acute and chronic hepatitis, stomachache, rheumatism, ostealgia, traumatic injury, liver cirrhosis and common cold
3	Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet	Mopancao磨盘草	ruoŋ2ŋaŋ³luiŋ5	Malvaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Boiled with meat; Taken orally soup, treating for fever due to common cold, bronchitis, epidemic parotitis and tuberculosis
4	Acanthopanax gracilistylus W. W. Smith.	Wujia五加	mba³tshi2an2lau4	Araliaceae	Shrub	Both	Root, Bark	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatic arthritis, traumatic injury, carminative, bone fracture and pain of limbs
5	Acanthopanax trifoliatus (L.) Merr.	Baile白簕	mba³tshi6man2ndi5	Araliaceae	Shrub	Both	Stem, Root	Medicinal liquor for treating rheumatic arthritis, traumatic injury, waist and legs pain, ostealgia and sciatica; Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for eczema, ulcer and furuncle
6	Achillea wilsoniana Heimerl ex Hand. -Mazz.	Yunnanshi云南蓍	--	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for ulcer
7	Achyranthes bidentata Blume	Niuxi牛膝	ma6wei5gou2ɣou¹	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Grinding and drink with wine for traumatic injury, removing blood stasis
8	Aconitum carmichaeli Debx.	Wutou乌头	taŋ5gou²ʔno²	Ranunculaceae	Herb	Both	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for scrofula, perineum ache
9	Acorus calamus L.	Shuichangpu水菖蒲	baːŋ5sjɛm2rəm³	Acoraceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Powder; Taken orally for diarrhea
10	Acorus tatarinowii Schott	Shichangpu石菖蒲	ruoŋ2jɛŋ³vu2	Acoraceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for epilepsy and convulsion
11	Adenophora tetraphylla (Thunb.) Fisch.	Lunyeshashen轮叶沙参	mua²ʨiɔ³gʔai²	Campanulaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for complications after measles
12	Adiantum capillus-junonis Rupr.	tuanyutiexianjue团羽铁线蕨	ya2bou³	Adiantaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant, Rhizome	Boiled with meat and drunk the soup, treating for piles
13	Aeginetia indica L.	Yegu野菰	--	Orobanchaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for swelling, clearing away heat and toxic materials
14	Ageratum conyzoides L.	Huoxiangji藿香蓟	--	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for fever due to common cold, empyrosis and abscess
15	Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb.	Longyacao龙芽草	ruoŋ2hiu¹cia³	Rosaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Boiled with meat or wine and drunk the soup, treating for piles, enteritis, diarrhea, hemafecia, hematuria
16	Ainsliaea bonatii Beauverd	Xinyetu'erfeng心叶兔儿风	ma6ka6ʑai2	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for cough, asthma with throat itching
17	Akebia quinata (Houtt.) Decne.	Mutong木通	--	Lardizabalaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem, Root, Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatism, diuresis, promoting lactation
18	Alangium chinense (Lour.) Harms	Bajiaofeng八角枫	mei4da2	Alangiaceae	Tree	Both	Fibrous root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatic arthritis, lumbar muscle degeneration, asthma and bleeding
19	Allium fistulosum L.	Cong葱	soŋ³xien³nien2	Liliaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for common cold, pains, rheumatic headache, numbness of limbs and replenishing the liver
20	Allium sativum L.	Suan蒜	kɔŋ¹do2	Liliaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Bulb	Grinding, dispersed in water and drunk for pertussis cough, enteritis, tuberculosis, poor appetite, indigestion, diarrhea
21	Allium tuberosum Rottl. ex Spreng.	Jiu韭	mba³kən5	Liliaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for toothache, piles, traumatic injury and insect bite
22	Alocasia macrorrhizos (L.) G. Don	Reyahaiyu热亚海芋	--	Araceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for snake bite and innominate inflanunatory of unknown origin
23	Alpinia katsumadai Hayata	Caodoukou草豆蔻	--	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for indigestion
24	Alpinia oxyphylla Miq.	Yizhi益智	--	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Wild	Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for warming the spleen, kidney deficiency, diarrhea and spermatorrhea
25	Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC.	Lianzicao莲子草	--	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for reducing fever and causing diuresis
26	Amomum tsaoko Crevost et Lemarie	Caoguo草果	--	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for eliminating phlegm, indigestion, diarrhea and malaria
27	Amomum villosum Lour.	Sharen砂仁	--	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for indigestion
28	Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees	Chuanxinlian穿心莲	--	Acanthaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for clearing away heat and toxic materials
29	Androsace umbellata (Lour.) Merr.	Diandimei点地梅	--	Primulaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for inflammation and traumatic injury
30	Anemone hupehensis Lem.	Dapowanhuahua打破碗花花	ma2miŋ5yɛ5	Ranunculaceae	Herb	Wild	Root, Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for biliary tract ascariasis
31	Aralia chinensis L.	Songmu楤木	--	Araliaceae	Tree	Wild	Seed	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for snake bite
32	Aralia undulata Hand.-Mazz.	Boyuansongmu波缘楤木	mei5ȵun4	Araliaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Boiled with meat and drunk the soup, treating for cough
33	Arctium lappa L.	Niubang牛蒡	maː6kaː6wei5	Asteraceae	Herb	Homegarden	Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for infantile fever and cough
34	Ardisia gigantifolia Stapf	Zoumatai走马胎	ruoŋ2loŋ2mia4	Myrsinaceae	Shrub	Wild	Rhizome, Whole plant	Medicinal liquor for treating rheumatism, rheumatic arthritis, waist and legs pain, paralysis, hemiplegia and traumatic injury
35	Ardisia japonica (Thunb.) Blume	Zijinniu紫金牛	wa5ʨiɛm²wei³	Myrsinaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for jaundiced hepatitis, cough, traumatic injury and preventing phlegm
36	Arisaema erubescens (Wall.) Schott	Yibasannanxing一把伞南星	ma¹gəp8tai5	Araceae	Herb	Wild	Tuber	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for snake bite
37	Arisaema heterophyllum Blume	Tiannanxing天南星	jɛk7khω6dɔŋ2	Araceae	Herb	Wild	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for traumatic injury, cough, hypertension, acute inflammation and abdomen pain
38	Arisaema rhizomatum C. E. C. Fischer	Xuelijian雪里见	kɣou²ŋau4	Araceae	Herb	Wild	Tuber	Medicinal liquor for treating scrofula and perineum ache
39	Aristolochia fangchi Y. C. Wu ex L. D. Chow et S. M. Hwang	Guangfangji广防己	ruoŋ2dak8loŋ²	Aristolochiaceae	Liana	Wild	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for acute nephritis, urinary tract infection, hypertension, rheumatic heart disease, edema
40	Aristolochia kwangsiensis Chun et How ex C. F. Liang	Guangximadouling广西马兜铃	--	Aristolochiaceae	Liana	Wild	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for snake bite, stomachache, diarrhea, strep throat, epidemic parotitis, lymphnoditis
41	Aristolochia versicolor S. M. Hwang	Biansemadouling变色马兜铃	--	Aristolochiaceae	Liana	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for snake bite
42	Armeniaca vulgaris Lam.	Xing杏	dəŋ¹vɔŋ5ʑa2	Rosaceae	Tree	Homegarden	Seed	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for chronic trachitis, cough
43	Artemisia annua L.	Huanghuahao黄花蒿	ruoŋ2nŋai6min³	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for malaria, fever, indigestion, tuberculosis hot flashes and night sweat; washing for scab, pruritus and mosquito bite
44	Artemisia capillaris Thunb.	Yinchenhao茵陈蒿	ma6ʔai³	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for hepatitis and jaundice
45	Artemisia japonica Thunb.	Muhao牡蒿	--	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for clearing away heat and toxic materials, inflammation and blood stasis
46	Asarum longerhizomatosum C. F. Liang et C. S. Yang	Xijingjin'erhuan长茎金耳环	--	Aristolochiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for headache, toothache, cough, diarrhea, acute enteritis
47	Asarum sieboldii Miq.	Xixin细辛	ruoŋ2ndeŋ5kha³	Aristolochiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant, Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for cough, relieving pain
48	Asparagus cochinchinensis (Lour.) Merr.	Tianmendong天门冬	lak5mən2tuŋ¹	Asparagaceae	Herb	Wild	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for tuberculosis, cough, constipation, diabetes and sore throat after rash
49	Azolla imbricata (Roxb.) Nakai	Manjianghong满江红	--	Azollaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for measles
50	Baphicacanthus cusia (Nees) Bremek.	Banlan板蓝	ruoŋ2wom¹	Acanthaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction drunk for common cold, sore throat, parotitis and epidemic cerebrospinal meningitis
51	Bauhinia brachycarpa Wall.	Anyeyangtijia鞍叶羊蹄甲	yaŋm³gəm³duo5	Fabaceae	Tree	Both	Root, Leaf	Boiled with meat and drunk the soup, treating for cough, hemoptysis
52	Bauhinia championii (Benth.) Benth.	Longxuteng龙须藤	bjeu³in5	Fabaceae	Liana	Both	Stem	Grinding, decoction drunk for rheumatism, traumatic injury, stomachache, waist and legs pain
53	Belamcanda chinensis (L.) Redoute	Shegan射干	mei5van³biɛn²	Iridaceae	Herb	Both	Root	Grinding, decoction drunk for sore throat
54	Berberis julianae Schneid	Haozhuci豪猪刺	taːŋm2mɛn5sem5	Berberidaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Grinding, boiled with water and washed the affected area for clearing away heat and toxic materials, inflammation
55	Bidens pilosa L.	Guizhencao鬼针草	wɔk7cut7na5	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for nephritis, jaundice, rheumatism, ostealgia, diarrhea, throat ache, kidney deficiency and waist pain
56	Bischofia javanica Bl.	Qiufeng秋枫	--	Euphorbiaceae	Tree	Both	Stem, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orallyfor removing blood stasis, carminative, improving indigestion
57	Bletilla striata (Thunb. ex A. Murray) Rchb. f.	Baiji白及	kɔŋ¹nat7	Orchidaceae	Herb	Both	Bulb	Powder swallowed for tuberculosis and empyrosis
58	Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC.	Ainaxiang艾纳香	ruoŋ2nŋai6lau4	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for common cold, rheumatic arthritis, traumatic injury, dysmenorrhea and afterpains
59	Boehmeria nivea(L.) Gaudich.	Zhuma苎麻	mba³ŋan³	Urticaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root Bark, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for miscarriage prevention, hematuria, traumatic injury, bone fracture, diuresis, measles, joint sprain
60	Bombax malabaricum DC.	Mumian木棉	wai5mei4	Bombacaceae	Tree	Both	Flower, Root bark, Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally; Flower is treating for enteritis, stomach ulcer; Root bark is treating for rheumatism, traumatic injury; Root is treating for chronic nephritis gastricism, stomach ulcer, tuberculosis of cervical lymph nodes
61	Botrychium ternatum (Thunb.) Sw.	Yindijue阴地蕨	do5gʔom2daːŋ³	Botrychiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for cough
62	Brucea javanica (L.) Merr.	Yadanzi鸦胆子	--	Simaroubaceae	Shrub	Wild	Seed	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for diarrhea, malaria and chromic diarrhea
63	Bryophyllum pinnatum (L. f.) Oken	Luoyeshenggen落地生根	ruoŋ2ra2pu³	Crassulaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for detumescence by detoxification, promoting blood circulation to arrest pain, draw out pus and toxin
64	Buddleja officinalis Maxim.	Mimenghua密蒙花	wa³kuŋ³ruo²	Loganiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Flower	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for swelling and pain of eye, hyperdacryosis and cloudness of cornea
65	Caesalpinia sappan Linn.	Sumu苏木	mei4sam³mɔk8	Fabaceae	Tree	Wild	Heartwood	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for traumatic injury, rheumatism, ostealgia, bleeding
66	Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb.	Yunshi云实	ʔŋən5ʔniao2	Fabaceae	Tree	Wild	Root, Seed	Medicinal liquor for treating contraception in the menstrual period
67	Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl	Dayezizhu大叶紫珠	ruoŋ2lak8phau5	Verbenaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for hemafecia and hemoptysis
68	Campanumoea javanica Bl.	Jianqianbao金钱豹	bieu³thωp8jou¹	Campanulaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Powdered and swallowed for tuberculosis, enteritis, diarrhea, appendicitis, traumatic injury and piles
69	Camptotheca acuminata Decne.	Xishu喜树	--	Nyssaceae	Tree	Both	Fruit, Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for cancer and schistosome
70	Canscora lucidissima (Levl. et Vaniot) Hand.-Mazz	Chuanxincao穿心草	ma6chuan2	Gentianaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for stranguria, snake bite, stomachache, cough and jaundiced hepatitis
71	Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.	Ji荠	mba³kɔŋ¹pia³	Cruciferae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for catching common cold, fever, nephritis, edema, hypertension, enteritis
72	Cassia tora Linn.	Jueming决明	thou6maŋ³xiзŋ³	Fabaceae	Herb	Both	Seed	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for hyperlipidemia, hepatitis, stomachache, acute conjunctivitis, habitual constipation, dental ulcer
73	Cassytha filiformis L.	Wugenteng无根藤	bieu³chim6cieu¹	Lauraceae	Herb	Wild	Stem	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for vitiligo, jaundice, constipation, waist and knees pain, impotence and spermatorrhea
74	Cayratia japonica (Thunb.) Gagnep.	Wulianmei乌蔹莓	--	Vitaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant, Root	Medicinal liquor for paralysis
75	Celosia argentea L.	Qingxiang青葙	mba³pωm³pa5	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for trachitis, gastricism
76	Cerastium glomeratum Thuill.	Qiuxujuan'er球序卷耳	maː6ʔan4ʑau2	Caryophyllaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for febrile convulsion
77	Chaenomeles sinensis (Thouin) Koehne	Mugua木瓜	--	Rosaceae	Shrub	Homegarden	Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for smooth the liver and stomach
78	Chirita eburnea Hance	Niu'erduo牛耳朵	ma5ba5	Gesneriaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for bronchitis
79	Chloranthus holostegius (Handel-Mazzetti) Pei & Shan	Quanyuanjinlilan全缘金栗兰	tei³kuai5wa5	Chloranthaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Boiled with meat and drunk the soup, treating for weakness
80	Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Presl	Xiangzhang香樟	mei4kau¹	Lauraceae	Tree	Homegarden	Bark	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for acute gastroenteritis, rheumatism, ostealgia, emesis, diarrhea and bone fracture
81	Cinnamomum cassia Presl	Rougui肉桂	--	Lauraceae	Tree	Homegarden	Stem	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for cough, dysmenorrhea and sweating
82	Cinnamomum subavenium Miq.	Xianggui香桂	--	Lauraceae	Tree	Both	Bark	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for antiseptic
83	Cirsium japonicum Fisch. ex DC.	Daji大蓟	mba³tin³tsuok7lau4	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Root, Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for jaundice, scabies, hemafecia, muscle swelling and gastroduodenal ulcer
84	Clematis chinensis Osbeck.	Weilingxian威灵仙	ruoŋ2pek7mi6saŋ³	Ranunculaceae	Liana	Wild	Root, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for tonsillitis, jaundice, migraine and rheumatism
85	Clerodendrum chinense (Osbeck) Mabb.	Choumoli臭茉莉	ruoŋ2phuŋ6hi6	Verbenaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for rheumatic arthritis, traumatic injury, rheumatism and detumescence
86	Clerodendrum cyrtophyllum Turcz.	Daqing大青	--	Verbenaceae	Shrub	Wild	Leaf	Ground, decoction; Taken orally for fever due to common cold, tonsillitis, pharyngitis, parotitis, enteritis and diarrhea
87	Coix lacryma-jobi L.	Yiyi薏苡	ɣhou6gaŋ5yə4	Gramineae	Herb	Both	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for acute nephritis
88	Colocasia antiquorum Schott	Yeyu野芋	phi²niəŋ6	Araceae	Herb	Wild	Tuber	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding, furuncle, empyrosis and snake bite
89	Commelina communis L.	Yazhicao鸭趾草	mba³ciap7	Commelinaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for diarrhea, influenza, acute tonsillitis, edema, enteritis, urinary tract infection, empyrosis and bleeding
90	Crataegus pinnatifida Bunge	Shanzha山楂	dɛŋ¹miɛ5²yə2	Rosaceae	Tree	Homegarden	Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for poor appetite, blood stasis
91	Croton tiglium L.	Badou巴豆	ruoŋ2mei4miət7	Euphorbiaceae	Tree	Homegarden	Root Bark, Leaf	Pound fresh leaf applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding, herpes zoster; Pound root bark applied on the affected area, treating for snake bite
92	Cucumis sativus L.	Huanggua黄瓜	--	Cucurbitaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Fruit	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding and skin whitening
93	Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.	Xianmao仙茅	ruoŋ2saŋ³thɔk8	Amaryllidaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for headache due to common cold, rheumatic arthritis, neurasthenia, chronic nephritis, erectile dysfunction and seminal leakage
94	Curcuma aromatica Salisb.	Yujin郁金	--	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Wild	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for bleeding, jaundice and cooling blood
95	Curcuma longa L.	Jianghuang姜黄	ruoŋ2cɛŋ³woŋ²	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for abnormal menstruation, amenorrhea, flatulence and blood stasis
96	Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe	E'zhu莪术	pi6cɛŋ³nəm³	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatism, ostealgia, traumatic injury, abdomen pain
97	Cuscuta chinensis Lam.	Tusizi菟丝子	--	Convolvulaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for hepatitis
98	Cyclea hypoglauca (Schauer) Diels	Fenyelunhuanteng粉叶轮环藤	--	Menispermaceae	Liana	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for toothache, urinary tract infection, rheumatism, diphtheria, ostealgia; Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for carbuncle, snake bite
99	Cynanchum atratum Bunge	Baiwei白薇	lau2ʨiŋ5xi5	Asclepiadaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Medicinal liquor for treating rheumatic arthritis
100	Cynanchum auriculatum Royle ex Wight	Niupixiao牛皮消	gʔɛ2lin5xiao5	Asclepiadaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Boiled with meat and drunk the soup, treating for infantile dry-sickness and malnutrition
101	Cynanchum officinale (Hemsl.) Tsiang & H.D.Zhang	Zhushateng朱砂藤	--	Asclepiadaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for pain killer and weakness
102	Cynanchum paniculatum (Bunge) Kitag.	Xuchangqing徐长卿	ta6ʔnu2	Asclepiadaceae	Herb	Both	Root, Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for enteritis and diarrhea
103	Cyperus rotundus L.	Xiangfuzi香附子	lak8rut8	Cyperaceae	Herb	Wild	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for clearing and activating the channels and collaterals, common cold, abnormal menstruation
104	Cyrtomium fortunei J. Sm.	Guanzhong贯众	rin³tsiɛk7lau4	Dryopteridaceae	--	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for common cold, parotitis, gastrorrhagia, hematuria, postpartum lochiorrhea and body deficiency disease
105	Datura metel L.	Yangjinhua洋金花	--	Solanaceae	Herb	Wild	Flower	Pound and applied on the affected area for ulcer and pains
106	Datura stramonium L.	Mantuoluo曼陀罗	ruoŋ2chou6dun³	Solanaceae	Herb	Wild	Leaf	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle and traumatic injury
107	Davallia mariesii T. Moore ex Baker	Gusuibu骨碎补	xiŋ5bɔa5	Davalliaceae	--	Wild	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for bone fracture and fructus psoraleae
108	Desmodium heterocarpon (L.) DC.	Jiadidou假地豆	thou6ti5pa5	Fabaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for preventing mumps, epidemic encephalitis B, kidney and vesical stone
109	Dichondra repens J.R. Forst. & G. Forst.	Matijin马蹄金	ruoŋ²tin³mia4	Convolvulaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding, urinary stone and jaundiced hepatitis
110	Dicliptera chinensis (L.) Juss.	Gougancai狗肝菜	ruoŋ2təp7ma³	Acanthaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for fever due to common cold, epidemic hepatitis B, rheumatic arthritis, conjunctivitis, diuresis and measles
111	Dimocarpus longan Lour.	Longyan龙眼	ruoŋ2kuei4juon²	Sapindaceae	Tree	Homegarden	Aril	Medicinal liquor for cosmetic, insomnia, forgetfulness, replenishing heart, tonic and blood deficiency
112	Dioscorea bulbifera L.	Huangdu黄独	lak8phuo2	Dioscoreaceae	Liana	Homegarden	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for cough, hemoptysis and epistaxis
113	Dioscorea cirrhosa Lour.	Shuliang薯莨	daŋ5gʔui5pɛ²	Dioscoreaceae	Liana	Homegarden	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for gastroduodenal ulcer
114	Dioscorea opposita Thunb.	Shuyu薯蓣	--	Dioscoreaceae	Liana	Homegarden	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for weakness, cough and frequent urination
115	Diospyros kaki Thunb.	Shi柿	den³mian5	Ebenaceae	Tree	Homegarden	Fruit, Persistent calyx	Pound fresh part mixing the rice wine applied on the affected area, treating for lymphadenectasis
116	Dipsacus asperoides C.Y. Cheng & Ai	Chuanxuduan川续断	noŋ²bu²yɛ5	Dipsacaceae	Herb	Wild	Seed, Root	Boiled with meat and drunk the soup, treating for leucorrhoea and bone fracture
117	Disporum cantoniense (Lour.) Merr.	Wanshouzhu万寿竹	ma6mei5vɛn³	Liliaceae	Herb	Wild	Root, Rhizome	Boiled with meat and drunk the soup, treating for cough
118	Drynaria propinqua (Wall. ex Mett.) J. Sm.	Shilianjianghujue石莲姜槲蕨	--	Drynariaceae	--	Wild	Rhizome	Medicinal liquor for treating rheumatic arthritis, traumatic injury, bone fracture and blood stasis
119	Duchesnea indica (Andrews) Teschem.	Shemei蛇莓	taːŋm²bei²zeŋ¹	Rosaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for empyrosis, snake bite, furuncle
120	Dysosma versipellis (Hance) M. Cheng ex T.S. Ying	Bajiaolian八角莲	va5piat7lim6	Berberidaceae	Herb	Both	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for mumps, traumatic injury, lymphnoditis, snake bite, breast carcinoma
121	Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.	Lichang鳢肠	wɔk7mək8	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for infantile diarrhea, enteritis, hemafecia, hematuria, hemoptysis and bleeding
122	Elephantopus scaber L.	Didancao地胆草	ruoŋ²təp7do6	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for common cold, acute tonsillitis, acute jaundiced hepatitis, ascites due to cirrhosis, chronic gastricism and furuncle
123	Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.	Niujincao牛筋草	ruoŋ²su5chin6	Gramineae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for traumatic injury, rheumatism, ostealgia, infantile indigestion
124	Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC.	Yidianhong一点红	mba³kha³tu5	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for inflammation, sore throat, cough, fever due to common cold, urticaria, herpes zoster
125	Epimedium brevicornu Maximowicz Trudy Imp. S.-Peterburgsk.	Yinyanghuo淫羊藿	ma5gan²duo³	Berberidaceae	Herb	Both	Stem, Leaf	Medicinal liquor for treating rheumatism, tonic
126	Epimeredi indica (L.) Rothm.	Guangfangfen广防风	ruoŋ²woŋ²	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for common cold, acute gastroenteritis; boiled with water and washed the affected area for snake bite, furuncle, eczema
127	Equisetum arvense L.	Wenjing问荆	gɔŋ²dau5	Equisetaceae	--	Wild	Whole plant	Powder swallowed for headache
128	Equisetum hyemale L.	Bitongcao笔筒草	--	Equisetaceae	--	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for bleeding, diuresis
129	Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.	Pipa枇杷	va³bi²ba5	Rosaceae	Tree	Homegarden	Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for pertussis cough
130	Eucalyptus robusta Sm.	An桉	mei4cau5xui4	Myrtaceae	Tree	Homegarden	Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for influenza, diarrhea
131	Eucommia ulmoides Oliv.	Duzhong杜仲	thu6tsuŋ5	Eucommiaceae	Tree	Both	Bark	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for hypertension, kidney deficiency, lumbago
132	Eupatorium chinense L.	Duoxugong多须公	--	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for clearing away heat and toxic materials, blood stasis, traumatic injury
133	Euphorbia antiquorum L.	Huoyangle火殃勒	ruoŋ²ko³loŋ²	Euphorbiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part and fried with wine, applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle, innominate inflanunatory of unknown origin
134	Euphorbia chrysocoma H. Lév. & Vaniot	Shuihuanghua水黄花	maː³nom²ʔan²	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for infectious hepatitis
135	Euphorbia hirta L.	Feiyangcao飞扬草	ruoŋ²jɛŋ³thuŋ6thin6	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for bacillary diarrhea, enteritis, bronchitis, nephritis
136	Euphorbia humifusa Willdenow	Dijin地锦	--	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for malaria, diuresis
137	Euphorbia milii Des Moul.	Tiehaitang铁海棠	ruoŋ²ndunŋ³waŋ³	Euphorbiaceae	Shrub	Both	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for carbuncle
138	Euphorbia thymifolia L.	Qian'gencao千根草	--	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for bacillary diarrhea, enteritis, diarrhea, piles, bleeding
139	Evodia lepta (Spreng.) Merr.	Sanyaku三桠苦	ruoŋ²sam³tsha³	Rutaceae	Tree	Wild	Root, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for epidemic meningitis, influenza, fever, epidemic encephalitis B
140	Evodia rutaecarpa (Juss.) Benth.	Wuzhuyu吴茱萸	tsha6la6	Rutaceae	Shrub	Wild	Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for diarrhea, abnormal menstruation, diseases of liver stasis, emesis
141	Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn.	Kuqiao苦荞	--	Polygonaceae	Herb	Wild	Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for stomachache, indigestion
142	Fallopia multiflora (Thunb.) Haraldson	Heshouwu何首乌	mən6daŋ³yɛ5	Polygonaceae	Herb	Both	Tuber, Stem	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for weakness
143	Fibraurea recisa Pierre	Tianxianteng天仙藤	--	Menispermaceae	Liana	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for headache, fever, acute tonsillitis, strep throat, diarrhea, jaundiced hepatitis, gastricism, enteritis
144	Ficus microcarpa L. f.	Rongshu榕树	ruoŋ²mei4joŋ²	Moraceae	Tree	Homegarden	Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for flu, malaria, bronchitis, acute enteritis, bacillary diarrhea, pertussis cough, tonsillitis
145	Ficus tikoua Bureau	Diguo地果	--	Moraceae	Liana	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for jaundice, diarrhea and internal injury
146	Flemingia prostrata Roxb.	Qianjinba千斤拔	ruoŋ²sωt7khui²	Fabaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction or medicinal liquor drunk for lumbar muscle degeneration, traumatic injury, rheumatic arthritis and tonsillitis
147	Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis	Zhizi栀子	lak8kei³	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Both	Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for jaundiced hepatitis, fever, diarrhea, nephritis and edema
148	Gastrodia elata Blume	Tianma天麻	ŋoŋ5bu4noŋ²	Orchidaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for headache and stomachache
149	Gaultheria leucocarpa var. yunnanensis (Franch.) T.Z. Hsu & R.C. Fang	Baiguobaizhu白果白珠	mei5ʔa5	Ericaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant, Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatic arthritis and traumatic injury
150	Gelsemium elegans (Gardner & Champ.) Benth.	Gouwen钩吻	ruoŋ²sai³mu5	Loganiaceae	Liana	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle, carbuncle
151	Gentiana rhodantha Franch.	Honghualongdan红花龙胆	ya5ma²mənp8	Gentianaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for furuncle
152	Geranium nepalense Sweet	Nibo'er'laoguancao尼泊尔老鹳草	ma6ʑaŋ5nan5	Geraniaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for pertussis cough
153	Gerbera piloselloides (L.) Cass.	Maodadingcao毛大丁草	ruoŋ²təp7thi6	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for clearing away heat and toxic materials, fever due to common cold, cough, diarrhea, infantile indigestion
154	Geum aleppicum Jacq.	Lubianqing路边青	mba³men²	Rosaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Boiled with meat and drunk the soup, treating for deficiency of dizziness
155	Ginkgo biloba L.	Yinxing银杏	--	Ginkgoaceae Engler	Tree	Homegarden	Fruit, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for moistening lung, cough
156	Gleditsia sinensis Lam.	Zaojia皂荚	--	Fabaceae	Tree	Both	Pod	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for apocenosis, detumescence
157	Glochidion puberum (Linnaeus) Hutchinson	Suanpanzi算盘子	mei4thω6teŋ5	Euphorbiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for bacillary diarrhea, infantile indigestion, diarrhea, abdomen pain, proctoptosis, migraine , lymphnoditis
158	Gomphrena globosa L.	Qianrihong千日红	xien³vən³lan¹	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Wild	Flower	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for asthma, bronchitis, pertussis cough, tuberculosis, diarrhea and hemoptysis
159	Gonostegia hirta (Blume ex Hassk.) Miq.	Nuomituan糯米团	--	Urticaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant, Root	Grinding, decoction or boiled with meat and drunk for clearing away heat and removing dampness, innominate inflanunatory of unknown origin
160	Gymnotheca chinensis Decne.	Luoshuo裸蒴	maŋ5wɛŋ³bɔa5	Saururaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Whole plant	Boiled with meat and drunk the soup, treating for weakness and cough
161	Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino	Jiaogulan绞股蓝	--	Cucurbitaceae	Liana	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatism, bronchitis and stomachache
162	Hedyotis diffusa Willd.	Baihuasheshecao白花蛇舌草	ruoŋ²ma²rui²sɛ5	Rubiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for hepatitis, cough, bronchitis, tonsillitis
163	Hemsleya sphaerocarpa Kuang & A. M. Lu	Shelian蛇莲	tei5ʔŋaːn²	Cucurbitaceae	Liana	Wild	Tuber	Powdered; Taken orally for appendicitis
164	Homalomena occulta (Lour.) Schott	Qiannianjian千年健	ma6moŋ³ʨɛ5	Araceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatism, numbness of limbs, traumatic injury, bone fracture
165	Houttuynia cordata Thunb.	Yuxingcao鱼腥草	mba³wət8	Saururaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for edema, bronchopneumonia, nephritis, enteritis, diarrhea, cough
166	Hydrocotyle nepalensis Hook	Hongmaticao红马蹄草	--	Umbelliferae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part mixing with hot liquor and applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury
167	Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam.	Tianhusui天胡荽	na5ʨiao²nɛm³	Umbelliferae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for headache due to common cold
168	Hypericum japonicum Thunb.	Tianjihuang田基黄	ruoŋ²kha³kai5	Guttiferae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for hepatitis, acute conjunctivitis, tonsillitis and forepart hepatocirrhosis
169	Hypericum sampsonii Hance	Yuanbaocao元宝草	wa³ciɛn³	Guttiferae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for traumatic injury, pain, indigestion, chest congestion
170	Illicium difengpi B.N. Chang	Difengpi地枫皮	--	Magnoliaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem, Bark	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatism, rheumatic arthralgia and lumbar muscle degeneration
171	Impatiens balsamina L.	Fengxianhua凤仙花	wa³dip7sim¹	Balsaminaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Whole plant, Seed	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle, carbuncle
172	Impatiens pinfanensis Hook. f.	Kuaijiefengxianhua块节凤仙花	fan4mɛ5ma²	Balsaminaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Tuber	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for scrofula
173	Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv.	Baimao白茅	taŋ5ya³guaŋ4	Gramineae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for nephritis, edema, bleeding
174	Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet	Wuzhaojinlong五爪金龙	ruoŋ²lak8oŋ5	Convolvulaceae	Herb	Both	Leaf, Tuber	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for carbuncle, clearing away heat and toxic materials
175	Ipomoea mauritiana Jacq.	Qizhualong七爪龙	miau²ren³sen5	Convolvulaceae	Liana	Both	Tuber, Leaf	Boiled with meat and drunk the soup, treating for nephritis
176	Ipomoea pescaprae (L.) R. Br.	Houteng厚藤	ruoŋ²an³mia4	Convolvulaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatic lumbocrural pain and lumbar muscle degeneration
177	Iris tectorum Maxim	Yuanwei鸢尾	ʑo5waːŋ¹	Iridaceae	Herb	Both	Rhizome	Pound fresh part with water is taken as a drink for improving indigestion
178	Juglans regia L.	Hutao胡桃	den³van5kɔŋ²	Juglandaceae	Tree	Both	Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for tonic, back pain
179	Juncus effusus L.	Dengxincao灯心草	ȵan6daːŋ5	Juncaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for jaundiced hepatitis
180	Justicia gendarussa Burm. f.	Xiaobogu小驳骨	ruoŋ²tiək7dak8sɛ5	Acanthaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bone fracture, traumatic injury, 2rheumatic arthritis, ulcer
181	Justicia ventricosa Wall. ex Hook. f.	Heiyexiaobogu黑叶小驳骨	--	Acanthaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bone fracture, traumatic injury, rheumatic arthritis, waist pain, bleeding
182	Kadsura heteroclita (Roxb.) Craib	Yixingnanwuweizi异形南五味子	ruoŋ²li5rωp8	Magnoliaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem	Grinding, decoction or infusion with wine drunk for bone fracture, ostealgia, chronic gastricism, acute gastroenteritis
183	Kadsura longipedunculata Finet & Gagnep.	Nanwuweizi南五味子	--	Magnoliaceae	Liana	Wild	Fruit	Decoctionn; Taken orally for cough, insomnia
184	Kalimeris indica (L.) Sch. Bip.	Malan马兰	ruoŋ²xien³sɔk7	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for pneumonia, bronchitis
185	Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb.	Duanyeshuiwugong短叶水蜈蚣	--	Cyperaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for infantile malnutrition, helminth
186	Laggera alata (D. Don) Sch. Bip. ex Oliv.	Liulengju六棱菊	ruoŋ²jɛn³nəm¹	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatic arthritis, nephritis, edema
187	Laportea cuspidata (Wedd.) Friis	Aima艾麻	tuɔm²rɛn5	Urticaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant, Root	Medicinal liquor for rheumatic arthritis
188	Leonurus artemisia (Lour.) S.Y. Hu	Yimucao益母草	ra²loŋ²cit7vən6	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for edema, nephritis, abnormal menstruation, promoting blood circulation due to menstruation
189	Ligusticum chuanxiong S.H. Qiu, Y.Q. Zeng, K.Y. Pan, Y.C. Tang & J.M. Xu	Chuanxiong川芎	ta5chuan²wɔŋ5	Umbelliferae	Herb	Both	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for carminative, activate blood for acesodyne
190	Ligusticum sinense Oliv.	Gaoben藁本	--	Umbelliferae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Medicinal liquor for waist pain, kidney deficiency
191	Ligustrum lucidum W.T. Aiton	Nüzhen女贞	--	Oleaceae	Tree	Homegarden	Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for tonifying kieney and liver
192	Ligustrum robustum subsp. chinense P.S. Green	Cuzhuangnüzhen粗壮女贞	va³zhɛ5gaŋm²	Oleaceae	Tree	Homegarden	Leaf	Drink like the tea for dizziness
193	Lilium brownii F.E. Brown ex Miellez	Yebaihe野百合	kɔŋ¹dɔ²pa5	Liliaceae	Herb	Both	Bulb	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for tuberculosis, edema, insomnia, neurasthenia and palpitation
194	Lindera aggregata (Sims) Kosterm.	Wuyao乌药	--	Lauraceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for stomachache, abdomon pain
195	Litchi chinensis Sonn.	Lizhi荔枝	--	Sapindaceae	Tree	Homegarden	Stone fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatism, pain and removing moping
196	Lithospermum erythrorhizon Siebold & Zucc.	Zicao紫草	gaŋ5pat8	Boraginaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for measles
197	Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers.	Shanjijiao山鸡椒	--	Lauraceae	Shrub	Both	Fruit	Pound fresh/dry fruit, decoction; Taken orally for cough, diarrhea, stomachache, toothache, bleeding
198	Litsea pungens Hemsl.	Mujiangzi木姜子	ruoŋ²mei4saŋ¹	Lauraceae	Tree	Both	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for gastricism
199	Livistona chinensis (Jacq.) R. Br. ex Mart.	Pukui蒲葵	ruoŋ²xien5phu²	Palmae	Tree	Homegarden	Seed	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for cancer
200	Lobelia chinensis Lour.	Banbianlian半边莲	nun³mua²ʔnɛm4	Campanulaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, boiled with water and washed the affected area for snake bite
201	Lobelia sequinii Levl. et Vant.	Xi'nanshan'gengcai西南山梗菜	ruoŋ²thai6tsɛŋ¹cuωn³	Campanulaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, boiled with water and washed the affected area for rheumatic arthritis, traumatic injury, ulcer
202	Lonicera japonica Thunb.	Rendong忍冬	wa³cim³mən²	Caprifoliaceae	Liana	Both	Stem, Flower	Grinding and decoction; Taken orally; Stem is for jaundice, clearing away heat and toxic materials, headache and fever; flower is for enteritis, diarrhea, pneumonia, influenza
203	Lophatherum gracile Brongn.	Danzhuye淡竹叶	mei4tim¹sɛ5	Gramineae	Herb	Both	Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for urinary tract infection, aphthous stomatitis, swelling, aching of gum
204	Loropetalum chinense (R. Br.) Oliv.	Jimu檵木	ruoŋ²mei4ci5	Hamamelidaceae	Shrub	Wild	Leaf, Flower, Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally; Leaf is for abdomen pain, metrorrhagia; Flower is for bleeding; Root is for traumatic injury, chronic arthritis, amenorrhea, bleeding
205	Lycopodium japonicum Thunb.	Shisong石松	mʔau²muan4	Lycopodiaceae	--	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatic arthritis, arthralgia, leg cramp, hand and foot numbness
206	Lycopus lucidus Turcz. ex Benth.	Disun地笋	--	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for abnormal menstruation, amenorrhea, traumatic injury, bone fracture
207	Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw.	Haijinsha海金沙	ma²goŋ²bou³	Lygodiaceae	--	Wild	Whole plant, Sporangium	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for chronic ulcer, skin infection, furuncle, foot rot
208	Lysimachia christinae Hance	Guoluhuang过路黄	ma6gʔou²ʔan²	Primulaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for urinary tract infection, jaundice, hepatitis
209	Lysimachia paridiformis Franch.	Luodimei落地梅	--	Primulaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for infantile convulsions
210	Lysionotus pauciflorus Maxim.	Diaoshijutai吊石苣苔	ba5dau³ma4	Gesneriaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for bronchitis, asthma
211	Magnolia officinalis Rehder & E.H. Wilson	Houpo厚朴	--	Magnoliaceae	Tree	Both	Bark	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for emesis, diarrhea
212	Mahonia bealei (Fortune) Carrière	Kuoyeshidagonglao阔叶十大功劳	ruoŋ²waŋ6lien4	Berberidaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for pneumonia, tuberculosis, infectious hepatitis, acute gastroenteritis, bronchitis
213	Mallotus apelta (Lour.) Müll. Arg.	Baibeiye白背叶	mei4phiau6sei¹	Euphorbiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally; Root is for chronic hepatitis, hepatosplenomegaly, gestational edema, enteritis, diarrhea; Leaf is for traumatic injury, otitis media, furuncle, bleeding, thrush
214	Mallotus barbatus Müll. Arg.	Maotong毛桐	--	Euphorbiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Leaf	Pound fresh part and applied on the affected area, treating for clearing away heat and toxic materials, bed ulcer, eczema
215	Marsilea quadrifolia L.	Ping苹	phuŋ6phieu²lau4	Marsileaceae	--	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for jaundiced hepatitis, asthma, edema, hepatic ascites, fever due to common cold
216	Melastoma candidum D. Don	Yemudan野牡丹	ruoŋ²lak8ma5ndi5	Melastomataceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for hemafecia, watery diarrhea
217	Melastoma dodecandrum Lour.	Dinie地菍	lak8nin¹	Melastomataceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for removing blood stasis, traumatic injury, diarrhea, lithangiuria, urinary obstruction
218	Melia azedarach L.	Lian楝	ruoŋ²ku¹lien4	Meliaceae	Tree	Both	Fruit, Leaf	Grinding, boiled with water and washed the affected area for scabies, tinea capitis and rice paddies dermatitis
219	Mimosa pudica L.	Hanxiucao含羞草	ruoŋ²ra²nŋei³	Fabaceae	Herb	Both	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for insomnia
220	Mirabilis jalapa L.	Zimoli紫茉莉	ruoŋ²jɛn³wa³	Nyctaginaceae	Herb	Both	Root	Boiled with meat and drunk the soup, treating for leucorrhoea, abnormal menstruation, prostatitis, metrorrhagia
221	Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng.	Mubiezi木鳖子	tiŋ5ndiŋ5ka³	Cucurbitaceae	Liana	Wild	Seed, Leaf, Stem	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for innominate inflanunatory of unknown origin, carbuncle, lymphnoditis
222	Morus alba L.	Sang桑	ruoŋ²tshaŋ¹	Moraceae	Tree	Both	Leaf, Bark	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for lung heat panting and cough, hypertension, edema
223	Munronia henryi Harms	Aituotuo矮陀陀	--	Meliaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Medicinal liquor for traumatic injury
224	Murraya exotica L.	Jiulixiang九里香	ruoŋ²mei4ndaŋ³	Rutaceae	Tree	Both	Root, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatism, ostealgia, traumatic injury, toothache and stomachache
225	Mussaenda pubescens W.T. Aiton	Yuyejinhua玉叶金花	ruoŋ²phiɛ³va5phuok8	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Both	Stem, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for hyperthermia, influenza, tonsillitis, enteritis, diarrhea and sphagitis
226	Myrica rubra (Lour.) Siebold & Zucc.	Yangmei杨梅	lak8se5	Myricaceae	Tree	Homegarden	Root Bark	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for traumatic injury, bone fracture, diarrhea, stomach and duodenal ulcer
227	Nandina domestica Thunb.	Nantianzhu南天竹	waŋ6liɛn4sɛ5	Berberidaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root, Stem, Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally; Root and stem are for cough, fever, conjunctivitis, diarrhea, jaundice, hepatitis, traumatic injury. Fruit is for cough, asthma, pertussis
228	Nepeta cataria L.	Jingjie荆芥	--	Lamiaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for common cold
229	Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C. Presl	Shenjue肾蕨	lak8ȵən4	Davalliaceae	--	Wild	Rhizome, Leaf, Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for fever due to common cold, cough, diarrhea, acute enteritis, jaundiced hepatitis
230	Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC.	Shuiqin水芹	maː6ʨip7ʑam5	Umbelliferae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for hypertension
231	Ophioglossum reticulatum L.	Xinyeping'erxiaocao心叶瓶尔小草	ruoŋ²ma²rui²	Ophioglossaceae	--	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle, snake bite and acute conjunctivitis
232	Ophiopogon japonicus (L. f.) Ker Gawl.	Maidong麦冬	ruoŋ²lak8ju³	Liliaceae	Herb	Both	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for chronic bronchitis, cough
233	Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw. var. dillenii (Ker-Gawl.) Benson	Xianrenzhang仙人掌	ma²mωm4	Cactaceae	Shrub	Both	Stem	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for parotitis, carbuncle, empyrosis
234	Oroxylum indicum (L. ) Kurz	Muhudie木蝴蝶	mei4ən³eu5	Bignoniaceae	Tree	Homegarden	Bark, Seed	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for acute bronchitis, tuberculosis, jaundiced hepatitis, sore throat
235	Osbeckia opipara C.Y. Wu & C. Chen	Chaotianguan朝天罐	--	Melastomataceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Boiled with meat and drunk the soup, treating for tonic, bleeding, diarrhea
236	Oxalis corniculata L.	Cujiangcao酢浆草	mba³thωm6sou¹	Oxalidaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for febrile convulsion, enteritis, diarrhea, parotitis
237	Paederia scandens (Lour.) Merr.	Jishiteng鸡矢藤	bieu³tωt7ma³	Rubiaceae	Liana	Wild	Whole plant, Root	Medicinal liquor for treating flu, cough, pertussis cough, diarrhea, stomachache, chest stuffiness
238	Paeonia lactiflora Pall.	Shaoyao芍药	--	Ranunculaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Root	Powder tied for pain and blood stasis
239	Paeonia suffruticosa Andrew	Mudan牡丹	ma5muan4	Ranunculaceae	Shrub	Homegarden	Root Bark	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for lobar pneumonia
240	Palhinhaea cernua (L.) Vasc. & Franco	Chuisuishisong垂穗石松	--	Lycopodiaceae	--	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for relaxing tendons and activating collaterals, carminative, blood stasis, bleeding
241	Paris polyphylla Sm.	Qiyeyizhihua七叶一枝花	wa6ten5va¹	Trilliaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury and snake bite
242	Pentasacme championii Benth.	Shiluomo石萝藦	ruoŋ²saŋ³nut8	Asclepiadaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatism, ostealgia, traumatic injury and ascites due to cirrhosis; Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for snake bite, herpes zosters
243	Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton	Zisu紫苏	mba³ha5lan¹	Lamiaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for common cold, cough, asthma, emesis
244	Periploca forrestii Schltr.	Heilonggu黑龙骨	mei5ʑa²nam5	Asclepiadaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Medicinal liquor for treating rheumatic arthritis
245	Phellodendron amurense Rupr.	Huangbo黄檗	mei5bɛ²ʔan³	Rutaceae	Tree	Wild	Bark	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for diabetes insipidus
246	Pholidota chinensis Lindl.	Shixiantao石仙桃	ruoŋ²xien³thui²	Orchidaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for cough, tuberculosis, scrofula, diuresis, infantile malnutrition
247	Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.	Luwei芦苇	gaŋ5diɛ²nau5	Gramineae	Herb	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for infantile whitish aphthae
248	Phyllanthus urinaria L.	Yexiazhu叶下珠	thuŋ6thin6sei¹	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for jaundiced hepatitis, diarrhea, enteritis, nephritis, edema and lithangiuria
249	Phyllodium pulchellum (L.) Desv.	Paiqianshu排钱树	ruoŋ²vak8rjen²	Fabaceae	Shrub	Wild	Leaf, Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for fever, diarrhea, malaria, hepatitis, rheumatic ostealgia, traumatic injury, schistosome
250	Physalis angulata L.	Kuzhi苦蘵	--	Solanaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for epidemic parotitis, cough, jaundice, hepatitis, diarrhea
251	Phytolacca acinosa Roxb.	Shanglu商陆	lak8phək8doŋ²	Phytolaccaceae	Herb	Both	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for cervical erosion, digestibility ulcer, liver ascites, constipation, diuresis
252	Pilea cavaleriei H. Lév.	Shiyoucai石油菜	bma³ju²thui²	Urticaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for lung heat panting, cough, tuberculosis, traumatic injury, empyrosis, furuncle
253	Piper hancei Maxim.	Shanju山蒟	tshuon5pi6fuŋ¹	Piperaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for lumbar muscle degeneration, chronic gastricism, cough, ostealgia, rheumatic arthritis, heatstroke, numbness of limbs
254	Pistia stratiotes Linnaeus Sp.	Dapiao大漂	--	Araceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for removing blood stasis
255	Plantago asiatica L.	Cheqian车前	mba³bɔk8	Plantaginaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for urinary tract infection, urinary stone, fever and cough due to common cold, nephritis, edema, bronchitis, hypertension
256	Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A. DC.	Jiegeng桔梗	--	Campanulaceae	Herb	Both	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for inflammation, cough
257	Plumbago zeylanica L.	Baihuadan白花丹	ruoŋ²ra²vɔk7	Plumbaginaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for traumatic injury
258	Pogonia japonica Rchb. f.	Zhulan朱兰	ma6ʑa4zao²	Orchidaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Boiled with meat and drunk the soup, treating for enuresis
259	Polygala japonica Houtt.	Guazijin瓜子金	ya¹yiŋ4ʑɛm²	Polygalaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for neurasthenia
260	Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua	Duohuahuangjing多花黄精	xiŋ²ʑa²	Liliaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Pound fresh part mixed with rice wine, applied on the affected area, treating for lymphadenectasis
261	Polygonatum odoratum (Mill.) Druce	Yuzhu玉竹	--	Liliaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for moistening lung for rresting cough
262	Polygonatum sibiricum Redouté	Huangjing黄精	ruoŋ²siŋ³mωmŋ4	Liliaceae	Herb	Both	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for tuberculosis, diabetes, hypertension, weakness after ill, invigorating spleen, reinforcing stomach
263	Polygonum aviculare L.	Shegan射干	laŋ5lu5kun²	Polygonaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for stranguria due to hematuria
264	Polygonum chinense L.	Huotanmu火炭母	va5mba³sωm¹	Polygonaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant, Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for diarrhea, enteritis, indigestion, hepatitis, pharyngitis. Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, furuncle, eczema, dermatitis, pruritus
265	Polygonum hydropiper L.	Shuiliao辣蓼	mba³we5	Polygonaceae	Herb	Both	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for diarrhea, acute ulcer, common cold, typhoid, rheumatism, ostealgia, traumatic injury. Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for eczema, centipede bite
266	Polygonum perfoliatum (L.) L.	gangban'gui杠板归	ruoŋ²tin³diək8	Polygonaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for jaundice, diarrhea, malaria, nephritis, edema. Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle, eczema, carbuncle
267	Portulaca oleracea L.	Machixian马齿苋	ruoŋ²mba³nəm¹	Portulacaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for acute cystitis, diarrhea, hypertension
268	Potentilla chinensis Ser.	Weilingcai委陵菜	ma6ʔgou²dui³	Rosaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for clearing away heat and toxic materials, diarrhea
269	Potentilla reyniana Bornm.	Sanyeweilingcai三叶委陵菜	--	Rosaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for preventing rabies
270	Potentilla kleiniana Wight & Arn.	Shehanweilingcai蛇含委陵菜	ɣo6bei6rɛnm4	Rosaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding the fresh part, decoction drunk for infantile fever
271	Prunella vulgaris L.	Xiakucao夏枯草	--	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for clearing away heat and toxic materials
272	Psoralea corylifolia L.	Buguzhi补骨脂	--	Fabaceae	Herb	Wild	Seed	Medicinal liquor for treating rheumatism and kidney deficiency
273	Pteris multifida Poir.	Jinglanbiancao井栏边草	ruoŋ²sωt7kai5	Pteridaceae	--	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for diarrhea, jaundiced hepatitis, hemafecia, hematuria
274	Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi	Ge葛	bieu³chai5	Fabaceae	Liana	Wild	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for fever, hypertension, protecting the liver, promoting salivation
275	Pulsatilla chinensis (Bunge) Regel	Baitouweng白头翁	wɔk7fian³puok8	Ranunculaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for diarrhea, malaria, dysmenorrhea, uterine bleeding
276	Punica granatum L.	Shiliu石榴	lak8liu²	Punicaceae	Shrub	Homegarden	Pericarp	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for diarrhea, acute enteritis, piles, proctoptosis
277	Pyrola calliantha Andres	Luticao鹿蹄草	--	Pyrolaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for cough, weakness
278	Pyrrosia lingua (Thunb.) Farw.	Shiwei石韦	mba³mei4ri²	Polypodiaceae	--	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for senile chronic bronchitis, pneumonia, nephritis, edema, urinary tract infection
279	Quisqualis indica L.	Shijunzi使君子	lak6rəm²	Combretaceae	Liana	Wild	Seed	Chewed for infantile malnutrition product, depriving ascarid
280	Rabdosia ternifolia (D. Don) H. Hara	Niuweicao牛尾草	tɛ5vɛn³ŋoŋ²	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for hepatitis, enteritis, common cold
281	Raphanus sativus L.	Luobo萝卜	vɛ³loŋ5bu³	Cruciferae	Herb	Homegarden	Seed	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for senile chronic bronchitis
282	Rauvolfia verticillata (Lour.) Baill.	Luofumu萝芙木	--	Apocynaceae	Shrub	Both	Root	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding, pain killer, hypertension, dispersing blood stasis
283	Rehmannia glutinosa (Gaertn.) Libosch. ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.	Dihuang地黄	ma6liao²lip7	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Wild	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for removing heat to promote salivation
284	Reineckia carnea (Andr.) Kunth.	Jixiangcao吉祥草	taŋ6kəp8	Liliaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for bronchitis
285	Reynoutria japonica Houtt.	Huzhang虎杖	ruoŋ²waŋ6chin6	Polygonaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for cough, blood stasis, rheumatism, traumatic injury, jaundice, amenorrhea
286	Rhoeo discolor (L'Hér.) Hance ex Walp.	Zibeiwannianqing紫背万年青	ruoŋ²phuoŋ²wa³	Commelinaceae	Herb	Wild	Flower	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for cough, pertussis cough, diarrhea, hemoptysis, sore throat, scrofula
287	Rhus chinensis Mill.	Yanfumu盐麸木	mei4wωt7	Anacardiaceae	Shrub	Both	Cecidium	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for bleeding, arrest sweating, piles, pharyngitis, inflammation
288	Ricinus communis L.	Bima蓖麻	thuŋ6ju6	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Seed	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for scabies
289	Rorippa indica (L.) Hiern	Hancai蔊菜	ma²you5yɛ5	Cruciferae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part and mixed with rapeseed oil, applied on the affected area, treating for dermatitis
290	Rosa chinensis Jacq.	Yuejihua月季花	ŋɛŋ4ŋɛŋ4ʑən5	Rosaceae	Shrub	Homegarden	Flower	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for abnormal menstruation
291	Rosa laevigata Michx.	Jinyingzi金樱子	lak8man4	Rosaceae	Shrub	Both	Root, Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for bone fracture, traumatic injury, appendicitis, diarrhea, enteritis, stomachache
292	Rosa multiflora Thunb.	Yeqiangwei野蔷薇	--	Rosaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root, Seed	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for clearing and activating the channels and collaterals, diuresis
293	Rosa roxburghii Tratt.	Saosihua缫丝花	taŋ5dɛnm³gaŋ4	Rosaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for indigestion, stomachache
294	Rubus parvifolius L.	Maomei茅莓	lak8thωm6pha³	Rosaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding the fresh part, decoction; Taken orally for jaundice, toothache, chronic hepatitis, stomachache, diarrhea, sphagitis
295	Rumex nepalensis Spreng.	Nibo'er'suanmo尼泊尔酸模	maː6ʔan6lou5	Polygonaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for nephritis
296	Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge	Danshen丹参	dan5sen5	Lamiaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for afterpains, removing blood stasis
297	Sambucus chinensis Lindl.	Jiegucao接骨草	--	Caprifoliaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatic arthritis, tonsillitis, rheumatoid arthritis, urinary tract infection
298	Sambucus williamsii Hance	Jiegumu接骨木	ruoŋ²ra²liem²	Caprifoliaceae	Shrub	Both	Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for traumatic injury, rheumatic arthritis, waist and legs pain, bone fracture, scapulohumeral periarthritis
299	Sanguisorba officinalis L.	Diyu地榆	gaŋ5gu²va³	Rosaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Grinding the fresh part, decoction; Taken orally for diarrhea
300	Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.	Wuhuanzi无患子	ruoŋ²lak8rək7	Sapindaceae	Tree	Wild	Seed	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for tuberculosis, pertussis cough
301	Sapium discolor (Champ. ex Benth.) Müll. Arg.	Shanwujiu山乌桕	ruoŋ²mei4ək7	Euphorbiaceae	Tree	Both	Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for traumatic injury, snake bite, constipation, carbuncle
302	Sargentodoxa cuneata (Oliv.) Rehder & E.H. Wilson	Daxueteng大血藤	bieu³phiat7	Lardizabalaceae	Liana	Wild	Root, Stem	Medicinal liquor for treating rheumatic arthritis, traumatic injury, ostealgia
303	Saurauia tristyla DC.	Shuidongge水东哥	--	Actinidiaceae	Shrub	Homegarden	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for carbuncle, cough, bronchitis, toothache
304	Saururus chinensis (Lour.) Baill.	Sanbaicao三白草	ruoŋ²sωt7mbei¹	Saururaceae	Herb	Both	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for nephritis, edema, lithangiuria, eczema, furuncle, carbuncle
305	Saxifraga stolonifera Curtis	Hu'er'cao虎耳草	ruoŋ²kha³mωm4	Saxifragaceae	Herb	Wild	Leaf	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic hemorrhage, furuncle, parotitis, empyrosis
306	Schefflera heptaphylla (L.) Frodin	E'zhangchai鹅掌柴	mei5dian²ʔɛp8	Araliaceae	Tree	Both	Root Bark, Stem Bark, Leaf	Grinding and decoction; Taken orally; Root and Stem bark are for fever, rheumatism, ostealgia, traumatic injury, sore throat; Leaf is for eczema, allergic dermatitis
307	Schizocapsa plantaginea Hance	Lieguoshu裂果薯	suei¹lo6pu4	Taccaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for cough, traumatic injury, pharyngitis, heart and stomach pain
308	Scutellaria barbata D. Don	Banzhilian半枝莲	ruoŋ²wɔk7lim6sɛ5	Lamiaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for cancer, appendicitis, hepatitis and hepatic ascites
309	Selaginella moellendorffii Hieron.	Jiangnanjuanbai江南卷柏	ʔguit7miɛ²bua5	Selaginellaceae	--	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for hematoma after contusion
310	Selaginella tamariscina (P. Beauv.) Spring	Juanbai卷柏	ruoŋ²sai³thui²	Selaginellaceae	--	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for hemafecia, epistaxis, metrorrhagia, traumatic injury, chronic hepatitis, proctoptosis
311	Semiaquilegia adoxoides (DC.) Makino	Tiankui天葵	ma³ɣe5ŋɔ²	Ranunculaceae	Herb	Wild	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for stomachache
312	Senecio scandens Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don	Qianliguang千里光	wa³nuk8so5	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for fever, jaundiced hepatitis, throat ache, mumps, bleeding, eczema
313	Senna occidentalis (L.) Link	Wangjiangnan望江南	--	Fabaceae	Shrub	Both	Seed	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for habitual constipation, hypertension, headache, indigestion, epifolliculitis, oral mucosa ulcer
314	Serissa japonica (Thunb.) Thunb.	Liuyuexue六月雪	taŋ5ʔnui5wai³	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for infantile convulsions
315	Setcreasea purpurea Boom	Zizhumei紫竹梅	--	Commelinaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding, snake bite, activating blood and herpes
316	Sida szechuensis Matsuda	Badusan拔毒散	--	Malvaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury and inflammation
317	Sigesbeckia orientalis L.	Xixian豨莶	wɔk7cut7btio¹	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for insomnia, hypertension, acute jaundiced hepatitis, diarrhea, malaria, numbness of limbs
318	Smilax glabra Roxb.	Tufuling土茯苓	lak8dəm4sei¹	Smilacaceae	Herb	Homegarden	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for nephritis, diarrhea, detoxication, arthralgia
319	Solanum capsicoides All.	Niuqiezi牛茄子	--	Solanaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for fever due to common cold, headache, cough, abscess, chest stuffiness
320	Solanum violaceum L.	Citianqie刺天茄	lak8khat8se5	Solanaceae	Shrub	Wild	Leaf, Fruit	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for yellow-water ulcer, fingers ulcer and ringworm
321	Solidago decurrens Lour.	Yizhihuanghua一枝黄花	wɔk7wa³man¹	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for fever, headache, jaundice, bronchitis, acute gastricism, upper respiratory infection, swelling, throat ache
322	Sophora flavescens Aiton	Kushen苦参	ruoŋ²ŋau³in5	Fabaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for piles, cutaneous pruritus
323	Sophora tonkinensis Gagnep.	Yuenanhuai越南槐	--	Fabaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for acute pharyngitis, tonsillitis, swelling and aching of gum, cough, constipation
324	Sparganium stoloniferum (Buch.-Ham. ex Graebn.) Buch.-Ham. ex Juz.	Heisanleng黑三棱	--	Sparganiaceae	Herb	Wild	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for blood stasis, pain killer
325	Spatholobus sinensis Chun & T.C. Chen	Hongxueteng红血藤	ruoŋ²pu¹phiat7	Fabaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem	Medicinal liquor for treating traumatic injury
326	Spatholobus suberectus Dunn	Mihuadou密花豆	--	Fabaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for stomachache, enriching blood, waist and knees pain
327	Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames	Shoucao绶草	ruoŋ²thou6neŋ4	Orchidaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant, Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for diabetes, leucorrhoea, weakness, sore throat, neurasthenia and erectile dysfunction
328	Stahlianthus involucratus (King ex Baker) Craib	Tutianqi土田七	ruoŋ²iŋ³doŋ²	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Both	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for traumatic injury, rheumatism, ostealgia
329	Stemona tuberosa Lour.	Dabaibu大百部	lak8ru³khui²	Stemonaceae	Liana	Wild	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for pertussis cough, tuberculosis, bronchitis
330	Stephania cepharantha Hayata	Jinxiandiaowugui金线吊乌龟	mɛi5miu²	Menispermaceae	Liana	Wild	Tuber	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for carbuncle, snake bite
331	Streptocaulon juventas (Lour.) Merr.	Anxiaoteng暗消藤	--	Asclepiadaceae	Liana	Wild	Root, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally; Root is for diarrhea, piles, pneumonia, vitiligo and arrhythmia; Pound fresh leaf applied on the affected area, treating for snake bite, eczema and vaginitis
332	Striga asiatica (L.) Kuntze	Dujiaojin独脚金	ruoŋ²ra²mei³	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for infantile malnutrition, dampness-heat constitution, diarrhea, jaundiced hepatitis
333	Strophanthus divaricatus (Lour.) Hook. & Arn.	Yangjiaoniu羊角拗	--	Apocynaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatic arthritis, traumatic injury, snake bite, sprain
334	Tadehagi triquetrum (L.) H. Ohashi	Hulucha葫芦茶	tsha²ja¹	Fabaceae	Shrub	Both	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for nephritis, enteritis, diarrhea, hepatitis
335	Talinum paniculatum (Jacq.) Gaertn.	Turenshen土人参	kau5li6sωn¹	Portulacaceae	Herb	Wild	Root	Boiled with meat and drunk the soup, treating for moistening lung, health tonic
336	Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz.	Pugongying蒲公英	mba³kat7sei¹	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for conjunctivitis, epidemic parotitis, enteritis, gastricism, hepatitis, diarrhea, acute mastitis, sphagitis
337	Taxillus chinensis (DC.) Danser	Guangjisheng广寄生	--	Loranthaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for numbness of limbs, rheumatism, ostealgia, arthritis, lumbar muscle degeneration
338	Tetrapanax papyrifer (Hook.) K. Koch	Tongtuomu通脱木	tai5poŋ²	Araliaceae	Shrub	Homegarden	Stem pith	Boiled with meat and drunk the soup, treating for promoting lactation
339	Tetrastigma planicaule (Hook. f.) Gagnep.	Biandanteng扁担藤	mʔau5biɛn²	Vitaceae	Liana	Both	Root, Stem	Fried the root or stem, fumigation for pinkeye
340	Tinospora sagittata (Oliv.) Gagnep.	Qingniudan青牛胆	kɔŋ¹piɛŋ5vi³	Menispermaceae	Liana	Wild	Tuber	Powder, dispersed in water and drunk for acute gastroenteritis, acute pharyngitis, bacillary diarrhea, appendicitis
341	Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr.	Zhonghuaqingniudan中华青牛胆	yuoŋ²soŋ³jin³	Menispermaceae	Liana	Wild	Stem	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for rheumatism, traumatic injury, lumbar muscle degeneration, sciatica
342	Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam.	Feilongzhangxue飞龙掌血	cim³ce³vin¹	Rutaceae	Liana	Wild	Root Bark	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, skin disease, relieving pain, detumescence
343	Trachelospermum jasminoides (Lindl.) Lem.	Luoshi络石	--	Apocynaceae	Liana	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for bleeding, rheumatism, waist pain, dispersing blood stasis
344	Trachycarpus fortunei (Hook.) H. Wendl.	Zonglü棕榈	wei5	Palmae	Tree	Homegarden	Leaf, Fruit	Boiled with meat and drunk the soup, treating for epilepsy
345	Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim.	Gualou栝楼	--	Cucurbitaceae	Liana	Wild	Root	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for removing heat to promote salivation, expel pus and disperse swelling
346	Trichosanthes rosthornii Harms	Zhonghuagualou中华栝楼	gua5ʔe5ma²	Cucurbitaceae	Liana	Wild	Shuck, Seed	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for edema
347	Typhonium blumei Nicolson & Sivad.	Litoujian犁头尖	lak8chieu4dɔŋ²	Araceae	Herb	Wild	Tuber	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for snake bite, scrofula, traumatic injury, hemangioma and furuncle
348	Typhonium giganteum Engl.	Dujiaolian独角莲	--	Araceae	Herb	Both	Tuber	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for gastroduodenal ulcer
349	Uncaria rhynchophylla (Miq.) Miq. ex Havil.	Gouteng钩藤	mei5gʔau²dau³	Rubiaceae	Liana	Wild	Hooked stem	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for jaundiced hepatitis, dizziness, headach, calming the liver
350	Urena lobata L.	Ditaohua地桃花	ruoŋ²wɔk7cut7	Malvaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for fever, diarrhea, enteritis, malaria; Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, bone fracture, snake bite, mastitis
351	Valeriana jatamansi Jones	Zhizhuxiang蜘蛛香	ma²va³	Valerianaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for furuncle
352	Ventilago leiocarpa Benth.	Yiheguo翼核果	--	Rhamnaceae	Shrub	Wild	Root	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for traumatic injury, rheumatism, numbness of limbs, edema and menorrhagia
353	Verbena officinalis L.	Mabiancao马鞭草	ruoŋ²pien³mia4	Verbenaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for hypertension, diarrhea, malaria, nephritis, fever due to common cold, urinary tract infection
354	Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less.	Yexiangniu夜香牛	ruoŋ²məm5ndaŋ³	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Pound fresh part applied on the affected area, treating for snake bite, swelling, furuncle
355	Viola inconspicua Blume	Chang'e'jincai长萼堇菜	va5mba³kuei³	Violaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for pharyngitis, jaundice, diarrhea, swelling, pain of eye
356	Viola philippica Cav.	Zihuadiding紫花地丁	ya5mɛp8li²	Violaceae	Herb	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for appendicitis, piles
357	Viscum liquidambaricolum Hayata	Fengxianghujisheng枫香槲寄生	sap7mei4hu³	Loranthaceae	Shrub	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for lumbar muscle degeneration, cough, traumatic injury, rheumatic arthritis
358	Vitex negundo L.	Huangjing黄荆	mei4ciŋ³	Verbenaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for diarrhea, malaria, enteritis, common cold, heatstroke
359	Vitex trifolia L.	Manjing蔓荆	mei5ʨiɛ²ʑa²	Verbenaceae	Shrub	Wild	Fruit	Powder, swallowed for headache
360	Wikstroemia indica (L.) C.A. Mey.	Liaogewang了哥王	ruoŋ²ljɛŋljeu4	Thymelaeaceae	Shrub	Wild	Stem, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for clearing away heat and toxic materials, traumatic injury, hepatitis, parotitis
361	Woodwardia japonica (L. f.) Sm.	Gouji狗脊	waŋ6cin5kou¹	Blechnaceae	Herb	Wild	Rhizome	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for neurasthenia, rheumatic arthralgia, diuresis, waist and knees pain
362	Wrightia laevis Hook. f.	Lanshu蓝树	--	Apocynaceae	Tree	Homegarden	Root, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for bleeding, traumatic injury, mumps
363	Xanthium sibiricum Patrin ex Widder	Cang'er苍耳	wɔk7cut7lau4	Asteraceae	Herb	Wild	Fruit	Pound after fried and drunk with yellow wine for enteritis, rheumatic arthralgia, headache
364	Zanthoxylum armatum DC.	Zhuyehuajiao竹叶花椒	lak8xieu³na4	Rutaceae	Tree	Both	Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for traumatic injury, chronic gastricism, cough, depriving ascarid
365	Zanthoxylum nitidum (Roxb.) DC.	Liangmianzhen两面针	lak8xieu³doŋ²	Rutaceae	Liana	Wild	Root, Stem, Leaf	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for duodenal ulcer, traumatic injury, rheumatism, diarrhea, malaria, chronic gastricism
366	Zea mays L.	Yumi玉米	nui5wei5die³	Gramineae	Herb	Homegarden	Column	Powder swallowed for diabetes
367	Zehneria indica (Lour.) Keraudren	Laoshuladonggua老鼠拉冬瓜	lak8kua³no¹	Cucurbitaceae	Liana	Wild	Whole plant	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for urinary tract infection, tonsillitis, acute conjunctivitis, carbuncle
368	Ziziphus jujuba Mill.	Zao枣	zaːo³ziː²	Rhamnaceae	Tree	Homegarden	Fruit	Grinding, decoction; Taken orally for infantile diarrhea

Table 2.

Taxonomic diversity of medicinal plants in the study area

Family	Number of genera	Percentage (%)	Number of species	Percentage of species (%)
Asteraceae	22	7.46	24	6.52
Fabaceae	15	5.08	19	5.16
Rosaceae	11	3.73	16	4.35
Euphorbiaceae	8	2.71	14	3.80
Liliaceae	9	3.05	13	3.53
Araceae	7	2.37	11	2.99
Lamiaceae	9	3.05	9	2.45
Polygonaceae	4	1.36	8	2.17
Zingiberaceae	4	1.36	8	2.17
Lauraceae	4	1.36	7	1.90
Ranunculaceae	6	2.03	7	1.90
Rutaceae	5	1.69	7	1.90
Asclepiadaceae	4	1.36	7	1.90
Cucurbitaceae	6	2.03	7	1.90
Gramineae	6	2.03	6	1.63
Araliaceae	4	1.36	6	1.63
Rubiaceae	6	2.03	6	1.63
Verbenaceae	4	1.36	6	1.63
Other families	162	54.92	188	51.09
Total	295	100	368	100

The distribution of informants in age, gender and education class was shown in Table 3. The majority of informants interviewed were above 40 years old in this investigation. The male informants were 89.8% and less educated. There was a significant correlation between the informant age and phytomedicinal knowledge.

Table 3.

Demographic profile of informants

Indicator	Description	Frequency (%)
Age	20-29	7 (5.9)
	30-39	23 (19.5)
	40-49	38 (32.2)
	50-59	29 (24.6)
	60-69	12 (10.2)
	70-79	5 (4.2)
	≥80	4 (3.4)
Gender	Male	106 (89.8)
	Female	12 (10.2)
Education	None	27 (22.9)
	Primary	72 (61.0)
	Secondary	13 (11.0)
	Tertiary	6 (5.1)

Life forms, plant parts used, method of collection and administration

The result of life form analysis of medicinal plants showed that herbaceous plants constituted the highest proportion represented by 203 (55.16%) species, while there were 67 (18.21%) shrubs species, 43 (11.68%) lianas and 41 (11.14%) tree species (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Life forms of medicinal plants in the study area.

Informants of the study area used different plant parts for preparation of traditional drugs (e.g. leaves, roots, seeds, barks and fruits). The informants reported that more species (153) of medicinal plants were harvested for their whole plants, and these were followed by roots (83), leaves (45), stems (30), fruits (29), tubers (29), rhizomes (27) and 51 other parts (seed, bark, flower and so on) (Figure 3). The majority of remedies were prepared from fresh materials, and some were prepared from either dried or fresh materials while a few were only used from dried materials.

Figure 3.

Plant parts used for the treatment of human ailments.

Of these 368 species of medicinal plants collected from the study area, most of them (256, 67.72%) were obtained from the wild habitats whereas 54 (14.67%) were from home gardens, and only 58 (15.76%) species were from both home gardens and wild habitats (see Table 1). The majority of plants used as medicine were freely harvested by healers from natural environment, while some exotic or difficult-accessed species were bought from medicinal materials suppliers. Generally fresh parts were wild harvest. Most medicinal plants were not available from local market, only some species were found to be sold but mainly for their uses as spice or food, such as Zanthoxylum armatum, Nepeta cataria and Houttuynia cordata.

Diseases treated in the study area

The medicinal plants were used to treat 95 human ailments in the study area. With regard to human diseases, traumatic injury was the one against which a high number of medicinal plants (67 species) were prescribed, followed by diarrhea (65 species), cough (44 species), hepatitis (37 species), enteritis (35 species), rheumatism (30 species), arthritis (27 species), bleeding (26 species), snake bite (24 species), furuncle (22 species) and nephritis (22 species).

The highest number of species (139, 37.57%) was used for the treatment of internal organs like liver (hepatitis, cirrhosis, jaundice, hepatic ascites, hepatosplenomegaly and so on), stomach (stomachache, stomach ulcer, gastroduodenal ulcer, flatulence, gastricism, indigestion and poor appetite), enteron (enteritis, proctoptosis, appendicitis and so on), spleen and diarrhea, with 251 (20.69%) of all conditions (Table 4 Rheumatic problems (83 species used, 22.4%) were mentioned as 140 (11.54%) of all uses; 83 species (22.4%) were used to treat respiratory problems, with 112 applications (9.23%). Bone problems were treated with 72 species (19.46%), with 85 conditions (7.01%). Skin problems were mentioned in 87 uses (7.17%), with 65 species (17.57%) used for treatment. Inflammation was treated with 48 species (12.97%), and comprised 67 (5.52%) of all conditions (Table 4).

Table 4.

Informant consensus factor by categories of diseases in the study area

Category	Number of spp.	Total of spp. (%)	Number of use citation	Total of use citations (%)	F IC
Stomach, intestine and liver diseases (Internal Organ)	139	37.57	236	10.69	0.41
Respiratory system	83	22.43	153	6.93	0.46
Rheumatic problems	83	22.43	217	9.83	0.62
Traumatic injury and sprain	72	19.46	275	12.46	0.74
Skin diseases, skin cut and wound	65	17.57	152	6.89	0.58
Urinary system	47	12.70	105	4.76	0.56
Inflammation	48	12.97	143	6.48	0.67
Infectious diseases	40	10.81	78	3.53	0.49
Fever and malaria	36	9.73	132	5.98	0.73
Bleeding and hemorrhages	36	9.73	95	4.30	0.63
Pain	30	8.11	64	2.90	0.54
Animal bite (snake, centipede, mosquito and bat)	30	8.11	86	3.90	0.66
Gynecological problems	29	7.84	54	2. 45	0.47
Infantile diseases	28	7.57	110	4.98	0.75
Heart and circulatory system	25	6.76	42	1.90	0.41
Male problems	25	6.76	76	3.44	0.68
Nerves and psychosomatic problems	12	3.24	14	0.63	0.15
Hyperlipidemia and diabetes	6	1.62	13	0.59	0.58
Brain diseases	5	1.35	7	0.32	0.33
Cancer and tumors	4	1.08	6	0.27	0.40
Other Uses (edema, swelling and so on)	87	23.51	149	6.75	0.42

Ranking, informant consensus factor and multipurpose of medicinal plants

Among all ailments in the villages surveyed, traumatic injury was the most commonly disease against which a high number of medicinal plants (67 species) were prescribed. Seven medicinal plant species were used effectively for treating traumatic injury according to key informants. The results revealed Gaultheria leucocarpa was the most preferred medicinal plant, followed by Acanthopanax trifoliatus, and Sargentodoxa cuneata (Table 5).

Table 5.

Preference ranking to medicinal plants used to treat traumatic injury

List of medicinal plants	Informants								Total	Rank
	R 1	R 2	R 3	R 4	R 5	R 6	R 7	R 8
Acanthopanax trifoliatus	4	7	5	5	7	5	4	5	42	2
Bauhinia championii	3	4	6	7	1	3	1	2	27	5
Gaultheria leucocarpa	5	5	7	6	5	6	6	3	43	1
Justicia ventricosa	2	6	3	1	4	4	2	4	26	6
Polygonum chinense	6	1	1	2	2	1	3	1	17	7
Sargentodoxa cuneata	7	3	4	4	3	7	5	7	40	3
Sambucus williamsii	1	2	2	3	6	2	7	6	29	4

Key--R represented respondents; Scores in the table indicated ranks given to medicinal plants based on their scarcity. Highest number (7) is for the medicinal plants which informants thought most preferred in the area and the lowest number (1) for the least preferred medicinal plant.

Table 4 gave an overview of the main illness categories. The diseases that were prevalent in the study area had relatively higher F_IC values. Medicinal plants to treat certain disease effectively and with reputation in Maonan communities also have higher F_IC: traumatic injury and sprain (0.74), fever and malaria (0.73) and infantile diseases (0.75). Moreover, informants indicated the effectiveness of traditional medicines to get relief from certain diseases including traumatic injury, bone fracture, health problems associated with the liver disorder, snake bite, and spider poisoning.

The Maonans naturally relied on plants for multipurpose. Table 6 showed the most frequently inventoried medicinal plants had more functions used by the Maonans in local societies. In addition to medicinal value, most of medicinal plants were also valued for their economic, edible and ornamental values which were considered to serve an ecological role in the study sites. These plants included Acanthopanax trifoliatus, Litsea pungens, Platycodon grandiflorus, Rubus parvifolius, and Talinum paniculatum. Besides their medicinal purpose, these plants were sold in the local markets for the purposes of foods, spices and herbal teas, such as Allium fistulosum, Allium tuberosum, Cinnamomum cassia, Perilla frutescens, Oenanthe javanica, Gardenia jasminoides, Houttuynia cordata, and Juglans regia.

Table 6.

Most frequently inventoried medicinal plants

Species name	Medicinal value	Edible value	Economic value	Ornamental value
Acanthopanax trifoliatus	√	√	√	√
Buddleja officinalis	√	√	√
Houttuynia cordata	√	√	√
Litsea pungens	√	√	√	√
Murraya exotica	√		√	√
Nephrolepis cordifolia	√		√
Paederia scandens	√	√
Platycodon grandiflorus	√	√	√	√
Rauvolfia verticillata	√		√	√
Rubus parvifolius	√	√	√	√
Sargentodoxa cuneata	√		√
Talinum paniculatum	√	√	√	√
Tetrapanax papyrifer	√		√

Mode of preparation, condition, dosage of application

Various plant species were collected and used immediately. Most of the medicinal formulations were administrated orally in ailment categories other than dermatological problems. In dermatological ailments, plants were administrated externally. Water and some additives were often used in the preparation of remedies, such as alcohol, oil, honey, salt, sugar, eggs, chicken, duck and meat. The additives were claimed to either increase nutrition or improve flavor. Most informants used measuring units such as cup, bowl, spoon, fingers and scale but still differed in the doses they administered. The various ways of measuring dosage were generally categorized under three major classes. One dosage was used for those medicinal plants which were expected to be highly toxic. For such medicines the measurement was undertaken by number or weight. The second was the dosage used for medicinal plants which have side effect. The dosage was measured by their hand and taken by container. The third case referred to the medicinal plants without any observable side effects. Medicines prepared were taken according to patients’ personal preference.

Most of the medicinal plant preparations involved the use of single plant species or a single plant part while those mixing different plants or plant parts were less encountered in the study area excluding those for treating bone fracture, rheumatism and other difficult diseases. Suffering from common diseases (common cold, indigestion, mosquito bite and so on), the Maonans usually picked up some medicinal plants for treatments by themselves. Otherwise, they should turn to the Maonan healers for help, and the local healers usually prepared remedies by mixing various plants or plant parts. Lack of consistency regarding amount of medicines was observed among informants. There was no concise standard in measurement or unit used among the informants.

Threats to medicinal plants and conservation practices

Various factors that were considered as main threats for medicinal plants were recorded by discussion with the informants in the study area. The principal threats of medicinal plants were reported to include drought, deforestation, medicinal purpose, and firewood collection in this area. Informants ranked that the major factors were deforestation for the purpose of agricultural expansion (75%), drought (10%), collection of medicinal plant material (10%) and fire wood (5%). The Maonan people knew the benefits of conserving medicinal plants. However, the effort of conserving medicinal plants was very limited, because most medicinal plants were collected from wild. Even the local healers who frequently made use of medicinal plants for livelihood did not conserve medicinal plants very well, and they preferred to collect them from wild when using for patients.

Discussion

Medicinal plants and associated traditional knowledge

On the basis of field investigation and literature studies, 368 species of medicinal plants belonged to 295 genera and 115 families were cataloged. Chinese name, scientific name, local name, family name, used parts and the treatment of diseases were listed. Asteraceae (with 24 species) occupied the highest proportion (6.52%), followed by Fabaceae, Rosaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Moerman also found that species of plants in the sunflower family (Asteraceae) tended to be represented in ethnobotanical usage in excess of what would be expected by their occurrence in local environments [27-29]. In contrast, Moerman identified the greater number of families across North America in general. The most widely used plant remedies by the Maonans were obtained from herbaceous species which constituted the highest category of 203 species (55.16%). Similar findings were reported by other studies throughout the world, and the authors reported that people derived their medicine from herbs partly because of the fact that forests had been degraded, and it took less time and effort to harvest plant material from medicinal herbs [6,30-32].

The special geographical environment results in the rich biodiversity of medicinal plants in the study area. The Maonans have learnt to use local medicinal plants for treatment and prevention in the course of struggling with the ailments. The number of reported medicinal plants and their uses by the Maonans indicate the depth of indigenous knowledge on the medicinal plants and their applications. The Maonans have collected their indigenous knowledge and experience of medicinal plants. Without written language, the knowledge of medicinal plants is still taught orally in the Maonan communities. There is not data record or any illustrated identification which guides for the medicinal plants of Maonan people and their uses.

The Maonans have the traditional customs of disease prevention and emphasize on the function of medicinal food in ordinary life. They usually add medicinal plants into food for the purpose of enhancing the body’s immunity and disease resistance, such as Talinum paniculatum, Gymnotheca chinensis, Osbeckia opipara and so on. The Maonans have the custom of collecting the medicinal plants for cooking and bathing in dragon-boat festival, such as Acorus calamus, Curcuma longa, Paederia scandens and Leonurus artemisia. They believe that it would be beneficial for their health. This is because many plants matured in the season of dragon-boat festival [33].

Preparation, dosage and route of administration of medicinal plants

The most widely harvested part was the whole plant, followed by the roots, leaves, stems and others. The Maonan people used a lot of roots, stems, rhizomes and bark for medicinal purpose. They believed these parts were the most effective. However, such collection of the medicinal plants might kill or damage plants when harvesting. Utilization of leaves might not cause detrimental effect on the plants compared with plant species that root was utilized. Most of medicinal plants were claimed to be prepared from a single species or plant part in the present study, and the different parts of medicinal plant were used to treat disparate diseases. Although Maonan people preferred to treat illnesses with single species, it was observed that the healers mostly used multiple species or plant parts in order to increase the function and efficacy of the drug as they reported during the interviews. Representatively, the Maonan healers mostly used more than one plant species to prepare remedy for treating bone fracture and traumatic injury.

Grinding was the most widely used method of preparation for remedy in the study area. Pounding and powdering fresh plant materials were the other methods of preparation in the study area. Due to the efficiency and richness of the fresh medicinal plants in the study area, preference of application of fresh plant parts was observed. Moreover, internal and skin diseases were more prevalent in the study area. The fresh material use might be an attempt not to lose volatile oils, the concentration of which could decrease on drying. Moa et al. reported that the disadvantage was that utilization of fresh plant parts may threaten the plants through frequent collection including in dry seasons since local people made minimal efforts in storing dried plant material for later use [6].

The Maonans usually use the processing methods such as decoction, medicinal liquor, external application and medicated bath. The way of using herbs was benefit for the popularity in a simple and easy method. They used different additives like alcohol, oil, honey, salt, sugar, eggs, chicken, duck and meat in order to increase the flavor, taste and general acceptability of certain orally administered remedies. Because of poverty, eating animal meat and eggs could increase proteins and might be helpful for body recovery when the Maonans were ill. The Maonan healers considered that alcohol could promote the blood circulation and accelerate the absorption of exudates. In addition, the Maonan healers used different procedures to administer the medicinal plants and alcohol combinations. The medicinal plants were soaked in alcohol for nearly one month and then the patients could drink or applied externally on the affected parts. For example, Acanthopanax gracilistylus, Achyranthes bidentata, Ardisia gigantifolia, Ardisia japonica, Arisaema heterophyllum, Davallia mariesii, Dipsacus asperoides, Drynaria propinqua, Homalomena occulta, Sambucus williamsii, Bauhinia championii, Murraya exotica, and Paris polyphylla were usually soaked in alcohol for treating traumatic injury and bone fracture.

Effectiveness and popularity of medicinal plants

Due to the influence of geography, climate and food culture in Maonan areas, the Maonan healers understood the varieties of diseases, such as traumatic injury, snake bite, hepatitis, respiratory disease, digestive system disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and skin problems. The local people expressed they preferred to use traditional medicines rather than western drugs to get relief from some diseases including bone fracture, health problems associated with the liver, snake bite and those caused by hepatitis. The Maonan healers treated ailments based on the patients’ physical conditions, lack of consistency regarding amount of medicines to be used was observed among informants during the interviews. The healers usually did not know which ingredients were important for the therapeutic effect in the multiple prescriptions. The lack of precise dosage was one shortage of traditional medicinal plant uses.

Most of Maonan people knew how to use several medicinal plants for treating ailments and health protection. Traditional medicine knowledge was not only in the hands of the Maonan healers and herbalists in the study area. Moreover, Maonan people grew medicinal plants in their home gardens. Plant species maintained by Maonan healers was found to be significantly distinct from plant species managed by farmers. The Maonan healers knew more than 30 medicinal plant species, while most of the non-healers reported less than 15 species. Ethnomedicinal usage of plants managed by healers was remarkably distinct from usage categories managed by farmers. The Maonan healers were reported to use a combination of multiple medicinal plants to treat an illness, but the farmers always used single plant species or a single plant part.

Medicinal plant cultivation and trade

The Maonan people in the study area knew the benefits of conserving medicinal plants. However, the effort of conserving medicinal plants was very limited. For example, only 20.75% of medicinal plants were collected from home gardens, and most of the plants from home gardens were used for foods, spices and substitutes for tea. The majority of medicinal plants were harvested from wild habitats. Even Maonan healers who made use of medicinal plants for a livelihood did not conserve the important medicinal plants in their home gardens, and they preferred to collect them from wild or hidden places when patients visited them. It was explained by informants that local healers did not let the other villagers know the identity of the medicinal plants they were using. Informants further explained that if healers planted the species in their home gardens, they worried that somebody else might recognize them when they were preparing the medicine from the plants. Thus the healers’ income would be decreased.

Because of complex terrain and language barrier, the Maonans have been in the traditional self-sufficient agricultural economy in the karst areas. There is a seasonal medicinal market which opens 3 times each month. The sites of purchase and sale of local medicinal plants are located in the town. The medicinal plants grown by farmers were used for household healthcare and little was sold in herbal markets, while medicinal plants were cultivated by healers rarely for trading, either. Not many medicinal plants were solely cultivated for their medicinal purpose, except that the plants were multipurpose (Table 6). Lack of water and land, most Maonan people would prefer to cultivate foods or cash crops rather than medicinal plants. The other reason was that most medicinal plants were not sold at reasonable prices and therefore not profitable, providing very little incentives for their cultivation. The local medicinal markets were small-scaled and were not paid enough attention. The markets provided convenience for the exchange of local medicinal plants, but not providing a good place for indigenous knowledge. This trend might not be beneficial for maintaining traditional practices and giving traditional knowledge the respect it deserves.

Threats to medicinal plants and conservation practices in the study area

According to informants, nowadays it would take a lot of time and travel long distances to search for some medicinal plants, especially trees and some shrubs. The principal threats of medicinal plants were reported in the study area, including deforestation for agricultural purposes, urbanization, drought, over-harvesting of known medicinal species and firewood collection. Also, informants ranked deforestation for agricultural purposes as the most serious threat to medicinal plants followed by drought, collection of other different factors and firewood. The conservation of medicinal plants was less realized in the study area.

Medicinal plants knowledge secrecy, mode of transfer, gender issue and threats between different social groups within the Maonan area

This study highlighted the rich biodiversity of medicinal plants and ethnomedicinal practice in Maonan area to maintain wellbeing and support livelihoods. This study revealed that, most of the knowledge on herbal remedies was handled down to the younger members of the community by elders orally, who were over 40 years old and less-educated. The Maonan herbalists and healers were male, and only men had the opportunities to study knowledge of traditional medicinal plants in the family. The conservative concept of Maonan healers made a systematic indigenous knowledge of Maonan traditional medicine, which had always been in the hands of a few people. The age structure and knowledge transmission system had the negative influence on the inheritance and development of indigenous knowledge. It dramatically exposed the vulnerability of traditional medicinal knowledge if its transmission was limited by acculturation or inter-ethnic exchange from generation to generation [15,34,35].

Nowadays, the fact is that inheritance of indigenous knowledge is difficulty from the elders to the young generation. Most young people do not believe that studying indigenous knowledge is beneficial for their life because it is less profited compared to working in the urban area. Furthermore, some young people think traditional medicine is anti-science. While male Maonan people work outside, women take responsibility to take care of their families and educate children. If women know how to use medicinal plants, it will be beneficial for training children. According to our interviews, the Maonan women are eager to learn the traditional herbal medicinal knowledge. They may become potential and effective inheritors in the Maonan area, if customary inheriting system allows them.

Conclusions

The paper is an ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants used by Maonan people. We documented 368 species (belonging to 295 genera and 115 families) of medicinal plants used by the Maonans in Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County, northern Guangxi, southwest China. These plants were used to treat 95 human diseases, such as traumatic injury, bone fracture, health problems associated with the liver disorder, snake bite, and spider poisoning etc. Traditional knowledge about the use, preparation, and application of these medicinal plants is usually passed verbally from generation to generation. The valuable information about medicinal plants could be preserved while recording in the written form. Moreover, the documentation of medicinal plants can serve as a basis for future investigation of new medicinal resources.

Among the medicinal plant species, the whole plants of herbaceous species are harvested from field and constituted the highest proportion of medicinal plants to be utilized. More roots and barks are used than other plant parts, which imply that traditional medical culture in the Maonan area does threaten some species. Although high numbers of medicinal plant species have been reported to be used for human health problems, many wild species are being threatened by various anthropogenic factors while conservation efforts are less practiced in the study area. Deforestation for agricultural purposes is the major threat factor. To save and protect medicinal plants, the external help is necessary, by providing the Maonan people with both seedlings or seeds and cultivation techniques of medicinal plants.

The Maonan men are the only inheritors to transmit traditional medicinal knowledge to the next generations. Unfortunately, the knowledge on herbal remedies is held by elders, who are less educated and above 40 years old. Most young men prefer to look for jobs in urban areas instead of studying the Maonan’s medicinal knowledge. It is urgent to find solution of conserving and transmitting the traditional medicinal knowledge in the study area.

Thus, government agencies should encourage the Maonan people to maintain the biodiversity and the ethnomedicinal knowledge by providing the local people with planting materials of the most threatened and preferred medicinal and multipurpose species so that they can grow these plants in their home gardens or farmlands. Public awareness is needed to encourage the local Maonan people to sustainably utilize and manage the medicinal plant resources. Ex situ and in situ conservation measures should be taken to protect the medicinal plants in the study areas from further loss.

Consent

Permissions were provided by all participants in this study, including the local Maonan people. Consent was obtained from the local communities prior to the field investigations. The authors have all copyrights.