Skip to main content
PMC home page
The EMBO Journal logoLink to The EMBO Journal
. 1996 Jul 1;15(13):3403–3412.

Activation of the serum response factor by p65/NF-kappaB.

G Franzoso 1, L Carlson 1, K Brown 1, M B Daucher 1, P Bressler 1, U Siebenlist 1
PMCID: PMC451904  PMID: 8670842

Abstract

This study demonstrates that the NF-kappaB subunit p65 can act like an accessory protein for the serum response factor (SRF) in transfection assays. p65 functionally synergizes with SRF to activate the transcription of a reporter construct dependent only on the serum response element (SRE). The synergy of the two factors requires neither a kappaB motif nor direct contact of p65 with DNA. Consistent with these results, a physical complex containing p65 and SRF is observed in vitro. Synergy of the factors is independent of the previously described activation domains present on p65, ruling out indirect effects of p65, but synergy is dependent on the activation domain of SRF. The complexing of p65 and SRF is mediated by a segment of the SRF DNA binding domain, a region of the protein which has also been reported to inhibit its own activation domain. We speculate that p65, upon direct or facilitated interaction with SRF, may relieve the inhibitory activity of this segment, thus enabling the activation domain of SRF to become fully functional. In contrast to p65, the p50 subunit of NF-kappaB does not interact significantly with SRF, either functionally or physically. The data suggest the intriguing possibility that NF-kappaB may participate in the regulation of SRE-dependent promoters, expanding the range of activities of this rapidly activatable transcription factor.

Full text

PDF
3403

Images in this article

3404Image
on p.3404
3405Image
on p.3405
3405Image
on p.3405
3406Image
on p.3406
3407Image
on p.3407
3408Image
on p.3408
3409Image
on p.3409

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Ballard D. W., Böhnlein E., Hoffman J. A., Bogerd H. P., Dixon E. P., Franza B. R., Greene W. C. Activation of the interleukin-2 receptor alpha gene: regulatory role for DNA-protein interactions flanking the kappa B enhancer. New Biol. 1989 Oct;1(1):83–92. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Ballard D. W., Dixon E. P., Peffer N. J., Bogerd H., Doerre S., Stein B., Greene W. C. The 65-kDa subunit of human NF-kappa B functions as a potent transcriptional activator and a target for v-Rel-mediated repression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992 Mar 1;89(5):1875–1879. doi: 10.1073/pnas.89.5.1875. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Blair W. S., Bogerd H. P., Madore S. J., Cullen B. R. Mutational analysis of the transcription activation domain of RelA: identification of a highly synergistic minimal acidic activation module. Mol Cell Biol. 1994 Nov;14(11):7226–7234. doi: 10.1128/mcb.14.11.7226. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Bours V., Burd P. R., Brown K., Villalobos J., Park S., Ryseck R. P., Bravo R., Kelly K., Siebenlist U. A novel mitogen-inducible gene product related to p50/p105-NF-kappa B participates in transactivation through a kappa B site. Mol Cell Biol. 1992 Feb;12(2):685–695. doi: 10.1128/mcb.12.2.685. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bours V., Franzoso G., Azarenko V., Park S., Kanno T., Brown K., Siebenlist U. The oncoprotein Bcl-3 directly transactivates through kappa B motifs via association with DNA-binding p50B homodimers. Cell. 1993 Mar 12;72(5):729–739. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(93)90401-b. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Bressler P., Brown K., Timmer W., Bours V., Siebenlist U., Fauci A. S. Mutational analysis of the p50 subunit of NF-kappa B and inhibition of NF-kappa B activity by trans-dominant p50 mutants. J Virol. 1993 Jan;67(1):288–293. doi: 10.1128/jvi.67.1.288-293.1993. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Brockman J. A., Scherer D. C., McKinsey T. A., Hall S. M., Qi X., Lee W. Y., Ballard D. W. Coupling of a signal response domain in I kappa B alpha to multiple pathways for NF-kappa B activation. Mol Cell Biol. 1995 May;15(5):2809–2818. doi: 10.1128/mcb.15.5.2809. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Brown K., Gerstberger S., Carlson L., Franzoso G., Siebenlist U. Control of I kappa B-alpha proteolysis by site-specific, signal-induced phosphorylation. Science. 1995 Mar 10;267(5203):1485–1488. doi: 10.1126/science.7878466. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Bruhn L., Sprague G. F., Jr MCM1 point mutants deficient in expression of alpha-specific genes: residues important for interaction with alpha 1. Mol Cell Biol. 1994 Apr;14(4):2534–2544. doi: 10.1128/mcb.14.4.2534. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Böhnlein E., Lowenthal J. W., Siekevitz M., Ballard D. W., Franza B. R., Greene W. C. The same inducible nuclear proteins regulates mitogen activation of both the interleukin-2 receptor-alpha gene and type 1 HIV. Cell. 1988 Jun 3;53(5):827–836. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(88)90099-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Cross S. L., Halden N. F., Lenardo M. J., Leonard W. J. Functionally distinct NF-kappa B binding sites in the immunoglobulin kappa and IL-2 receptor alpha chain genes. Science. 1989 Apr 28;244(4903):466–469. doi: 10.1126/science.2497520. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Dalton S., Treisman R. Characterization of SAP-1, a protein recruited by serum response factor to the c-fos serum response element. Cell. 1992 Feb 7;68(3):597–612. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(92)90194-h. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Drew P. D., Franzoso G., Becker K. G., Bours V., Carlson L. M., Siebenlist U., Ozato K. NF kappa B and interferon regulatory factor 1 physically interact and synergistically induce major histocompatibility class I gene expression. J Interferon Cytokine Res. 1995 Dec;15(12):1037–1045. doi: 10.1089/jir.1995.15.1037. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Du W., Thanos D., Maniatis T. Mechanisms of transcriptional synergism between distinct virus-inducible enhancer elements. Cell. 1993 Sep 10;74(5):887–898. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(93)90468-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Franzoso G., Bours V., Azarenko V., Park S., Tomita-Yamaguchi M., Kanno T., Brown K., Siebenlist U. The oncoprotein Bcl-3 can facilitate NF-kappa B-mediated transactivation by removing inhibiting p50 homodimers from select kappa B sites. EMBO J. 1993 Oct;12(10):3893–3901. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1993.tb06067.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Franzoso G., Bours V., Park S., Tomita-Yamaguchi M., Kelly K., Siebenlist U. The candidate oncoprotein Bcl-3 is an antagonist of p50/NF-kappa B-mediated inhibition. Nature. 1992 Sep 24;359(6393):339–342. doi: 10.1038/359339a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Ghosh G., van Duyne G., Ghosh S., Sigler P. B. Structure of NF-kappa B p50 homodimer bound to a kappa B site. Nature. 1995 Jan 26;373(6512):303–310. doi: 10.1038/373303a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Gille H., Kortenjann M., Thomae O., Moomaw C., Slaughter C., Cobb M. H., Shaw P. E. ERK phosphorylation potentiates Elk-1-mediated ternary complex formation and transactivation. EMBO J. 1995 Mar 1;14(5):951–962. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1995.tb07076.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Gille H., Sharrocks A. D., Shaw P. E. Phosphorylation of transcription factor p62TCF by MAP kinase stimulates ternary complex formation at c-fos promoter. Nature. 1992 Jul 30;358(6385):414–417. doi: 10.1038/358414a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Giovane A., Pintzas A., Maira S. M., Sobieszczuk P., Wasylyk B. Net, a new ets transcription factor that is activated by Ras. Genes Dev. 1994 Jul 1;8(13):1502–1513. doi: 10.1101/gad.8.13.1502. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Graham R., Gilman M. Distinct protein targets for signals acting at the c-fos serum response element. Science. 1991 Jan 11;251(4990):189–192. doi: 10.1126/science.1898992. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Grueneberg D. A., Natesan S., Alexandre C., Gilman M. Z. Human and Drosophila homeodomain proteins that enhance the DNA-binding activity of serum response factor. Science. 1992 Aug 21;257(5073):1089–1095. doi: 10.1126/science.257.5073.1089. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Hill C. S., Marais R., John S., Wynne J., Dalton S., Treisman R. Functional analysis of a growth factor-responsive transcription factor complex. Cell. 1993 Apr 23;73(2):395–406. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(93)90238-l. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Hill C. S., Wynne J., Treisman R. Serum-regulated transcription by serum response factor (SRF): a novel role for the DNA binding domain. EMBO J. 1994 Nov 15;13(22):5421–5432. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1994.tb06877.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Hill C. S., Wynne J., Treisman R. The Rho family GTPases RhoA, Rac1, and CDC42Hs regulate transcriptional activation by SRF. Cell. 1995 Jun 30;81(7):1159–1170. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(05)80020-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Hipskind R. A., Rao V. N., Mueller C. G., Reddy E. S., Nordheim A. Ets-related protein Elk-1 is homologous to the c-fos regulatory factor p62TCF. Nature. 1991 Dec 19;354(6354):531–534. doi: 10.1038/354531a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Janknecht R., Ernst W. H., Pingoud V., Nordheim A. Activation of ternary complex factor Elk-1 by MAP kinases. EMBO J. 1993 Dec 15;12(13):5097–5104. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1993.tb06204.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Janknecht R., Hipskind R. A., Houthaeve T., Nordheim A., Stunnenberg H. G. Identification of multiple SRF N-terminal phosphorylation sites affecting DNA binding properties. EMBO J. 1992 Mar;11(3):1045–1054. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1992.tb05143.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Janknecht R., Nordheim A. Elk-1 protein domains required for direct and SRF-assisted DNA-binding. Nucleic Acids Res. 1992 Jul 11;20(13):3317–3324. doi: 10.1093/nar/20.13.3317. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Janknecht R., Zinck R., Ernst W. H., Nordheim A. Functional dissection of the transcription factor Elk-1. Oncogene. 1994 Apr;9(4):1273–1278. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Johansen F. E., Prywes R. Identification of transcriptional activation and inhibitory domains in serum response factor (SRF) by using GAL4-SRF constructs. Mol Cell Biol. 1993 Aug;13(8):4640–4647. doi: 10.1128/mcb.13.8.4640. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Johansen F. E., Prywes R. Two pathways for serum regulation of the c-fos serum response element require specific sequence elements and a minimal domain of serum response factor. Mol Cell Biol. 1994 Sep;14(9):5920–5928. doi: 10.1128/mcb.14.9.5920. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Kanno T., Brown K., Franzoso G., Siebenlist U. Kinetic analysis of human T-cell leukemia virus type I Tax-mediated activation of NF-kappa B. Mol Cell Biol. 1994 Oct;14(10):6443–6451. doi: 10.1128/mcb.14.10.6443. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Kortenjann M., Thomae O., Shaw P. E. Inhibition of v-raf-dependent c-fos expression and transformation by a kinase-defective mutant of the mitogen-activated protein kinase Erk2. Mol Cell Biol. 1994 Jul;14(7):4815–4824. doi: 10.1128/mcb.14.7.4815. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Kuang A. A., Novak K. D., Kang S. M., Bruhn K., Lenardo M. J. Interaction between NF-kappa B- and serum response factor-binding elements activates an interleukin-2 receptor alpha-chain enhancer specifically in T lymphocytes. Mol Cell Biol. 1993 Apr;13(4):2536–2545. doi: 10.1128/mcb.13.4.2536. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. König H. Cell-type specific multiprotein complex formation over the c-fos serum response element in vivo: ternary complex formation is not required for the induction of c-fos. Nucleic Acids Res. 1991 Jul 11;19(13):3607–3611. doi: 10.1093/nar/19.13.3607. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Latinkic B. V., O'Brien T. P., Lau L. F. Promoter function and structure of the growth factor-inducible immediate early gene cyr61. Nucleic Acids Res. 1991 Jun 25;19(12):3261–3267. doi: 10.1093/nar/19.12.3261. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Leung K., Nabel G. J. HTLV-1 transactivator induces interleukin-2 receptor expression through an NF-kappa B-like factor. Nature. 1988 Jun 23;333(6175):776–778. doi: 10.1038/333776a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Marais R., Wynne J., Treisman R. The SRF accessory protein Elk-1 contains a growth factor-regulated transcriptional activation domain. Cell. 1993 Apr 23;73(2):381–393. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(93)90237-k. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Miranti C. K., Ginty D. D., Huang G., Chatila T., Greenberg M. E. Calcium activates serum response factor-dependent transcription by a Ras- and Elk-1-independent mechanism that involves a Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase. Mol Cell Biol. 1995 Jul;15(7):3672–3684. doi: 10.1128/mcb.15.7.3672. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Mohun T., Garrett N., Treisman R. Xenopus cytoskeletal actin and human c-fos gene promoters share a conserved protein-binding site. EMBO J. 1987 Mar;6(3):667–673. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1987.tb04806.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Mueller C. G., Nordheim A. A protein domain conserved between yeast MCM1 and human SRF directs ternary complex formation. EMBO J. 1991 Dec;10(13):4219–4229. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1991.tb05000.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Müller C. W., Rey F. A., Sodeoka M., Verdine G. L., Harrison S. C. Structure of the NF-kappa B p50 homodimer bound to DNA. Nature. 1995 Jan 26;373(6512):311–317. doi: 10.1038/373311a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Norman C., Runswick M., Pollock R., Treisman R. Isolation and properties of cDNA clones encoding SRF, a transcription factor that binds to the c-fos serum response element. Cell. 1988 Dec 23;55(6):989–1003. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(88)90244-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Pellegrini L., Tan S., Richmond T. J. Structure of serum response factor core bound to DNA. Nature. 1995 Aug 10;376(6540):490–498. doi: 10.1038/376490a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Pierce J. W., Jamieson C. A., Ross J. L., Sen R. Activation of IL-2 receptor alpha-chain gene by individual members of the rel oncogene family in association with serum response factor. J Immunol. 1995 Aug 15;155(4):1972–1980. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Rao V. N., Reddy E. S. elk-1 domains responsible for autonomous DNA binding, SRE:SRF interaction and negative regulation of DNA binding. Oncogene. 1992 Nov;7(11):2335–2340. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Ruben S. M., Dillon P. J., Schreck R., Henkel T., Chen C. H., Maher M., Baeuerle P. A., Rosen C. A. Isolation of a rel-related human cDNA that potentially encodes the 65-kD subunit of NF-kappa B. Science. 1991 Mar 22;251(5000):1490–1493. doi: 10.1126/science.2006423. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Ruben S., Poteat H., Tan T. H., Kawakami K., Roeder R., Haseltine W., Rosen C. A. Cellular transcription factors and regulation of IL-2 receptor gene expression by HTLV-I tax gene product. Science. 1988 Jul 1;241(4861):89–92. doi: 10.1126/science.2838905. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Sadoshima J., Izumo S. Mechanical stretch rapidly activates multiple signal transduction pathways in cardiac myocytes: potential involvement of an autocrine/paracrine mechanism. EMBO J. 1993 Apr;12(4):1681–1692. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1993.tb05813.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Schmitz M. L., Baeuerle P. A. The p65 subunit is responsible for the strong transcription activating potential of NF-kappa B. EMBO J. 1991 Dec;10(12):3805–3817. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1991.tb04950.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Shaw P. E., Schröter H., Nordheim A. The ability of a ternary complex to form over the serum response element correlates with serum inducibility of the human c-fos promoter. Cell. 1989 Feb 24;56(4):563–572. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(89)90579-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Shaw P. E. Ternary complex formation over the c-fos serum response element: p62TCF exhibits dual component specificity with contacts to DNA and an extended structure in the DNA-binding domain of p67SRF. EMBO J. 1992 Aug;11(8):3011–3019. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1992.tb05371.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Shore P., Sharrocks A. D. The transcription factors Elk-1 and serum response factor interact by direct protein-protein contacts mediated by a short region of Elk-1. Mol Cell Biol. 1994 May;14(5):3283–3291. doi: 10.1128/mcb.14.5.3283. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Siebenlist U., Franzoso G., Brown K. Structure, regulation and function of NF-kappa B. Annu Rev Cell Biol. 1994;10:405–455. doi: 10.1146/annurev.cb.10.110194.002201. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Stein B., Baldwin A. S., Jr, Ballard D. W., Greene W. C., Angel P., Herrlich P. Cross-coupling of the NF-kappa B p65 and Fos/Jun transcription factors produces potentiated biological function. EMBO J. 1993 Oct;12(10):3879–3891. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1993.tb06066.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Stein B., Baldwin A. S., Jr Distinct mechanisms for regulation of the interleukin-8 gene involve synergism and cooperativity between C/EBP and NF-kappa B. Mol Cell Biol. 1993 Nov;13(11):7191–7198. doi: 10.1128/mcb.13.11.7191. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Stein B., Cogswell P. C., Baldwin A. S., Jr Functional and physical associations between NF-kappa B and C/EBP family members: a Rel domain-bZIP interaction. Mol Cell Biol. 1993 Jul;13(7):3964–3974. doi: 10.1128/mcb.13.7.3964. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Tan S., Richmond T. J. DNA binding-induced conformational change of the yeast transcriptional activator PRTF. Cell. 1990 Jul 27;62(2):367–377. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90373-m. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Tan T. H., Huang G. P., Sica A., Ghosh P., Young H. A., Longo D. L., Rice N. R. Kappa B site-dependent activation of the interleukin-2 receptor alpha-chain gene promoter by human c-Rel. Mol Cell Biol. 1992 Sep;12(9):4067–4075. doi: 10.1128/mcb.12.9.4067. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Thanos D., Maniatis T. NF-kappa B: a lesson in family values. Cell. 1995 Feb 24;80(4):529–532. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(95)90506-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Thanos D., Maniatis T. The high mobility group protein HMG I(Y) is required for NF-kappa B-dependent virus induction of the human IFN-beta gene. Cell. 1992 Nov 27;71(5):777–789. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(92)90554-p. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Toledano M. B., Roman D. G., Halden N. F., Lin B. B., Leonard W. J. The same target sequences are differentially important for activation of the interleukin 2 receptor alpha-chain gene in two distinct T-cell lines. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Mar;87(5):1830–1834. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.5.1830. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Traenckner E. B., Pahl H. L., Henkel T., Schmidt K. N., Wilk S., Baeuerle P. A. Phosphorylation of human I kappa B-alpha on serines 32 and 36 controls I kappa B-alpha proteolysis and NF-kappa B activation in response to diverse stimuli. EMBO J. 1995 Jun 15;14(12):2876–2883. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1995.tb07287.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Treisman R., Marais R., Wynne J. Spatial flexibility in ternary complexes between SRF and its accessory proteins. EMBO J. 1992 Dec;11(12):4631–4640. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1992.tb05565.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Treisman R. Ternary complex factors: growth factor regulated transcriptional activators. Curr Opin Genet Dev. 1994 Feb;4(1):96–101. doi: 10.1016/0959-437x(94)90097-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Treisman R. The SRE: a growth factor responsive transcriptional regulator. Semin Cancer Biol. 1990 Feb;1(1):47–58. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Treisman R. The serum response element. Trends Biochem Sci. 1992 Oct;17(10):423–426. doi: 10.1016/0968-0004(92)90013-y. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Whiteside S. T., Ernst M. K., LeBail O., Laurent-Winter C., Rice N., Israël A. N- and C-terminal sequences control degradation of MAD3/I kappa B alpha in response to inducers of NF-kappa B activity. Mol Cell Biol. 1995 Oct;15(10):5339–5345. doi: 10.1128/mcb.15.10.5339. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Zinck R., Hipskind R. A., Pingoud V., Nordheim A. c-fos transcriptional activation and repression correlate temporally with the phosphorylation status of TCF. EMBO J. 1993 Jun;12(6):2377–2387. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1993.tb05892.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from The EMBO Journal are provided here courtesy of Nature Publishing Group

RESOURCES