INTRODUCTION
Over the past 25 years, the proportion of the homeless population 50 years of age and older has increased rapidly, from 11% in 19901 to nearly 50% today.2 Older homeless adults experience early onset of age-related conditions relative to the general population, including difficulty performing basic self-care activities that are considered essential for independence, such as bathing and dressing.3 Such difficulty, or “functional impairment,” occurs in 30% of homeless adults in their fifties and early sixties, a prevalence exceeding that of housed adults 20 years older.3 However, it is unknown if functional impairment among older homeless adults is transient or persistent, and thus what types of interventions are needed to address these deficits. If functional impairment persists or worsens in a substantial number of older homeless adults, more units of accessible permanent supportive housing and personal care attendants may be needed. In contrast, if most functional impairment is transient in this population, different types of interventions may be appropriate. We examined the characteristics and persistence of functional impairment in a cohort of homeless adults age 50 and older and identified risk factors for persistent or worsened functional impairment.
METHODS
We conducted a 12-month prospective study of 250 older homeless adults recruited from 8 homeless shelters in Boston, Massachusetts in 2010.3 Eligibility criteria included age 50 years or older, current homelessness, and ability to communicate in English. We interviewed participants in person at baseline and 12 months. The institutional review boards of the participating universities approved the study, and all participants provided written informed consent.
At baseline and 12 months, participants reported if they had difficulty performing 5 Katz activities of daily living (ADLs)4 and 6 instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs). We assessed IADLs using a validated instrument developed for use in homeless persons.5 We defined persistent ADL impairment as difficulty performing the same number of ADLs at baseline and follow-up, and worsened ADL impairment as difficulty performing an increased number of ADLs from baseline to follow-up. We defined IADL impairment similarly. We used multivariable regression models to identify risk factors for persistent or worsened functional impairment.
RESULTS
Of the 250 participants enrolled at baseline, 204 completed 12-month follow-up assessments (82%). The mean age was 56.0 years and 18% were women (Table).
Table.
Baseline Characteristics of 204 Older Homeless Adults
| Characteristic | Participants (n=204) |
|---|---|
| Demographics | |
| Age, years mean (SD) | 56.0 (5.5) |
| Women, n (%) | 37 (18) |
| Race/ethnicity, n (%) | |
| African American | 82 (40) |
| White | 82 (40) |
| Latino | 21 (10) |
| Multiracial/Other | 19 (9) |
| Less than high school education, n (%) | 52 (26) |
| Homelessness | |
| Age at first episode of homelessness, median (IQR) | 45 (35, 52) |
| Lifetime years homelessness, median (IQR) | 5 (2, 10) |
| Homeless for 1 year or longer, n (%) | 135 (66) |
| Health status | |
| Charlson Comorbidity Index score, n (%) | |
| 0 | 78 (38) |
| 1-2 | 76 (38) |
| ≥3 | 50 (25) |
| Alcohol use problem, n (%)a | 36 (18) |
| Drug use problem, n (%)b | 35 (17) |
| Geriatric conditions, n (%) | |
| Mobility impairmentc | 87 (43) |
| Cognitive impairmentd | 118 (58) |
| Depressione | 79 (39) |
| Visual impairmentf | 61 (30) |
| Hearing impairmentg | 65 (32) |
| Urinary incontinenceh | 99 (49) |
| Health services use during the prior year | |
| Number of emergency department visits, n (%) | |
| 0 | 62 (30) |
| 1-3 | 88 (43) |
| ≥4 | 51 (25) |
| Number of hospitalizations, median (IQR) | 0 (0, 2) |
Alcohol use problem defined as an Addiction Severity Index score of ≥0.17.
Drug use problem defined as an Addiction Severity Index score of ≥0.10.
Mobility impairment defined as self-reported difficulty walking.
Cognitive impairment defined as a Mini-Mental State Examination score of <24.
Depression defined as a Patient Health Questionnaire Score ≥10.
Visual impairment defined as self-reported difficulty seeing despite wearing corrective lenses.
Hearing impairment defined as self-reported difficulty hearing.
Urinary incontinence defined as an International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire score of ≥1.
At baseline, 65 of 204 participants (32%) reported impairment in 1 or more ADLs; the majority of the 65 had difficulty performing 1 or 2 ADLs (n=51). The most common ADL impairment at baseline was transferring (n=54), followed by dressing (n=23) and toileting (n=17).
In 32 of the 65 participants with ADL difficulty at baseline (49%), these difficulties persisted or worsened at follow-up. The ADL impairment most likely to persist from baseline to follow-up was transferring, followed by bathing and dressing (Figure). Among the 32 participants with persistent or worsened ADL impairment, the specific impairments often changed over time: 11 participants (34%) had improvement in the original impairment but onset of 1 or more other impairments.
Figure. Changes in ADL function after one year among 65 older homeless adults with ADL difficulty at baseline.
ADL indicates activity of daily living. Persistent difficulty was defined as an ADL difficulty present at both baseline and follow-up. The total length of each bar represents the number of participants with that ADL difficulty present at baseline.
Of 139 participants who were free of ADL impairment at baseline, 21 (15%) developed new ADL impairment at follow-up. The most commonly acquired new ADL impairment was transferring (n=18), followed by dressing (n=5) and bathing (n=5).
The pattern of results for IADLs was similar to that of ADLs (results not shown).
In multivariable analyses, demographics, medical comorbidity, substance use, and health services use were not associated with persistent or worsened ADL impairment or IADL impairment.
DISCUSSION
In this study, functional impairment improved over time in some older homeless adults, but persisted or worsened in many others. These findings suggest that functional impairment in many older homeless adults is not just a transient problem, but instead a long-term issue in need of long-term solutions. Approaches to managing functional impairment among older homeless adults might include referral to medical respite for individuals with short-term impairments, and for persons with longer-term impairments, promoting access to permanent supportive housing with appropriately tailored environmental adaptations and personal care services. Because few factors measured in standard practice predict whose impairments will persist versus improve, following older homeless patients closely over time will be necessary to understand their functional trajectory and identify appropriate services and solutions.
Acknowledgments
Funders: This work was funded by a Medical Student in Aging Research (MSTAR) Program award from the American Federation for Aging Research and the National Institute on Aging at the National Institutes of Health (Ms. Cimino), by grant K23AG045290 from the National Institute on Aging at the National Institutes of Health (Dr. Brown), by grant KL2TR000143 from the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, through UCSF-Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute (Dr. Brown), by grant P30AG044281 from the National Institute on Aging at the National Institutes of Health (Dr. Brown), and by grant K23AG030999 from the National Institute on Aging at the National Institutes of Health and the American Federation for Aging Research (Dr. Steinman).
Role of the Sponsors: The funding sources had no role in the design or conduct of the study; in the collection, management, analysis, or interpretation of the data; in the preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; or in the decision to submit the manuscript for publication.
Footnotes
Author Contributions: Dr. Brown had full access to all the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.
Study concept and design: Cimino, Steinman, Mitchell, Bharel, and Brown.
Acquisition of data: Brown.
Analysis and interpretation of data: Cimino, Steinman, Mitchell, Miao, Bharel, Barnhart, Brown.
Drafting of the manuscript: Cimino and Brown.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Cimino, Steinman, Mitchell, Miao, Bharel, Barnhart, Brown.
Statistical analysis: Brown and Miao.
Obtained funding: Cimino, Brown, Steinman and Mitchell.
Study supervision: Brown.
Prior presentations: This study was presented at the Medical Student in Aging Research (MSTAR) Program Student Presentations Session on July 31, 2014 in Los Angeles, California.
Conflict of Interest Disclosures: None reported.
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