Assessing the carcinogenic potential of low-dose exposures to chemical mixtures in the environment: focus on the cancer hallmark of tumor angiogenesis

Zhiwei Hu; Samira A Brooks; Valérian Dormoy; Chia-Wen Hsu; Hsue-Yin Hsu; Liang-Tzung Lin; Thierry Massfelder; W Kimryn Rathmell; Menghang Xia; Fahd Al-Mulla; Rabeah Al-Temaimi; Amedeo Amedei; Dustin G Brown; Kalan R Prudhomme; Annamaria Colacci; Roslida A Hamid; Chiara Mondello; Jayadev Raju; Elizabeth P Ryan; Jordan Woodrick; A Ivana Scovassi; Neetu Singh; Monica Vaccari; Rabindra Roy; Stefano Forte; Lorenzo Memeo; Hosni K Salem; Leroy Lowe; Lasse Jensen; William H Bisson; Nicole Kleinstreuer

doi:10.1093/carcin/bgv036

. 2015 Jun 19;36(Suppl 1):S184–S202. doi: 10.1093/carcin/bgv036

Assessing the carcinogenic potential of low-dose exposures to chemical mixtures in the environment: focus on the cancer hallmark of tumor angiogenesis

Zhiwei Hu ^1,^*, Samira A Brooks ¹, Valérian Dormoy ^2,³, Chia-Wen Hsu ⁴, Hsue-Yin Hsu ⁵, Liang-Tzung Lin ⁶, Thierry Massfelder ², W Kimryn Rathmell ¹, Menghang Xia ⁴, Fahd Al-Mulla ⁵, Rabeah Al-Temaimi ⁷, Amedeo Amedei ⁸, Dustin G Brown ⁹, Kalan R Prudhomme ¹⁰, Annamaria Colacci ¹¹, Roslida A Hamid ¹², Chiara Mondello ¹³, Jayadev Raju ¹⁴, Elizabeth P Ryan ⁹, Jordan Woodrick ¹⁵, A Ivana Scovassi ¹³, Neetu Singh ¹⁶, Monica Vaccari ¹¹, Rabindra Roy ¹⁵, Stefano Forte ¹⁷, Lorenzo Memeo ¹⁷, Hosni K Salem ¹⁸, Leroy Lowe ¹⁹, Lasse Jensen ²⁰, William H Bisson ¹⁰, Nicole Kleinstreuer ²¹

¹Department of Surgery and The James Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH 43210, USA,

¹Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA,

²INSERM U1113, team 3 “Cell Signalling and Communication in Kidney and Prostate Cancer”, University of Strasbourg, Facultée de Médecine, 67085 Strasbourg, France,

³Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA,

⁴National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-3375, USA,

⁵Department of Life Sciences, Tzu-Chi University, Taiwan, Republic of China,

⁶Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Taipei Medical University, Taiwan, Republic of China,

⁷Department of Pathology, Kuwait University, Safat 13110, Kuwait,

⁸Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Firenze, Florence 50134, Italy,

⁹Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences , Colorado State University/Colorado School of Public Health, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA,

¹⁰Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Environmental Health Science Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA,

¹¹Center for Environmental Carcinogenesis and Risk Assessment, Environmental Protection and Health Prevention Agency, Bologna, Italy,

¹²Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University Putra, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia,

¹³Institute of Molecular Genetics, National Research Council, Pavia 27100, Italy,

¹⁴Regulatory Toxicology Research Division, Bureau of Chemical Safety, Food Directorate , Health Products and Food Branch Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A0K9, Canada,

¹⁵Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20057, USA,

¹⁶Advanced Molecular Science Research Centre (Centre for Advance Research), King George’s Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226003, India,

¹⁷Mediterranean Institute of Oncology, Viagrande 95029, Italy,

¹⁸Urology Department, kasr Al-Ainy School of Medicine, Cairo University, El Manial, Cairo 12515, Egypt,

¹⁹Getting to Know Cancer, Truro, Nova Scotia B2N 1X5, Canada,

²⁰Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medical and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden and

²¹Integrated Laboratory Systems, Inc., in support of the National Toxicology Program Interagency Center for the Evaluation of Alternative Toxicological Methods, NIEHS, MD K2-16, RTP, NC 27709, USA.

To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: +1 614 685 4606; Fax: +1-614-247-7205; Email: zhiwei.hu@osumc.edu

PMCID: PMC4492067 PMID: 26106137

Summary

Angiogenesis is an important ‘hallmark’ of cancer. We reviewed the various pathways controlling angiogenesis, summarized the possible role of specific environmental chemicals disrupting these pathways and listed assays for assessing the effects of low-dose exposures to chemicals in promoting tumor angiogenesis.

Abstract

One of the important ‘hallmarks’ of cancer is angiogenesis, which is the process of formation of new blood vessels that are necessary for tumor expansion, invasion and metastasis. Under normal physiological conditions, angiogenesis is well balanced and controlled by endogenous proangiogenic factors and antiangiogenic factors. However, factors produced by cancer cells, cancer stem cells and other cell types in the tumor stroma can disrupt the balance so that the tumor microenvironment favors tumor angiogenesis. These factors include vascular endothelial growth factor, endothelial tissue factor and other membrane bound receptors that mediate multiple intracellular signaling pathways that contribute to tumor angiogenesis. Though environmental exposures to certain chemicals have been found to initiate and promote tumor development, the role of these exposures (particularly to low doses of multiple substances), is largely unknown in relation to tumor angiogenesis. This review summarizes the evidence of the role of environmental chemical bioactivity and exposure in tumor angiogenesis and carcinogenesis. We identify a number of ubiquitous (prototypical) chemicals with disruptive potential that may warrant further investigation given their selectivity for high-throughput screening assay targets associated with proangiogenic pathways. We also consider the cross-hallmark relationships of a number of important angiogenic pathway targets with other cancer hallmarks and we make recommendations for future research. Understanding of the role of low-dose exposure of chemicals with disruptive potential could help us refine our approach to cancer risk assessment, and may ultimately aid in preventing cancer by reducing or eliminating exposures to synergistic mixtures of chemicals with carcinogenic potential.

Introduction

Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from existing blood vessels, was identified as one of the ‘hallmarks of cancer’ by Hanahan and Weinberg (1,2) due to the recognition that this process is of crucial importance during the transition from benign hyperplastic nodules to malignant lesions (3). This review article focused on angiogenesis constitutes an integral component of the 2013 Halifax Project on ‘Assessing the Carcinogenic Potential of Low-Dose Exposures to Chemical Mixtures in the Environment’ (see Capstone Article for details). Tumor expansion is dependent on the ability of the tumor to induce the growth of new blood vessels, which provide nutrients and oxygen to the growing tumor mass and simultaneously serve as a conduit for tumor cells to metastasize to distant organs (4,5). Tumor angiogenesis is integral not only in solid tumor progression but also in leukemia (6). Recent cancer treatments target tumor angiogenesis using antiangiogenesis inhibitors (7,8), which prevent new vessel formation, or by using vascular-disrupting/damaging agents (9–11) and neovascular-targeting immunoconjugates (12–14). However, angiogenesis is also necessary for normal organ function, tissue growth and regeneration (e.g. wound healing, female menstruation, ovulation and pregnancy), necessitating a fine balance to avoid complications due to antiangiogenic therapy (15–17).

Though human exposures to environmental chemicals, which often occur due to the leaching of plastics into food and water (18), have been found to promote tumorigenesis of multiple cancers through various mechanisms (19–24), less attention has been focused on their role in tumor angiogenesis. With increases in our knowledge of endocrine disruptors (25), new concerns have arisen about potential exposures to low doses of environmental chemicals that are generally regarded as non-carcinogens, but may be acting as proangiogenic agents. Here, we consider the possibility that certain chemical disruptors, which are prevalent in the environment (e.g. as pesticides and industrial surfactants) (26), may have a role to play in environmental carcinogenesis by stimulating proangiogenic pathways, providing an environment conducive to tumor growth and metastasis.

In this review, we discuss emerging data on specific environmental chemicals that may act as proangiogenic agents, and identify key angiogenesis pathways and corresponding molecular components as prioritized targets for future study. We briefly summarize in vitro and in vivo angiogenesis model systems with an emphasis on high-throughput screening (HTS) assays. We also consider the cross-hallmark relationships that a number of important angiogenic pathway targets have with other hallmarks of the disease and we make recommendations for future research.

Identifying VEGFR- and TF-mediated signaling as two key tumor angiogenesis pathways and corresponding molecular components as prioritized targets for assessing the carcinogenic potential of low-dose exposures to chemical mixtures in the environment

Tumor growth and metastasis require angiogenesis to provide a circuit for increased blood supply and dissemination of tumor cells (27). Angiogenesis is tightly controlled by diverse subsets of ligands and receptors. Enrichment of ligands, including growth factors, chemokines and cytokines or a decrease in the production of endogenous angiogenesis inhibitors, has been extensively observed in tumors during vascularization. The biology and mechanisms of tumor angiogenesis have been elegantly summarized elsewhere (4,28–33). Here, we will only briefly review some of the key angiogenic pathways [vascular endothelial growth receptor (VEGFR) and tissue factor (TF)-mediated signaling] (Figure 1A) and pathway-associated molecular components (Figure 1B) to provide a framework for our review and discussion of potential chemical disruptors (Figure 1B).

Figure 1. — VEGF and TF-signaling pathways as prioritized tumor angiogenic pathways (A) and proposed angiogenic molecular targets and their corresponding chemical disruptors (B). (A) The diagram shows VEGF produced by tumor cells binds to VEGFR on vascular endothelial cells to activate VEGF signaling pathways in tumor angiogenesis. In addition, VEGF binding to endothelial cells can induce TF expression, an angiogenic endothelial receptor in pathological neovasculature. After its ligand fVII binds, TF could contribute to tumor angiogenesis via proteolysis-dependent pathways through PARs or proteolysis-independent pathway through its cytoplasmic domain. (B) Proposed list of specific angiogenesis molecular targets and corresponding chemical disruptors.

The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) pathway is crucial for cancer angiogenesis. As a tumor enlarges, the tissue becomes hypoxic and deprived of nutrients leading to increased expression of factors involved in both fighting against and adapting to these stressful conditions (34). Such factors will activate the growth of new blood vessels to increase the oxygen and nutrients supply but also lower the oxygen-dependent metabolism by causing a shift to glycolytic metabolism in the tumor cells (35). A well-studied example of hypoxia-induced tumor angiogenesis is the stabilization of hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-1α) in hypoxic tumor tissues which lead to production of VEGF-A and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) that act as drivers of neovascularization and dilation of the existing blood vessels, respectively (36). In addition to VEGF-A, other growth factors including angiopoeitin-2 (Ang-2), fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), platelet-derived growth factors, insulin-like growth factor and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) are also produced at high levels by hypoxic tumor or tumor stromal cells and lead to disruption of the tumor vessels (37). The tumor milieu, which has been compared to that of a healing wound (38), also leads to massive recruitment and activation of inflammatory cells types, including macrophages, neutrophils and lymphocytes, which are producing proangiogenic cytokines including tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β) and interleukin 6 (IL-6). In addition, carcinoma-associated fibroblasts are also rich sources of a wide range of angiogenic factors, further complicating the proangiogenic phenotype of solid tumors (39,40). In addition to angiogenic factors, deregulated vessel sprouting and path finding through disruptions in, for instance Notch-activation by delta-like ligand 4 (Dll4) and Jagged1 ligands (41), are involved in disrupting the tumor vascular functions further contributing to the pathological phenotypes of the tumor blood vessels. Activated endothelial cells and tumor-associated macrophages produce matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) including a disintegrin and metalloproteases, MMP-2 and MMP-9, which cleave extracellular matrix (ECM) to release more ECM-bound angiogenic factors and further reduce the integrity of the vasculature, leading to a vicious circle driving pathologic progression in cancer (42,43). In addition to expressed proteins, angiogenesis-modulating miRNAs, so called angiomiRs, directly repress gene expression of several angiogenic or antiangiogenic factors by binding to the 3′-untranslated regions (3′-UTR) of target mRNAs (44). For instance, miR-21 promotes cancer progression and angiogenesis through Akt and ERK pathways (45).

As a consequence of such untamed and exaggerated angiogenic signaling by the broad palette of proangiogenic factors existing at high levels in the tumor, the vasculature become highly chaotic, immature and of very low quality (in terms of the stability and barrier function of the vascular wall) and functionality (in terms of supporting efficient perfusion through the tumor) (46). As such, tumor blood vessels exhibit excessive leakage, causing highly elevated interstitial fluid pressure and inhibited delivery of blood, paradoxically further contributing to tumor hypoxia and decreasing delivery of drugs injected to the blood stream. At the same time, such deregulated tumor blood vessels pose little opposition against tumor-cell intravasation and metastatic dissemination. As such the pathological vasculature can be considered a main cause of resistance to therapy and progression of the cancer to metastatic disease (47).

While tumor angiogenic vascular endothelial cells (VECs) may express VEGFR at higher levels (48), VEGFRs are not specific for angiogenic endothelial cells, but are constitutively expressed also in the quiescent vasculature in normal organs (49,50). In contrast, TF may be a promising target, which is specifically expressed by angiogenic vessels, making it more specific for the tumor vasculature than VEGF receptors. Under physiological conditions, TF is only expressed on some cells outside of vessels, but is not expressed by quiescent endothelial cells of blood vessels in normal organs (51). Accumulating evidence suggests that TF also contribute directly and indirectly to tumor angiogenesis (52–56). TF is a transmembrane protein receptor (57–60), which is composed of 263 amino acid (aa) residues with an extracellular domain (1–219 aa), a transmembrane domain (220–242 aa) and a short cytoplasmic domain (243–263 aa). As a type I membrane bound receptor, TF forms an exceptionally strong and specific complex with its natural ligand coagulation factor VII (61,62), the initial step of the coagulation pathway (63). In tumor angiogenesis, it is found that TF expression is only detected on angiogenic tumor VECs (13,64–66), a downstream product induced by VEGF that can be secreted by cancer cells (67,68) and cancer stem cells (69). More importantly, TF is selectively expressed in vivo in the tumor neovasculature (12,13,64,65,70) and in vitro by VEGF-stimulated VECs, thus the latter could serve as an in vitro model of angiogenic endothelial cells (71–73). Other angiogenic factors and inflammatory chemokines (such as bFGF, IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS)) can also induce TF expression on VECs under pathological conditions (54). Thus TF can be regarded as an angiogenic-specific endothelial receptor (65,72,73). We believe that this unique feature makes TF a promising therapeutic target for neovascular-targeted therapy (73) and an interesting angiogenic receptor for discussion in this review and for future studies of chemical angiogenesis.

After induction by VEGF and other factors, vascular endothelial TF contributes to tumor angiogenesis via proteolysis-dependent and -independent signaling pathways (Figure 1A). More details on TF signaling in tumor angiogenesis were previously described and reviewed (52,74–77). Briefly, coagulation factor VII/TF complex can initiate the proteolysis-dependent pathway by activating protease-activated receptors (PARs), which is modulated by thrombomodulin (THBD), the endothelial-specific type I membrane receptor that binds thrombin to reduce thrombin generation, and ultimately results in the transcription of genes such as early growth response-1, adhesion molecules [intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM1), vascular cell-adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM1), P- and E-selectin], growth factors and cytokines (IL-6, IL-8, chemokines), whereas the cytoplasmic serine residues can be phosphorylated and ultimately influences endothelial cell migration. Note that many of these angiogenic components involved in VEGFR- and TF-mediated signaling are chosen as potential angiogenic targets for selected chemical disruptors (Figure 1B).

To review the role of low-dose exposures to environmental chemical disruptors in tumor angiogenesis, our angiogenesis team as part of the Halifax Project was asked to identify 10 angiogenesis molecular targets and 10 corresponding potential chemical disruptors for these angiogenic targets. We choose the following angiogenic components involved in VEGFR- and TF-signaling pathways as prioritized VCAM1, C-X-C motif chemokine ligands 9 and 10 (CXCL9 and CXCL10), THBD, monocyte-like chemoattractant protein (CCL2), ICAM1, urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR), collagen III, MMP1 and aryl-hydrocarbon receptor (AHR). These targets were chosen based on their relevance to the signaling pathways reviewed above, and, importantly, based on previous work that examined a large database of animal toxicity studies (ToxRefDB; http://actor.epa.gov/toxrefdb/) and the concordance between tumor incidence in vivo and chemical activity profiles in vitro. The 10 molecular targets in Figure 1B were angiogenic signaling molecules that showed statistically significant associations with mammalian carcinogenicity (78).

This list of target sites was not intended to be comprehensive. Other targets exist, including well-known molecules such as collagen IV, CXCL4, thrombospondin, MMP9, etc., But we selected these targets because each of them are actively involved in tumor angiogenesis and all of them have been shown to be of considerable importance. For example, suppression of the angiostatic molecules CXCL9 and CXCL10 and upregulation of the proangiogenic chemokine CCL2 would provide a local environment of proliferative and migratory signals to endothelial cells forming new vessels to feed a tumor (79,80). Decreased THBD expression was highly correlated with tumor invasiveness, metastasis and lower survival rates (81,82). CCL2 is complementary to angiogenesis, through p53 regulation of CCL2 gene expression (83,84). ICAM1 is also complementary to angiogenesis through NF-κB-independent role for p53 in ICAM1 regulation that may link p53 to ICAM1 function in various physiological and pathological settings (85). CXCL10 is complementary to angiogenesis through activation of p53 and p53-responsive genes. Over expression of IP10 upregulated p53 and resulted in altered expression of p53-responsive genes such as the p21Cip1, p27kip1, NF-κB, Bax and PUMA genes and the mitochondrial translocation of Bax (86). The AHR is complementary to angiogenesis through its role in cell cycle regulation. AHR modulates angiogenesis through a mechanism requiring VEGF activation in the endothelium and TGF-β inactivation in the stroma. Activation of AHR by its various ligands disrupts contact inhibition and induces cell proliferation depending on the tissue and cell type involved (87–93). THBD is contrary to angiogenesis due to over expression of p53 suppressed THBD expression (94,95). It is also complementary to genetic instability (96,97) and resistance to cell death (98). uPAR is contrary to angiogenesis (wild type p53 downregulates uPAR expression). P53 acts as an uPAR mRNA binding protein that downregulates uPAR mRNA stability and decreases cellular uPAR expression. Codepletion of Cathepsin B and uPAR reduced the expression of cyclin D1, cyclin D2, p-Rb and cyclin E while the expression of Cdk2 was unaffected. The MMP1 is contrary when cross validated with evasion of antigrowth signaling hallmark (99–102). Inactivation of Rb leads to increased expression of MMP1 and dysfunction of p53. p53 inhibits basal and UV-induced MMP-1 expression in human dermal fibroblasts and p53 dysfunction caused by XPC defects in lung cancers may enhance tumor metastasis via increased MMP1 expression (99–101,103).

To examine the role of these angiogenic pathways and prioritized targets in chemical angiogenesis, we also identify 10 corresponding chemical disruptors (Figure 1B) as novel environmental chemicals in tumor angiogenesis, which are discussed below in the Sections of ‘Environmental Carcinogens Affecting Angiogenic Pathways’ and ‘Identifying Novel Environmental Chemical Disruptors’.

Environmental carcinogens affecting angiogenic pathways

Here, we review the evidence for proangiogenic actions of cigarette smoke, nicotine and arsenic as case study compounds that provide supporting evidence for the subsequent selection of environmental chemicals that disrupt angiogenic signaling targets and potentially contribute to cancer.

Cigarette smoke

Cigarette smoke is one of the oldest environmental exposures linked to cancer (104) and contains numerous carcinogenic compounds, such as nicotine and its derivatives, described elsewhere (105,106). Cigarette and second hand smoke have both been shown to induce or be associated with angiogenesis by a variety of mechanisms, although separating angiogenic effects from other carcinogenic activities is a challenge. Mouse models of chronic colitis were found to have dose-dependent increases in blood vessel formation and VEGF protein expression following exposure to CS (107). Tumor growth, capillary density, plasma VEGF levels and circulating endothelial progenitor cells were significantly increased in mice subcutaneously injected with Lewis lung cancer cells after a 17-day exposure to second hand smoke compared to mice exposed to clean room air. These results were attenuated with mecamylamine, an inhibitor of nicotine cholinergic receptors (108).

A hospital-based case-control study consisting of 730 urothelial carcinoma cases, 470 bladder cancers, 260 upper urinary tract urothelial carcinomas and 850 age-matched controls found significant correlations between bladder and upper urinary tract urothelial carcinomas (UUTUC) and both cigarette smoking and arsenic exposure (109). The risk for both bladder cancer (6.6; 95% CI, 3.1–13.9) and UUTUC (9.9; 95% CI, 4–24.5) were increased with the presence of VEGF polymorphisms associated with increased cancer risk.

Nicotine

Nicotine, one of the main carcinogenic components of cigarettes, has been found to influence angiogenesis. Several in vitro studies have linked nicotine to proangiogenic effects in cancer. The ERK/COX-2 pathway was suggested to play a role in nicotine-induced VEGF expression in gastric cancer cells after VEGF levels were decreased by inhibitors of MEK (U0126) and COX-2 (SC-236) (110). Nicotine was further shown to influence angiogenesis in lung cancer (111). Nicotine significantly stimulated HIF-1α protein and VEGF expression in human non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells. Increased capillary and tubule formation was shown in human umbilical VECs (HUVECs) following treatment with conditioned medium containing nicotine. The possible mechanism of nicotine-induced VEGF expression was investigated with human dermal microvascular endothelial cells, which showed that the nicotine acetylcholine receptor was needed for pro-migratory effects of VEGF and bFGF in culture (111). In addition, cultured HUVECs were observed to have increased cell proliferation, migration and tube formation following exposure to nicotine at concentrations similar to those found in smokers (112).

Although in vitro studies provide some evidence that nicotine has proangiogenic properties, animal studies further bolster nicotine as a promoter of neovascularization, as well as provide possible biological mechanisms. An increase in lesion growth and lesion vascularity was seen in lung cancer and atherosclerosis mouse models following nicotine exposure (113). In addition, in a mouse model of hind-limb ischemia systemically administered nicotine (100 μg/ml in drinking water) resulted in an increase of capillary density in the hind limb from 0.38 to 0.71 (95% CI 0.55–1.01) capillaries/myocyte compared to control. Later it was shown that nude mice injected subcutaneously with HT-29 cells, a colon cancer cell line, exhibited significant increases in both blood vessels and microvessel densities after drinking water containing 200 μg/ml nicotine for 25 days. VEGF expression correlated with microvessel density. B1 and b2-selective antagonists reversed nicotine-induced tumor growth; suggesting b-adrenoceptors may be involved in nicotine-induced angiogenesis in colon cancer (114). The growth rate of breast, colon and lung cancer tumor cells implanted in a chorioallantoic membrane model exhibited significant increases following 1 week of exposure to nicotine (115). This study further showed that nicotinic receptor antagonists and integrin avb3 antagonists abrogated nicotine-mediated angiogenesis, suggesting molecular and cellular mechanisms of nicotine-mediated angiogenesis (116).

Arsenic

Another carcinogen that shows angiogenic properties is arsenic, an environmental contaminant that humans may be exposed to via environmental, medical and occupational sources (117). An in vitro study using HUVECs revealed that low concentrations (≤ 1 μM) of sodium arsenite increased cell growth and vascular tubular formation compared to higher concentrations (> 5 μM) that induced cytotoxicity and inhibited angiogenesis (117). Low concentrations of arsenic also induced transcript expression of VEGF and von Willebrand Factor, an early detector of endothelial activation, in tumor metastasis. Several subsequent in vitro studies focused on the proangiogenic properties of arsenic in human microvascular endothelial (HMVEC) cells. Klei et al. (118) investigated signaling interactions between arsenic and alcohols using non-cytotoxic concentrations of arsenite (1–5mM) with or without the presence of 0.1% ethanol. Data in this study showed that both agents together, but not ethanol alone, increased phosphorylation of the regulator of vascular integrin signaling PYK2 and VEGF gene expression as well as endothelial tube formation (118). Another study revealed that the sphingsine-1-phosphate type 1 receptor is important for arsenic-stimulated signaling for angiogenic effects (119) and that heme oxygenase-1 plays a role in arsenic-induced angiogenesis (120). Moreover, environmentally relevant levels of arsenic were shown to promote angiogenesis, neovascularization and inflammatory cell infiltration in Matrigel plugs implanted in C57BL/6 mice following 5 weeks exposures (drinking water) to concentrations ranging from 5 to 500 ppb (121).

These examples from the literature on known carcinogens indicate that environmental exposures to cigarette smoke, nicotine and arsenic can result in the increase of angiogenic activity through several pathways. There is a diversity of techniques available for investigating angiogenic activity, though there are challenges to separating effects that are specific to angiogenic pathways from other hallmark pathways.

Other environmental chemicals with proangiogenic properties

In addition to cigarette smoke, nicotine and arsenic, other potentially carcinogenic compounds have been identified that induce proangiogenic effects. Whole diesel exhaust has been shown to enhance angiogenesis in mice with either subcutaneous scaffold implantation or hindlimb ischemia (122). Increased CD31 expression, vessel volume and VEGF and HIF-1 gene expression was observed in these models. Bisphenol A has been intensively studied over the past few years due to its detrimental effects on developmental processes and metabolic effects and has recently been shown to influence angiogenesis (123). Increased gene expression of VEGFR-2, VEGF-A, eNOS and Cx43 and production of nitric oxide was found after HUVECs were exposed to 1M bisphenol A for 6h (123). Furthermore, manganese induced hypoxia-associated transcript expression of proangiogenic genes in mice (124) and both dioxin (125) and trimethyltin chloride (109) were found to influence angiogenesis and vascularization during early development in rat and zebra fish models.

Identifying novel environmental chemical disruptors

As discussed above, tumor angiogenesis is critical for carcinogenesis, and despite the evidence that several known carcinogens are targeting proangiogenic pathways the role of most environmental chemicals in tumor angiogenesis is largely unknown. In this project, we were tasked to identify ‘prototypical’ environmental chemicals with disruptive potential that met the following criteria: chemicals that are ubiquitous in the environment; chemicals that have been shown to disrupt specific mechanisms/pathways for angiogenesis; and chemical exposures that are not related to ‘lifestyle’ choices (i.e. chemicals that are not already known or designated to be human carcinogens). Our intent was to explore the possible synergies of disruptive environmental chemicals with proangiogenic capabilities that could potentially contribute to carcinogenesis (especially when combined, or when acting with other chemicals that are known to perturb other cancer hallmark pathways).

Thousands of untested chemicals in the environment lack hazard characterization of their carcinogenic potential. The Tox21 partnership of regulatory and scientific federal agencies, including USA. EPA, the National Toxicology Program (NTP), the National Center for Advancing Translational Science (NCATS) and USA. FDA, are addressing this data gap using in vitro HTS and computational modeling to predict hazard and prioritize compounds for targeted testing (126,127). The EPA’s ToxCast research project (127), part of Tox21, has tested over a thousand chemicals with known and unknown toxicities in hundreds of assays for human gene and protein targets in pathways linked to cancer disease processes (128). This effort is concurrent with the creation of the Toxicity Reference Database (ToxRefDB) containing >40 years’ worth of in vivo animal toxicity data, such as 2-year chronic cancer studies, broken down into a computable and searchable ontology structure (129). A model was recently published that used the ToxCast Phase I HTS data to predict in vivo rodent carcinogenicity endpoints from ToxRefDB (78). This work employed an unsupervised statistical approach to identify significant correlations between in vitro assay activity and preneoplastic and neoplastic lesions in a variety of tissue types, across a training set of 232 compounds with both in vitro and in vivo data. The model was able to accurately predict carcinogenicity classifications from the EPA’s Office of Pesticide Programs for an external test set of compounds, based solely on their in vitro HTS data. Interestingly, the majority of HTS assays that were strongly associated with particular types of rodent cancers were linked to genes, pathways and hallmark processes documented to be involved in tumor biology and cancer progression, including stimulation of angiogenesis.

Most of the chemical carcinogens in the model training set were food-use pesticides, meaning they are non-genotoxic and instead act as tumor promoters (130). In addition to broad activity across assays that were mapped to other hallmark processes (i.e. apoptosis, proliferative signaling, evading growth suppression, enabling replicative immortality, metastasis, avoiding immune destruction, tumor-promoting inflammation and deregulating cellular energetics) some of these compounds were linked to targets in angiogenic pathways (1,2). Thus, a subset of these chemicals may have the potential to act as tumor promoters primarily via induction of angiogenesis, based on specific patterns of bioactivity against in vitro targets associated with vascular development. Many of these targets were from enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay-based chemokine expression assays in human primary cell cocultures. Statistically significant associations were observed between pesticide exposures causing rodent liver, thyroid, spleen and kidney tumors and differential regulation of inflammatory chemokines as well as cellular adhesion molecules, and elements of the plasminogen activating system. Many of these targets, shown in Figure 1, belong to signaling pathways reviewed above. Therefore, the results from the in vitro screens of these mammalian carcinogens were in all cases consistent with a proangiogenic and thus a protumorigenic program.

Analysis of bioactivity patterns of over a thousand chemicals across hundreds of in vitro assays revealed that other carcinogens were preferentially affecting targets in chemokine signaling, vascular cellular adhesion molecules and ECM interactions controlling vascular growth factor release (78). These results strongly support the concept that at some point in cancer progression, the angiogenic switch is turned ‘ON’, facilitating tumor growth, and that carcinogenic environmental chemicals may participate in this process by regulating cellular signaling in a proangiogenic fashion.

A number of environmental chemicals tested in the ToxCast program were identified as potential tumor promoters through their ability to interact with the angiogenic signaling molecules in vitro that had been shown to be significantly associated with in vivo tumorigenesis. Many of these compounds had associated in vivo data and evidence in the literature confirming their carcinogenic effects (78), while others are candidates for further study. In the ToxCast Phase I study, there were 27 chemicals tested in the in vitro assays for which there was no corresponding in vivo guideline data or EPA carcinogenicity classification (examples shown in Table 1). As shown in Figure 1B, we identify several of these Phase I compounds that may be acting via proangiogenic mechanisms, their cancer hallmark score and the specific angiogenic targets affected. All of these compounds are present in the environment, are predicted to be selectively disruptive, are not ‘lifestyle’-related, and not known to be ‘Carcinogen to Humans’ (i.e. IARC Group 1). The Toxicological Priority Index (130) (ToxPi, key shown in Figure 2) displays the activity of each chemical against the angiogenic in vitro assay targets that were previously identified as significantly associated with tumor endpoints in vivo. The size of the slice is determined by the potency of the compound in the assay, based on the half-maximal activity concentration (AC₅₀). The chosen angiogenic prototypical disruptors are Bisphenol AF, Methoxychlor, perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), Diniconazole, Ziram, Chlorothalonil, Biphenyl, Tributyltin Chloride, 2,2-bis-(p-hydroxyphenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane (HPTE) and C.I. Solvent Yellow 14 (Figure 1B). For several of these compounds, there is literature evidence that supports their potential angiogenic activity. For example, Bisphenol AF may induce angiogenesis via inactivation of the p53 axis and underlying deregulation of proliferation kinetics and cell death in human epithelial cells, as well as through its effect on Estrogen Receptor (ERα) (131). Bisphenol AF also affected a number of vascular targets in the ToxCast assay portfolio, including uPAR, THBD and ICAM1, as well as downregulating the antiangiogenic chemokines CXCL9 and CXCL10. Methoxychlor (the parent compound to HPTE) was shown to induce increases in histological expression of angiogenic factors such as VEGF, VEGFR2 and ANG1 in rat pituitary and uterus (132). The angiogenic HTS targets of HPTE include CXCL10, CXCL9, MMP1, uPAR, THBD, ICAM1 and VCAM1. Exposure to PFOS induced actin filament remodeling and endothelial permeability changes as well as ROS production in human microvascular endothelial cells (133). PFOS could also overwhelm homeostasis of antioxidative systems, boost ROS generation, impact the mitochondria and affect protein expression of apoptotic regulators in endothelial cells (134). Diniconazole (a pesticide) is predicted to be carcinogenic and shown to target certain angiogenic molecules CXCL10, uPAR and VCAM1 in vitro. Ziram may induce angiogenesis through activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) and decreases cytolytic protein levels in human natural killer cells (135,136).

Table 1.

Examples of ToxCast Phase I chemicals predicted to be carcinogens and shown to target certain angiogenic molecules in vitro, but lacking in vivo data or EPA carcinogenicity classifications

Chemical name	Chemical use class	Cancer hazard model score (#cancer hallmark assays hit)	Angiogenic targets
Diniconazole	Pesticide	18	CXCL10, uPAR, VCAM1
HPTE	Pesticide metabolite	17	CXCL10, CXCL9, MMP1, uPAR, ICAM1, THBD, VCAM1
Methylene bis(thiocyanate)	Pesticide	16	CXCL10, CXCL9, MMP1, uPAR, ICAM1, THBD, VCAM1
PFOS	Industrial surfactant	7	CXCL10, MMP1, uPAR, VCAM1

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These compounds were identified in an analysis linking rodent chemical carcinogenesis to HTS assay targets in cancer hallmark pathways (78). All of these compounds are ubiquitous in the environment, are predicted to be selectively disruptive, are not ‘lifestyle’ related and not known to be ‘Carcinogen to Humans’ (i.e. IARC Group 1). The Toxicological Priority Index (ToxPi) key mapping assays to slices is shown in Figure 2. CXCL9 and 10, C-X-C motif chemokine ligands 9 and 10.

Figure 2. — The ToxPi key for proangiogenic *in vitro* assay targets that were previously identified as being statistically significantly associated with tumor endpoints *in vitro*. The number of components represents the number of ToxCast assays for that target. Results for certain ToxCast Phase I test chemicals are shown in Figure 1B.

Phase II of the ToxCast program expanded the chemical library beyond pesticides to over a thousand compounds, many of which lack cancer data but appear to be targeting angiogenic signaling and may also be candidates for future examination. A number of organotin compounds, including tributyltin chloride, tributyltin methacrylate and triphenyltin hydroxide, caused a decrease in expression of THBD in vascular smooth muscle cells as well as other proangiogenic activity in the ToxCast assays. As in the case of dioxin, AHR ligands may be potential tumor promoters via angiogenic pathways, and it has been hypothesized that AHR signaling may suppress VEGF-A expression by competing with HIF-1α for their common dimerization partner ARNT (137). Compounds such as C.I. solvent yellow 14, Benzo(b) fluoranthene and 7,12 dimethyl(benz)anthracene are active in the AHR assay in addition to multiple other angiogenic targets, however their downstream effects on VEGF expression and angiogenesis will be dependent on their agonist vs. antagonist activity and are not yet known. Other chemicals exhibited specific activity on cytokine signaling, such as acrylamide and biphenyl, both of which caused increased expression of the proangiogenic chemokine CCL2 in vascular smooth muscle cells. The release of the full ToxCast Phase II dataset in late 2013 (http://www.epa.gov/ncct) is assisting in further identification of key assay targets and prioritization of potential chemical modulators of tumor angiogenesis. There are also a number of compounds that emerged from this analysis that have been tested in animals and assigned positive carcinogenicity classifications, but whose effects have not been well characterized histologically. If some of these were studied in more depth, they could also potentially serve as proangiogenic reference compounds.

In vitro and in vivo angiogenesis assays including HTS assay for assessing the effects of environmental chemicals in tumor angiogenesis

To screen the effects of environmental chemicals in tumor angiogenesis, there are many well developed in vitro and in vivo angiogenesis model systems that can be used or adapted (138–151). Each model has distinct advantages and disadvantages. Microvascular endothelial cells or well-characterized immortalized microvascular endothelial cell lines are generally considered superior to HUVEC in tumor angiogenesis studies, since tumor blood vessels are presumably microvessels. In vitro assays are usually designed to examine endothelial cell proliferation, migration and ability to form tube-like structures in coculture, matrigel or other matrix-containing environments. In vivo assays include, but are not limited to, the chorioallantoic membrane assay (chicken embryos), mesenteric window assay (small gut of rats and mice), corneal angiogenesis assay (rabbit, rat or mouse eyes), matrigel plug assay (mice and rats), sponge implant assay (rats) and alternate animal models such as hamster and zebrafish.

With technological advancement and the development of HTS, several in vitro angiogenesis assays have been used to screen and profile large numbers of chemical compounds that can be assayed in 96-well to 1536-well microplates. Because cancer cells can survive through compensation pathways, a battery of angiogenesis assays in HTS formats are needed to rapidly profile thousands of environmental chemicals and to build better predictive toxicology models. These assays are grouped into biochemical and cell-based categories and summarized in Table 2.

Table 2.

HTS assays for assessing the role of environmental chemicals in tumor angiogenesis

Assay technology	Target	Assay principle	HTS format	Reference
Biochemical HTS assays
Fluorescence intensity	Integrin	Binding to dye-labeled fibronectin	Microarray	(163)
FP	VEGF,	Competitive binding of dye-labeled proteins or ligands	384 well, microfluidics	(164)
TRF	HIF-1α	Protein–ligand binding interactions	96 well	(176)
AlphaScreen	VEGFR	Protein–ligand binding interactions	1536 well	(165)
TR-FRET	TGF, VEGFR	Product formation catalyzed by active enzymes	96 well, 384 well	(175,166)
Cell-based HTS assays
Phenotype	Tube formation	Total tube length measured by dsTomato fluorescent protein, nuclear stains or cell permeable dyes	96 well, 384 well, 1536 well, microfluidics	(179,167,168, 169, 170,172)
Phenotype	Wound closures	Scratch assays or stopper assays, with some measured by cell permeable dyes	96 well, 384 well, microfluidics	(173,174, 357, 358,359)
Chemifluorescence	IL-1α/β, IL-6, IL-10	Detection of endogenous target proteins	96 well	(360)
β-lactamase reporter	IL-6, HIF-1α, NFκB,	Target-driven β-lactamase reporter gene system and β-lactamase- cleavable FRET substrates	384 well, 1536 well	(181,182,361,184)
GFP reporter	NFκB, VEGF, IL-8	Target-driven GFP reporter gene system	96 well, 384 well	(362–364)
Luciferase reporter	NFκB, HIF-1/2, VEGFR, IL-8, TGF- β	Target-driven luciferase reporter gene system	96 well, 384 well, 1536 well	(184,365,366,180, 185)
	HIF-1α	Degradation of a luciferase-fused HIF-1α reporter	384 well	(183)
TRF	E-selectin, ICAM-1, VCAM-1	Detection of endogenous targets	96 well	(367)
RT-PCR	VEGFR	mRNA levels of ICAM-1 and tissue factor	96 well	(171)

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FP, fluorescence polarization; GFP, green fluorescent protein; HIF-1, HIF-2, HIF-1α, hypoxia-inducible factor 1, 2 and 1 alpha; ICAM-1, intracellular cell adhesion molecule 1; IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8 and IL-10, Interleukin 1 alpha, 1 beta, 6, 8 and 10; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; RT-PCR, real-time polymerase chain reaction; TRF, time-resolved fluorescence; TR-FRET, time resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer.

Biochemical HTS assays directly measure the effects of test chemicals on target protein or peptide samples. These methods are particularly useful for well-validated angiogenic signaling components. Several biochemical assays have been implemented in large scale screens for VEGFR (166), TF (171), TGF-β (175), HIF (176) and integrins (177). Particularly, Yauch et al. (171) described a HUVEC-based HTS assay for the VEGF signaling pathway followed by quantitative real-time PCR for measuring downstream gene products TF and ICAM1 as transcriptional readouts. This HTS/real-time qPCR assay could be improved, e.g. using microvascular endothelial cells as discussed above, for future study of assessing chemical disruptors in tumor angiogenesis, as we propose in this review.

Cell-based HTS assays can be used to assess phenotypic changes or specific pathway activation/inhibition caused by exposure to test chemicals in cells or tissues. Active compounds identified from biochemical screens do not always exhibit similar activities in physiological conditions, thus cell-based assays, especially human primary cells, are useful to identify chemicals that exert adverse effects in the natural environment. Angiogenesis-associated phenotypic changes such as proliferation, apoptosis, motility and tube formation are routinely quantified in endothelial cells by a wide selection of commercially available assay kits and instruments (178,179). Chemicals that alter gene expression or protein–protein interaction can be detected by immunofluorescence or intracellular reporter gene assays. A battery of such assays have been applied to screen and identify chemicals targeting cellular signal pathways including HIFs (180,182,183,361), NF-κB (184), IL-6 (181), IL-8 (185) and TGFs (186,187).

The environmental chemicals can be assessed and profiled using the aforementioned assays in a quantitative HTS platform in which each test chemical is assayed at multiple concentrations covering at least four-log concentrations (188). The quantitative HTS-generated concentration response curves greatly reduce rates of false positives and false negatives, facilitating chemical prioritization for follow-up in-depth studies. For example, a cell-based hypoxia-response element-β-lactamase reporter assay has been optimized and miniaturized into a 1536-well format, and utilized to identify inhibitors and activators of the HIF-1 signaling pathway from 73 000 compounds from the Molecular Libraries Screening Centers Networks (MLSCN) (361) and 1408 environmental chemicals from the collection of the National Toxicology Program (182). Three environmental chemicals—iodochlorohydroxyquinoline, cobalt sulfate and O-phenanthroline were identified as chemical inducers of hypoxia signaling pathway. These quantitative HTS assays combined with a robotic system will greatly increase screening throughput for future assessment of environmental chemicals that may be affecting angiogenesis and other cancer hallmarks (189).

Discussion

When tumor vasculature was first successfully targeted in cancer to prevent growth and dispersion of malignant cells, it appeared that not only the blood vessels but the entire microenvironment within the tumor was participating in tumor growth, progression and resistance to treatment (152). A new concept providing additional relevant factors in this already complex multifaceted pathology was emerging to explain why current therapies are not fully or only transiently efficient (153). It is not only that ‘normal cells’ could turn into ‘conscripted or subverted cells’ to establish a cancer but some other normal cells would be triggered by the mutant cancer cells to help them proliferate and survive. These include normal host cells such as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, monocytes/macrophages, mesenchymal cells and cells of hematopoietic origin, at sites distant from and local to the site at which malignant transformation occurs (154). In addition, host and cancer cell interactions are occurring within a network that governs and influences both cancer and host cell properties. This ECM is now recognized as a crucial regulator of cancer evolution (152). Thus, several cell types in a complex and dynamic non-cellular environment collaborate to stimulate angiogenesis. One would therefore predict that chemical mixtures potentially modifying the tumor environment would therefore affect angiogenesis for the benefit of the cancer cells. On the other hand, tumor angiogenesis is also closely tied to hypoxia and thus deregulated metabolism, tumor-promoting inflammation, accelerated tumor growth, invasion and metastasis.

The carcinogenicity of low-dose exposures to chemical mixtures in any given tissue will probably depend upon simultaneous activation of several important tumor promotion mechanisms and the disruption of several important defense mechanisms. The potential synergies of combinations of chemicals will ultimately be involved in several mechanisms of disruptive actions that are known to be relevant in cancer biology. We undertook a thorough cross validation activity to illustrate the importance of the prioritized target sites for disruption (i.e. across multiple aspects of cancer’s biology) and to illustrate the extent to which the prototypical chemical disruptors that were identified disrupt other mechanisms that are also relevant to carcinogenesis. Since tumor angiogenesis is not only an early and central event in the development of a tumor, but also critical and essential for tumor growth, invasion and metastasis. In addition, it is closely tied to hypoxia and deregulated metabolism. Therefore, we cross validate their potential participation of these angiogenic targets in other cancer hallmarks (Table 3) and their potential effects of chemical disruptors of angiogenesis in other cancer hallmarks (Table 4).

Table 3.

Cross-validation of angiogenic target pathways

Angiogenesis priority targets	Deregulated metabolism	Evasion of antigrowth signaling	Genetic instability	Immune system evasion	Resistance to cell death	Replicative immortality	Sustained proliferative signaling	Tissue invasion and metastasis	Tumor-promoting inflammation	Tumor microenvironment
VCAM1	+ (190)	0	0	0	+ (191)	0	+ (192)	+ (193–196)	+ (197)	+ (198)
CXCL9	0	0	0	− (199,200)	0	0	+ (201)	− (202–204)	+ (201,205,206)	+ (207)
THBD	0	− (94,95)	+ (96,97)	0	+ (98)	0	0	− (81,82,208,209)	− (209–211)	0
CCL2	+ (212)	+ (83,213)	− (214)	+ (215,216)	+ (217)	0	+ (218)	+ (219–221)	+ (222)	+ (223)
ICAM1	+ (190,224)	+ (85)	− (225)	− (226,227)	− (228)	0	+ (229)	+ (191,229–232)	+ (233,234)	+ (198,235)
uPAR	+ (236)	− (103,237–239)	0	0	+ (239,240)	+ (241)	+ (242)	+ (243–248)	+ (249)	− (250)
COLIII	+ (251)	0	0	0	0	0	0	+ (252–254)	+ (255)	0
CXCL10	0	+ (86)	0	− (199,256–259)	0	0	+ (260)	+/− (261–265)	+ (266,267)	+ (199,207)
MMP1	+ (268)	− (99–102)	+ (269)	0	0	0	+ (270)	+ (271–276)	+ (277)	+ (250,278)
AHR	+ (279)	+ (88–93,280)	+ (281)	0	+/− (87,282,283)	+ (284–286)	+ (287,288)	+/− (289)	+ (290)	+ (291)

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Complementary effect (+): Targets and chemicals that were not only relevant for angiogenesis, but also relevant for other areas of cancer biology (i.e. procarcinogenic). Contrary effects (−): Targets and chemicals that were found to have opposing actions (i.e. anticarcinogenic). Both (+/−): Instances where reports on relevant actions in other aspects of cancer biology were mixed (i.e. reports showing both procarcinogenic potential and anticarcinogenic potential). Not known (0): Instances where no literature support was found to document the relevance of a target site or chemical in a particular aspect of cancer biology. VCAM1, vascular cell adhesion molecule 1; CXCL9 and 10, C-X-C motif chemokine ligands 9 and 10; CCL2, monocyte-like chemoattractant protein; ICAM1, intercellular adhesion molecule 1.

Table 4.

Cross-validation of disruptors in other cancer hallmarks

Angiogenesis prototypical disruptors	Deregulated metabolism	Evasion of antigrowth signaling	Genetic instability	Resistance to cell death	Sustained proliferative signaling	Tissue invasion and metastasis	Tumor promoting inflammation
Diniconazole	+ (292)	0	0	0	0	0	+ (293)
Ziram	+/− (294,295)	+ (296)	+ (297)	− (298)	0	0	+ (298,299)
Chlorothalonil	+ (300,301)	+ (302)	+ (303)	− (304)	+ (305)	0	+ (306,307)
Biphenyl	0	Do not alter the levels of p53 (135)	+ (307)	− (308,309)	+/− (310,311)	− (312–314)	+ (315)
Tributyltin chloride	+ (316–319)	0	+ (320)	− (321–324)	0	0	+ (321,325)
Methylene bis(thiocyanate)	0	0	+ (326)	0	0	− (327–329)	+ (330)
HPTE	0	0	+ (331,332)	+ (333)	+ (334)	0	+ (335)
PFOS	0	+ (134,336)	+ (337)	− (338,339)	+ (340)	0	+ (341,342)
Bisphenol AF	+ (343,344)	+ (131)	0	− (345)	+ (346)	+ (347–349)	+ (350,351)
C.I. solvent yellow 14	+ (352,353)	+ (352,354)	+ (355)	0	0	0	+ (356)

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Complementary effect (+): Targets and chemicals that were not only relevant for angiogenesis, but also relevant for other areas of cancer biology (i.e. procarcinogenic). Contrary effects (−): Targets and chemicals that that were found to have opposing actions (i.e. anticarcinogenic). Both (+/−): Instances where reports on relevant actions in other aspects of cancer biology were mixed (i.e. reports showing both procarcinogenic potential and anticarcinogenic potential). Not known (0): Instances where no literature support was found to document the relevance of a target site or chemical in a particular aspect of cancer’s biology. HPTE,2,2-bis-(p-hydroxyphenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane; PFOS, perfluorooctane sulfonate.

When studying the role of chemical disruptors in tumor angiogenesis, it is also important to keep in mind that inflammation and angiogenesis are closely linked (126,155–157). Many of the angiogenic molecule targets that are selected as important targets in this review are also involved in inflammation pathways. However, the critical role of VEGFR and TF pathways in chemical angiogenesis can be examined in vitro with HTS systems where individual chemical disruptors can be added to the assay wells to explore their role in angiogenesis, followed by a variety of assay techniques as reviewed and summarized above and in Table 2 for measuring the changes of these angiogenic priority targets (CCL2, ICAM1, CXCL9, CXCL10, AHR, THBD, uPAR, MMP1, VCAM1 and collagen III) that we choose as potential targets for chemical disruptors (Bisphenol AF, Methoxychlor, PFOS, Diniconazole, Ziram, Chlorothalonil, Biphenyl, Tributyltin Chloride, HPTE and C.I. Solvent Yellow 14).

It is worth noting that many common drugs and some dietary compounds can prevent cancer by inhibiting tumor angiogenesis. For example, aspirin and metformin are two cases where epidemiological evidence indicates cancer prevention (158,159), and experimental evidence suggested that inhibition of angiogenesis plays a part in this role (160,161). As well, there is substantial experimental evidence for phytochemicals, in particular dietary phytochemicals, preventing angiogenesis (162). So simultaneous exposures to both antiangiogenic and proangiogenic substances may represent two competing forces that could influence the process of environmental carcinogenesis. However, it is beyond the scope of this review to simultaneously consider these antiangiogenic exposures as well. Primarily, we believe that proangiogenic environmental exposures have not been considered in detail elsewhere, so they are the focus of this review. However, we do recognize that the combined effects of these constituents with other chemicals warrant careful consideration.

Conclusions

In conclusion, we propose to study the role of environmental chemicals on angiogenesis, particularly at low doses of selective chemical disruptors. We believe there is a great need for future research that explores the potentially carcinogenic synergies produced by low-dose exposures to a wide range of chemicals with disruptive potential. Those with proangiogenic potential may be non-carcinogenic, but combinations of those chemicals may warrant further research and how they might combine with other chemicals that act on other hallmarks may help us better understand whether or not these types of combination exposures have a role to play in environmental carcinogenesis. In this regard, we identify prioritized vascular signaling targets, identify various environmental chemicals as novel, potential selectively disruptive agents in tumor angiogenesis, consider the cross-hallmark relationships within tumor angiogenesis pathways and targets as well as with other cancer hallmarks and make suggestions for assessing environmental chemicals in tumor angiogenesis for future studies. Understanding of the role of low-dose exposure of chemicals with disruptive potential could help us to refine our approach to cancer risk assessment, and may ultimately aid in preventing cancer by reducing or eliminating exposures to synergistic mixtures of chemicals with carcinogenic potential.

Funding

The Ohio State University College of Medicine, The OSU James Comprehensive Cancer Center (OSUCCC), OSUCCC Translational Therapeutics Program (to Z. H.); Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan (NSC93-2314-B-320-006 and NSC94-2314-B-320-002 to H.-Y. H.); Taipei Medical University (TMU101-AE3-Y19 to L.-T. L.); INSERM and University of Strasbourg, France (to T. M.); Fondazione Cariplo (2011-0370 to C.M.); Kuwait Institute for the Advancement of Sciences (2011-1302-06 to F. al-M.); Grant University Scheme (RUGs) Ministry Of Education Malaysia (04-02-12-2099RU to R.A.H.); Italian Ministry of University and Research (2009FZZ4XM_002 to A.A); the University of Florence (ex60%2012 to A.A.); US Public Health Service Grants (RO1 CA92306, RO1 CA92306-S1, RO1 CA113447 to R.R.); Department of Science and Technology, Government of India (SR/FT/LS-063/2008 to N.S.); NIEHS contracts (N01-ES 35504 and HHSN27320140003C to N.K.).

Acknowledgements

All authors contributed to writing/revising the review article. Specifically, Z.H. for overall, Prioritized Targets, TF Signaling Pathways and In vitro and In vitro Angiogenesis Assays including Figure 1, Introduction, Discussion and Conclusion; N.K. for overall, Topic Area Overview and Selective Chemical Disruptors including Figures 1 and 2 and Table 1; T.M. and V.D. for Tumor environment and angiogenesis, Establishing molecular identity, and Drug development for antiangiogenesis that target the tumor environment; M.X. and C.-W. H. for VEGF Signaling Pathways and HTS assays including Table 2; W.K.R. and S.B. for Selective Chemical Disruptors and Introduction and Discussion/Conclusion; all other authors for Tables 3 and 4; H.K.S. and W.H.B. for the section of ‘Cross-talk between angiogenesis and the other hallmarks of cancer’ involving all Prioritized Targets and Selective Chemical Disruptors. We are thankful for Dr Michael Gilbertson’s critical reading, thoughtful edits and comments on the review article. Particularly, we thank Mr. Leroy Lowe for initiating and organizing the Halifax Project in the past 3 years, his assistance in structuring this article, and his critical reading of the manuscripts and his inputs as well. We are also thankful for National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences of USA for travel grant support for team members to attend the Halifax Workshop in August 2013.

Conflict of Interest Statement: None declared.

Glossary

Abbreviations

AHR: aryl-hydrocarbon receptor
CXCL9 and 10: C-X-C motif chemokine ligands 9 and 10
CCL2: monocyte-like chemoattractant protein
COLIII: collagen III
ECM: extracellular matrix
FGF: fibroblast growth factor
HIF-1α: hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha
HUVEC: human umbilical vein endothelial cells
HPTE: 2,2-bis-(p-hydroxyphenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane
HTS: high-throughput screening
IL: interleukin
ICAM1: intercellular adhesion molecule 1
MMP1: matrix metalloproteinase-1
PAR: protease-activated receptors
PFOS: perfluorooctane sulfonate
THBD: thrombomodulin
TF: tissue factor
TGF-β: transforming growth factor-beta
uPAR: urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor
VCAM1: vascular cell-adhesion molecule 1
VEGF/VEGFR: vascular endothelial growth factor/receptor
VEC: vascular endothelial cells

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PERMALINK

Assessing the carcinogenic potential of low-dose exposures to chemical mixtures in the environment: focus on the cancer hallmark of tumor angiogenesis

Zhiwei Hu

Samira A Brooks

Valérian Dormoy

Chia-Wen Hsu

Hsue-Yin Hsu

Liang-Tzung Lin

Thierry Massfelder

W Kimryn Rathmell

Menghang Xia

Fahd Al-Mulla

Rabeah Al-Temaimi

Amedeo Amedei

Dustin G Brown

Kalan R Prudhomme

Annamaria Colacci

Roslida A Hamid

Chiara Mondello

Jayadev Raju

Elizabeth P Ryan

Jordan Woodrick

A Ivana Scovassi

Neetu Singh

Monica Vaccari

Rabindra Roy

Stefano Forte

Lorenzo Memeo

Hosni K Salem

Leroy Lowe

Lasse Jensen

William H Bisson

Nicole Kleinstreuer

Summary

Abstract

Introduction

Identifying VEGFR- and TF-mediated signaling as two key tumor angiogenesis pathways and corresponding molecular components as prioritized targets for assessing the carcinogenic potential of low-dose exposures to chemical mixtures in the environment

Figure 1.

Environmental carcinogens affecting angiogenic pathways

Cigarette smoke

Nicotine

Arsenic

Other environmental chemicals with proangiogenic properties

Identifying novel environmental chemical disruptors

Table 1.

Figure 2.

In vitro and in vivo angiogenesis assays including HTS assay for assessing the effects of environmental chemicals in tumor angiogenesis

Table 2.

Discussion

Table 3.

Table 4.

Conclusions

Funding

Acknowledgements

Glossary

Abbreviations

References

ACTIONS

PERMALINK

RESOURCES

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