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. 2014 Oct 11;52(8):5335–5340. doi: 10.1007/s13197-014-1598-x

Influence of resistant starches on chemical and functional properties of tarhana

Hilal Arslan Bayrakçı 1, Nermin Bilgiçli 2,✉
PMCID: PMC4519504  PMID: 26243962

Abstract

Two different commercial resistant starches (RSa and RSb) were used in tarhana formulation on the basis of its replacement with wheat flour at 15, 30 and 45 % levels. Color values, some chemical, functional and sensory properties of tarhana were determined. Tarhana containing 30–45 % RSa gave lower darkness and yellowness compared to other samples. Increasing levels of RSa/RSb in tarhana formulation decreased protein and Fe, K, Mg, P and Zn content of the final products. Development in acidity was negatively affected above 30 % RS addition level. Although long fermentation period of tarhana dough, RS content of the tarhana samples changed between 5.4 and 26.2 %. Control tarhana was found to have 0.9 % RS content. Cooked viscosity decreased in tarhana soup with RS addition from 1,454 cP (control) to 166 cP. RSb showed more remarkable effect on cooked viscosity than RSa. High levels of RSa improved foaming capacity, foam stability, water and oil absorption capacity of the tarhana samples. RSa successfully incorporated into tarhana formulation up to 30 % level with minimum adverse effect on chemical and sensory properties.

Keywords: Resistant starch, Tarhana, Fermentation, Mineral, Functional properties

Introduction

Resistant starch (RS) is a portion of starch and starch products that resist to digestion of body enzyme. European Flair Concerted Action on Resistant Starch (EURESTA) has defined RS as the starch or products of starch degradation that escapes digestion in the small intestine of healthy individuals and may be completely or partially fermented in the colon (Englyst et al. 1992). RS is subdivided into four fractions: physically inaccessible to pancreatic α-amylase (RS1), amylopectin crystals of uncooked native starch granules (RS2), retrograded starch (amylase crystals) (RS3) (Englyst and Cummings 1987) and thermally or chemically modified starch (RS4) (Eerlingen et al. 1995). RS reduces the risk of colonic cancer, diabetes, gall stone formation, obesity related complications and atherosclerosis (Sajilata et al. 2006; Fuentes-Zaragoza et al. 2010). Because of RS has lower impact on the sensory properties of foods compared with traditional sources of fibres (Fuentes-Zaragoza et al. 2010), RS has been used for increasing functional quality of breads (Korus et al. 2009; Öztürk et al. 2009), muffins and cake (Lin et al. 1994; Baixauli et al. 2008a, b), spaghetti and pasta (Sözer et al. 2007; Aravind et al. 2013), biscuits and cookie (Aparacio-Saguilán et al. 2007; Laguna et al. 2011; Agama-Acevedo et al. 2012), granola bars and cereals (Aigster et al. 2011).

Tarhana is a popular fermented food product, and generally consumed as thick soup in Turkey. It is prepared with mixing yoghurt, wheat flour, yeast and a variety of cooked vegetables and spices followed by fermentation for 1 to 7 days (Siyamoğlu 1961; Campbell-Platt 1987; Bilgiçli et al. 2006a). Tarhana provides an increased digestibility and nutritional benefit owing to its high biological value proteins and prolonged fermentation process (Bilgiçli et al. 2006b). The same as tarhana there are some other products like kishk in Syria, Jordan and Egypt (Youssef 1990) and kushuk in Iraq (Alnouri and Duitschaever 1974).

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of RS on some chemical, functional and sensory properties of tarhana.

Materials and methods

Materials

The ingredients used in tarhana preparation were obtained from local markets in Konya, Turkey. To prepare tarhana, commercial wheat flour, concentrated full fat yoghurt that was made of cow’s milk, tomato paste (32°Bx), onion, paprika (powder form), bakers’ yeast and salt were used. RSa and RSb are type 3 commercial resistance starches. RS content of commercial RSa and RSb were 47 and 64 %, respectively.

Methods

Tarhana production

To prepare control tarhana sample, wheat flour (200 g), yoghurt (80 g), tomato paste (20 g), chopped onions (10 g), paprika (4 g), yeast (5 g), salt (2 g) and water were mixed in a Hobart Mixer. After mixing of ingredients, the dough was incubated at 30 °C for 72 h in the plastic containers and dried at 55 °C for 48 h in an air convection oven (Özköseoğlu PFS-9, Turkey). Dried samples were ground in a hammer mill equipped with 1 mm opening screen (Bilgiçli et al. 2006a). Tarhana samples containing RSa or RSb were prepared as described above with the replacement of 15, 30 and 45 % (w/w) RSa or RSb with wheat flour. Tarhana samples were kept in polyethylene bags at room temperature until used.

Chemical analyses

The AACC methods were used for determination of ash and protein contents of the tarhana samples (AACC 1990). RS content of the tarhana samples were measured using the Megazyme resistant starch kit (Megazyme Int., Wicklow, Ireland) according to Approved Method 32–40 (AACC 2004). The total titratable acidity of dried and ground samples was calculated as lactic acid as described by Kirk and Sawyer (1991). The mineral content were determined by an ICP-AES (Vista series, Varian International AG, Switzerland) as explained by Bubert and Hagenah (1987). The instrument was operated with a radiofrequency power of 0.7–1.5 kW (1.2–1.3 kW for axial); plasma gas flow rate (Ar) of 10.5–15 L/min (radial), 15 L/min (axial); auxiliary gas flow rate (Ar) of 1.5 L/min; viewing height of 5–12 mm; copy and reading time of 1–5 s (maximum of 60 s); and copy time of 3 s (maximum of 100 s).

Color measurement

Color (L*, a* and b*) measurement was made using a Minolta Chroma Meter CR-400 (Minolta, Osaka, Japan). L* corresponds to light/dark chromaticity, a* to green/red chromaticity and b* to blue/yellow chromaticity. The instrument was calibrated with a white reference tile before the measurements. Hue angle (hue) (arctan [b*/a*]) and the saturation index (SI) ([a*2 + b*2]1/2) values were calculated using a* and b* values.

Functional properties

Viscosity

Tarhana powder (20 g) was mixed with 200 mL distilled water (20 °C) and simmered for 12 min over medium heat with constant stirring. The viscosity of soup was then measured at 100 rpm and 60 °C using a rotational Brookfield viscometer (Brookfield RTV, spindle no: 5) as described by Ibanoğlu et al. (1995) and Hayta et al. (2002).

Water absorption capacity and oil absorption capacity

Tarhana (5.0 g) was mixed with distilled water (25 mL) or sunflower oil in 50 mL centrifuge tubes. The mixture was stirred (15 min intervals over a 60 min period) and then centrifuged (4,000×g for 20 min). Water and oil absorption capacity values were expressed as grams of water or oil absorbed per gram of tarhana (Hayta et al. 2002).

Foaming capacity and foam stability

Tarhana (10 g) was dispersed in distilled water and stirred (20 min), and then centrifuged (4,000×g for 20 min). Supernatant whipped for 2 min at high-speed of Waring blender. The solution was slowly poured into a cylinder, and the volume of the foam was recorded after 10s. Foaming capacity was expressed as the volume (mL) of gas incorporated per mL of solution. Foam stability was recorded as the time passed until the half of the original foam volume had disappeared (Hayta et al. 2002).

Sensory analysis

Tarhana soups, prepared as described in viscosity section, were subjected to sensory evaluation. Twenty five panelists were asked to score the soups in terms of color, flavor, consistency, cohesiveness, sourness and overall acceptability using nine point hedonic scale with 1- dislike extremely, 2- dislike very much, 3- dislike moderately, 4- dislike slightly, 5- neither like nor dislike, 6- like slightly, 7- like moderately, 8- like very much, 9- like extremely. The samples were coded with numbers and served to the panelists at random to guard against any bias.

Statistical analyses

Statistical analyses were performed using the Statistical software JMP 5.0.1 (SAS Institute). Means were compared at 5 % confidence interval

Results and discussion

Color values of tarhana

Color is an important quality parameter for powder and soup form of tarhana. Traditionally, many types of tarhana are produced with different ingredients in Turkey. These tarhana samples have a very rich variety of colors due to different cereal, dairy products, vegetables and spices in dough formulation. In present study, color values of tarhana samples are given in Table 1. RSa gave higher lightness but lower redness, yellowness and SI values on tarhana compared to control and tarhana containing RSb. Color values of commercial RSa (L* 98.30, a* 0.05 and b* 1.37) and RSb (L* 89.44, a* 0.62 and b* 10.16) could have a significant effect on color parameters of final product. In literature, there are some studies about the effect of RS on product color parameters which is generally decreased darkness, redness and yellowness of the final products (Sözer 2006; Laguna et al. 2011).

Table 1.

Color values of tarhana samples

L* a* b* SI Hue
Control 81.01 ± 0.48c 5.92 ± 0.10b 27.31 ± 0.23ab 27.94 ± 0.20ab 77.77 ± 0.45abc
15 % RSa 84.24 ± 0.30b 4.90 ± 0.14c 25.16 ± 0.23c 25.63 ± 0.34c 78.98 ± 0.47a
30 % RSa 86.09 ± 0.28a 4.77 ± 0.17c 24.22 ± 0.31d 24.69 ± 0.21d 78.86 ± 0.58ab
45 % RSa 86.92 ± 0.47a 4.81 ± 0.16c 23.85 ± 0.34d 24.33 ± 0.24d 78.60 ± 0.51abc
15 % RSb 81.56 ± 0.44c 6.08 ± 0.10b 27.30 ± 0.27ab 27.97 ± 0.41ab 77.44 ± 0.45cd
30 % RSb 81.80 ± 0.37c 6.64 ± 0.18a 27.58 ± 0.35a 28.37 ± 0.18a 76.46 ± 0.48d
45 % RSb 81.15 ± 0.42c 5.88 ± 0.18b 26.90 ± 0.23b 27.54 ± 0.55b 77.67 ± 0.58bcd
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Means with same letter within column are not significantly different (p < 0.05). RS: Resistant starch

Chemical properties of tarhana

Chemical properties of tarhana samples are given in Table 2. Increasing level of RSa/RSb in tarhana formulation decreased the ash content of the samples descriptively, but a significant (p < 0.05) decrease observed in ash content only tarhana containing 45 % RSb. Both RS samples decreased the protein content of the tarhana from 13.7 % (control) to 11.0 % (RSa) and 11.2 % (RSb) with 45 % utilization levels. Low protein content of RSa/RSb than wheat flour may be cause lower protein content in tarhana samples.

Table 2.

Chemical properties of tarhana samples

Ash (%) Protein (%) Acidity (%) Resistant starch (%) Fe (mg/100 g) K (mg/100 g) Mg (mg/100 g) P (mg/100 g) Zn (mg/100 g)
Control 2.45 ± 0.08a 13.7 ± 0.28a 1.89 ± 0.06a 0.9 ± 0.03g 1.25 ± 0.03a 538.3 ± 1.84a 40.6 ± 0.57a 198.2 ± 1.70a 1.21 ± 0.02a
15 % RSa 2.41 ± 0.08a 12.8 ± 0.42b 1.81 ± 0.06ab 5.4 ± 0.03f 1.13 ± 0.04b 512.0 ± 2.83b 36.6 ± 0.85b 180.2 ± 2.55b 1.10 ± 0.03b
30 % RSa 2.39 ± 0.06ab 11.7 ± 0.28cd 1.73 ± 0.04b 11.9 ± 0.14d 1.03 ± 0.05c 491.0 ± 1.41d 32.3 ± 1.84c 158.4 ± 2.26c 1.02 ± 0.04c
45 % RSa 2.32 ± 0.10ab 11.0 ± 0.28d 1.70 ± 0.04bc 19.6 ± 0.14b 0.88 ± 0.04d 471.0 ± 2.83e 29.1 ± 1.27d 140.3 ± 2.40e 0.91 ± 0.01d
15 % RSb 2.37 ± 0.04ab 12.7 ± 0.14b 1.93 ± 0.04a 8.2 ± 0.07e 0.98 ± 0.04c 504.0 ± 4.24c 35.0 ± 1.39bc 175.0 ± 2.83b 1.05 ± 0.01bc
30 % RSb 2.33 ± 0.06ab 11.9 ± 0.28c 1.58 ± 0.08cd 18.2 ± 0.03c 0.78 ± 0.01e 471.0 ± 1.41e 29.1 ± 1.27d 147.0 ± 2.83d 0.94 ± 0.03d
45 % RSb 2.21 ± 0.10b 11.2 ± 0.42cd 1.49 ± 0.04d 26.2 ± 0.14a 0.60 ± 0.04e 435.0 ± 2.83f 25.5 ± 0.71e 130.0 ± 1.41f 0.82 ± 0.04e
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Means with same letter within column are not significantly different (p < 0.05). Results are dry matter basis

RS: resistant starch

Acidic and sour taste is main characteristic properties of tarhana. Acidity improves during fermentation of tarhana dough (~72 h) by means of lactic acid bacteria from yoghurt and yeast from compressed bakers’ yeast. Tarhana samples containing 30–45 % RSa/RSb had lower acidity among tarhana samples. Especially 45 % RSb caused most remarkable decrement in acidity from 1.89 % (control) to 1.49 % which influenced the sensory acceptability of the tarhana soup (Table 4). Decrement in the acidity of tarhana containing RS may be attributed the low available carbohydrate content of these samples for growing of microorganisms. RS content of the samples varied between 0.9 and 26.2 %. As expected increasing amount of RSa/RSb in tarhana formulation, increased the RS ratio in the end product. Commercial RSa and RSb samples contains 47 and 64 % RS, respectively (data not shown). During tarhana fermentation, RS survived its properties and only a slight decrease was observed in RS content compared to raw material RS ratio with its usage levels. Öztürk et al. (2009) used three different commercial RS in bread formulation at 10, 20 and 30 % level and found the RS level of final product between 3.97 and 10.23 %. Mineral content of the tarhana samples containing RS decreased with increasing amount of RSa/RSb in tarhana formulation. RSb at 45 % level decreased Fe, K, Mg, P and Zn contents of the tarhana samples from 1.25 mg/100 g, 538.3 mg/100 g, 40.6 mg/100 g, 198.2 mg/100 g and 1.21 mg/100 g (control) 0.6 mg/100 g, 435.0 mg/100 g, 25.5 mg/100 g, 130.0 mg/100 g and 0.82 mg/100 g, respectively. Rich mineral composition of wheat flour than RS caused these decrement especially at high addition levels.

Table 4.

Sensory scores of tarhana samples

Color Flavor Consistency Cohesiveness Sourness Overall acceptability
Control 8.5 ± 0.28a 9.0 ± 0.14a 8.6 ± 0.42a 9.0 ± 0.42a 9.0 ± 0.42a 9.0 ± 0.42a
15 % RSa 9.0 ± 0.71a 8.8 ± 0.14a 8.1 ± 0.14a 9.0 ± 0.14a 8.7 ± 0.28a 8.8 ± 0.42a
30 % RSa 8.1 ± 0.28ab 8.1 ± 0.28b 7.7 ± 0.28a 8.1 ± 0.42b 8.3 ± 0.42a 7.7 ± 0.28b
45 % RSa 7.2 ± 0.28bc 7.2 ± 0.28c 6.3 ± 0.42b 7.2 ± 0.28c 7.2 ± 0.28bc 6.5 ± 0.42c
15 % RSb 9.0 ± 0.14a 7.2 ± 0.28c 6.3 ± 0.42b 6.5 ± 0.28c 7.4 ± 0.28b 7.3 ± 0.28b
30 % RSb 7.2 ± 0.28bc 6.3 ± 0.42d 5.9 ± 0.57b 5.4 ± 0.28d 6.5 ± 0.14c 6.3 ± 0.14c
45 % RSb 6.3 ± 0.42c 5.4 ± 0.28e 3.1 ± 0.57c 4.5 ± 0.42e 4.5 ± 0.28d 4.5 ± 0.28d
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Means with same letter within column are not significantly different (p < 0.05)

RS: resistant starch

Functional properties of tarhana

Some functional properties of tarhana are summarized in Table 3. Cooked viscosity of the tarhana samples decreased with increasing amount of RSa/RSb in tarhana formulation. The lowest cooked viscosity values obtained with 45 % RSb and followed with 30 % RSb and 45 % RSa or 15 % RSb. Tímea Gelencsér et al. (2008) determined viscometric characteristics of the pasta products using rapid visco analyzer (RVA) and reported a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in RVA parameters (peak viscosity, trough, breakdown, setback, and final viscosity) of pasta products that were substituted with RS. Also, Baixauli et al. (2008b) reported a decrement in viscosity of muffins dough substituted with 20 % RS. Foaming capacity increased with 30–45 % RSa compared to control and RSb containing tarhana. Foam stability affected positively with the highest addition level of RSa/RSb. Water absorption capacity of tarhana increased with RSb above 30 % addition levels, while it increased in all addition level of RSa. Öztürk et al. (2009) also found that water absorption of bread dough increased with increasing RS ratio in dough formulation. Oil absorption of tarhana was not affected negatively by RS addition, which the obtained oil absorption values of tarhana containing RS were similar or higher compared to control tarhana. Functional properties are important for process design, sensory quality and consumer acceptability. In tarhana process, drying methods (İbanoglu et al. 1999; Hayta et al. 2002) fermentation, storage (İbanoğlu et al. 1995; Bulut-Solak and Akın 2011), heating temperatures, heating time, heating type (Boye et al. 1997) and different tarhana ingredients (Bilgiçli 2009; Gökmen 2010) affect the functional properties of tarhana.

Table 3.

Functional properties of tarhana samples

Cooked viscosity (cP) Foaming capacity (mL/mL) Foam stability (sec) Water absorption capacity (g/g) Oil absorption capacity (g/g)
Control 1454 ± 33.94a 0.40 ± 0.04c 0.80 ± 0.06c 0.75 ± 0.03c 1.84 ± 0.06bc
15 % RSa 1210 ± 25.46b 0.44 ± 0.06c 0.83 ± 0.04bc 0.91 ± 0.03b 1.95 ± 0.07b
30 % RSa 895 ± 28.28c 0.61 ± 0.04b 0.88 ± 0.04abc 0.90 ± 0.04b 2.18 ± 0.04a
45 % RSa 795 ± 21.21d 0.89 ± 0.06a 0.92 ± 0.03ab 1.12 ± 0.03a 2.27 ± 0.03a
15 % RSb 776 ± 29.70d 0.43 ± 0.04c 0.83 ± 0.04bc 0.71 ± 0.04c 1.80 ± 0.04c
30 % RSb 288 ± 19.80e 0.47 ± 0.06c 0.83 ± 0.04bc 0.91 ± 0.03b 1.78 ± 0.04c
45 % RSb 166 ± 21.21f 0.50 ± 0.04bc 0.95 ± 0.06a 0.90 ± 0.01b 1.75 ± 0.06c
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Means with same letter within column are not significantly different (p < 0.05). RS: Resistant starch

Sensory properties of tarhana

Sensory properties of the tarhana soups are shown in Table 4. Color properties of tarhana containing 45 % RSa or 30–45 % RSb were evaluated lower values by the panelist. Flavor of tarhana was negatively affected by all level of RSa/RSb usage except 15 % RSa level. Tarhana containing RSb gave lower consistency score compared to control and tarhana with RSa. As observed in cooked viscosity value (Table 3), tarhana containing highest level of RS with lower viscosity was feeled by the panelists and evaluated by lower consistency scores. Low sourness value obtained in tarhana containing 45 % RSa or all level of RSb. As stated before, acidity of the tarhana decreased with RS above 30 % addition level. This change in acidity was evaluated by the panelist by lower sourness scores. Overall acceptability score of tarhana samples changed between 4.5 and 9.0. Generally RSb containing tarhana samples gave lower overall acceptability score than tarhana with RSa and control. 15 % RSa addition did not changed overall acceptability of tarhana soup, 30 % RSa and 15 % RSb levels followed this samples with slight decrement in overall acceptability scores. Laguna et al. (2011) enriched biscuits with different rates of RS (15–70 %) and found that the acceptance scores for the control and biscuit with 20 % RS were not significantly different for any of the sensory attributes. Baixauli et al. (2008a) reported that there were no significant differences in the taste and overall acceptability of the muffins with the addition of RS. In another study, different levels of RS (%10, 20, 30 and 40) replaced with fat in cookie formulation to reduce fat content of the final product. 30 % addition level of RS reduced fat content of cookies and acceptable cookie production were achieved (Şeker et al. 2006).

Conclusion

Effect of two different commercial RS up to 45 % addition level on color values, chemical, functional and sensory properties of tarhana were researched. Increasing levels of RSa/RSb in tarhana formulation decreased some chemical properties such as protein and Fe, K, Mg, P and Zn content. Acidity was negatively affected above 30 % RS addition level due to lower available carbohydrate content of the tarhana dough for microorganisms. Though long fermentation period of tarhana dough, RS content of the tarhana samples was found very high level (5.4 and 26.2 %). Both RS decreased the cooked viscosity of tarhana soup, on the other hand functional properties except viscosity improved with high levels of RSa. When all chemical, functional and sensory properties of tarhana were taken into account, RSa can be used in tarhana preparation up to 30 % level and RSb at 15 % for RS enrichment.

Footnotes

Research highlights

1. Two different resistant starches (RSa and RSb) were used in tarhana up to 45 % level.

2. Tarhana with 30–45 % RSa gave lower darkness and yellowness compared to other samples.

3. Increasing levels of RSa/RSb in tarhana decreased protein and Fe, K, Mg, P and Zn content.

4. RS content of the tarhana samples changed between 5.4 and 26.2 %.

5. Cooked viscosity decreased in tarhana soup with RS addition, especially with RSb.

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