Skip to main content
PMC home page
Journal of Food Science and Technology logoLink to Journal of Food Science and Technology
. 2015 Mar 7;52(10):6711–6718. doi: 10.1007/s13197-015-1783-6

Nutritional value, chemical composition, antioxidant activity and enrichment of cream cheese with chestnut mushroom Agrocybe aegerita (Brig.) Sing

Jovana Petrović 1, Jasmina Glamočlija 1, Dejan Stojković 1, Ana Ćirić 1, Lillian Barros 2, Isabel C F R Ferreira 2,✉, Marina Soković 1,✉
PMCID: PMC4573151  PMID: 26396420

Abstract

A very well-known and appreciated mushroom, Agrocybe aegerita (Brig.) Sing, was the subject of chemical profiling, antioxidant assays and sensory evaluation test in cream cheese. Methanolic extract obtained from a wild sample of A. aegerita fruiting body was fully chemically identified. Sample was found to be rich in carbohydrates (84.51 g/100 g dw), ash and proteins (6.69 g/100 g dw and 6.68 g/100 g dw, respectively). Trehalose was the main free sugar while malic acid was the most abundant organic acid. Four isoforms of tocopherols were identified; γ- tocopherol was the dominant isoform with 86.08 μg/100 g dw, followed by β- tocopherol, δ-tocopherol and α-tocopherol (8.80 μg/100 g dw, 3.40 μg/100 g dw and 2.10 μg/100 g dw, respectively). Polyunsaturated fatty acids were predominant, with linoleic acid as the most prominent one (78.40 %). Methanolic extract of chestnut mushroom exhibited high antioxidant activity. Sensory evaluation test included grading by panelists and comparing the overall acceptability of cream cheese alone and enriched cream cheese with dry powder of A. aegerita. General conclusion of the participants was that the newly developed product was more likeable in comparison to cream cheese alone. Due to the health-beneficial effects of antioxidants and wealth of chemically identified nutrients, A. aegerita is a promising starting material for incorporation on larger scale products.

Keywords: Agrocybe aegerita, Chemical profile, Antioxidant potential, Cream cheese, Sensory evaluation test

Introduction

Mushrooms are generally known as a valuable source of nutrients, some of which have medicinal properties. Due to their unique aroma and flavor, they are widely used as culinary delicacy in many countries (Ribeiro et al. 2007). In recent decades, due to the rising trend of a number of diseases (including auto-immune diseases, as well as cancer, hypertension, diabetes etc.) there is a public pressure to explore the possibilities of alternative therapeutic agents (Ergönül et al. 2013). Wild-growing mushrooms accumulate a number of compounds: carbohydrates, fibers, vitamins, minerals, proteins, fats and different secondary metabolites with proven antimicrobial, antitumor, antifungal, antioxidant activity (Ribeiro et al. 2007; Ergönül et al. 2013; Wasser and Weiss 1999; Diyabalange et al. 2008). Medicinal mushrooms should not be claimed to cure disease since the mechanism of their action is not revealed, but recent studies strongly indicate that mushrooms have a role in disease prevention, and suppression or remission of a diseased state (Chang and Miles 2004). Some common edible mushrooms like G. lucidum or L. edodes (Popović et al. 2013; Ferreira et al. 2014; Stojković et al. 2014) are subject of intense studies for quite some time, so the current focus is on isolated substances or crude extracts derived from lesser-known edible mushrooms (Boh et al. 2007; Altobelli 2011). They are the potential source of diverse biomolecules with nutritional and/or medicinal properties (Alves et al. 2012). This fact made them promising candidates for the development of medicines and food supplements. Furthermore, wild mushrooms have also emerged as a source of antioxidant compounds which are important in the process of eliminating free radicals and other reactive radical species produced as a part of the normal process of aerobic metabolism. Free radicals are responsible for the structural damage of cells, which is correlated with various types of cancer, cardiovascular diseases or diabetes (Lo and Cheung 2005; Lindequist et al. 2005).

Agrocybe aegerita (Brig.) Sing is a white rot basidiomycete, commercially cultivated in Italy and highly appreciated as a delicacy (so called Pioppino mushroom) (Ullrich et al. 2004). The common name for the mushroom is black poplar mushroom or chestnut mushroom, since it is often found on poplar wood-logs (Diyabalange et al. 2008). It is found in North America, Europe and Asia (Ullrich et al. 2004).

To the best of our knowledge, scientific data on the detailed chemical profile as well as on the biological activity (beyond the scope of enzymes) are very scarce; therefore a study covering these fields was conducted. In the present study, a methanolic extract obtained from a wild sample of A. aegerita, collected in Serbia, was explored for its antioxidant potential. Furthermore, being an edible species, the mushroom was fully characterized regarding nutritional properties, hydrophilic and lipophilic compounds, and was the subject of sensory evaluation test after incorporation in cream cheese.

Material and methods

Mushroom species

Agrocybe aegerita was collected from the wood logs of poplar trees at Jabučki rit (Northern Serbia) during April 2012 and authenticated by Dr Jasmina Glamočlija (Institute for Biological Research “Siniša Stanković”). Voucher specimen has been deposited at the Fungal Collection Unit of the Mycological Laboratory, Department of Plant Physiology, Institute for Biological Research “Siniša Stanković”, Belgrade, Serbia, under number Aa-001-2012. Fresh fruiting bodies were randomly divided to smaller samples and freeze-dried by lyophilization (LH Leybold, Lyovac GT2, Frenkendorf). When reaching constant mass, specimens were milled to a fine powder, mixed to obtain an homogenate sample, and kept at +4 °C untill further analysis.

Chemical characterization

Nutritional value

The samples were analysed for their chemical composition (moisture, proteins, fat, carbohydrates and ash) through AOAC procedures (AOAC 1995). The crude protein content (N × 4.38) of the samples was estimated by the macro-Kjeldahl method; the crude fat was determined by extracting a known weight of powdered sample with petroleum ether, using a Soxhlet apparatus; the ash content was determined by incineration at 600 ± 15 °C. Total carbohydrates were calculated by difference. The energy contribution was calculated according to the following equation: Energy (kcal) = 4 × (g protein + g carbohydrate) + 9 × (g fat).

Sugars

Following the extraction procedure described by Reis et al. (2012a), free sugars were determined by a High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) system consisting of an integrated system with a pump (Knauer, Smartline system 1000), degasser system (Smartline manager 5000) and auto-sampler (AS-2057 Jasco), coupled to a refraction index detector (RIdetector Knauer Smartline 2300). Sugars identification was made by comparing the relative retention times of sample peaks with standards. Data were analyzed using Clarity 2.4 Software (DataApex). Quantification was based on the RI signal response of each standard, using the internal standard (IS, raffinose) method and by using calibration curves obtained from the commercial standards of each compound. The results were expressed in g per 100 g of dry weight.

Organic acids

Following the extraction procedure described by Barros et al. (Barros et al. 2013), organic acids were determined by ultra-fast liquid chromatography (UFLC, Shimadzu 20A series) coupled with a photodiode array detector (PDA). The organic acids were quantified by the comparison of the area of their peaks recorded at 215 nm with calibration curves obtained from commercial standards of each compound. The results were expressed in g per 100 g of dry weight.

Fatty acids

Following the extraction and trans esterification procedures described by Reis et al. (2012a), fatty acids were determined using a gas chromatographer (DANI 1000) equipped with a split/splitless injector and a flame ionization detector (GC-FID). Fatty acids identification was made by comparing the relative retention times of the fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) standards (standard 47885-U, Sigma, St. Louis, MO, USA), with the samples. The results were recorded and processed using CSW 1.7 software (DataApex 1.7) and expressed in relative percentage of each fatty acid.

Tocopherols

Following the extraction procedure described by Heleno et al. (2010), tocopherols were determined by HPLC (equipment described above, for sugars composition), and a fluorescence detector (FP-2020; Jasco) programmed for excitation at 290 nm and emission at 330 nm. The compounds were identified by chromatographic comparison with authentic standards. Quantification was based on the fluorescence signal response of each standard, using the IS (tocol) method and by using calibration curves obtained from commercial standards of each compound. The results were expressed in μg per 100 g of dry weight.

Preparation of the extract

Mushroom powder (10 g) was extracted with 240 mL of methanol overnight at −20 °C. Extract was sonicated for 15 min, then centrifuged at 4000 g for 10 min at +4 °C and subsequently filtered through Whatman No. 4 paper (Vaz et al. 2010). The residue was then re-extracted with three additional portions of methanol (3 × 100 mL) following the same procedure (ultrasonic bath and filter paper). The combined extract was evaporated at 40 °C (rotary evaporator Büchi R-210) to dryness. Prior to analyses, extract was dissolved in appropriate solvent.

Antioxidant activity

Successive dilutions were made from the stock solution and antioxidant activity of the samples was evaluated by different in vitro assays already described by Stojković et al. (2013) to evaluate the antioxidant activity of the samples. The sample concentrations (mg/mL) providing 50 % of antioxidant activity or 0.5 of absorbance (EC50) were calculated from the graphs of antioxidant activity percentages (DPPH, β-carotene/linoleate and TBARS assays) or absorbance at 690 nm (ferricyanide/Prussian blue assay) against sample concentrations. Trolox was used as a positive control.

Folin–Ciocalteu assay

One of the extract solutions (5 mg/mL; 1 mL) was mixed with Folin–Ciocalteu reagent (5 mL, previously diluted with water 1:10, v/v) and sodium carbonate (75 g/L, 4 mL). The tubes were vortex mixed for 15 s and allowed to stand for 30 min at 40 °C for color development. Absorbance was then measured at 765 nm (Analytikjena spectrophotometer; Jena, Germany). Gallic acid was used to obtain the standard curve and the reduction of the Folin–Ciocalteu reagent by the samples was expressed as mg of gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per g of extract.

Ferricyanide/Prussian blue assay

The extract solutions with different concentrations (0.5 mL) were mixed with sodium phosphate buffer (200 mmol/L, pH 6.6, 0.5 mL) and potassium ferricyanide (1 % w/v, 0.5 mL). The mixture was incubated at 50 °C for 20 min, and trichloroacetic acid (10 % w/v, 0.5 mL) was added. The mixture (0.8 mL) was poured in the 48 wells plate, the same with deionized water (0.8 mL) and ferric chloride (0.1 % w/v, 0.16 mL), and the absorbance was measured at 690 nm in ELX800 Microplate Reader (Bio-Tek Instruments, Inc; Winooski, USA).

DPPH radical-scavenging activity assay

This methodology was performed using the Microplate Reader mentioned above. The reaction mixture was made in a 96 wells plate and consisted of 30 μL of a concentration range of the extract and 270 μL methanol containing DPPH radicals (6 × 10−5 mol/L). The mixture was left to stand for 30 min in the dark, and the absorbance was measured at 515 nm. The radical scavenging activity (RSA) was calculated as a percentage of DPPH discolouration using the equation: % RSA = [(ADPPH-AS)/ADPPH] × 100, where AS is the absorbance of the solution containing the sample and ADPPH is the absorbance of the DPPH solution.

Inhibition of β-carotene bleaching or β-carotene/linoleate assay

A solution of β-carotene was prepared by dissolving β-carotene (2 mg) in chloroform (10 mL). Two millilitres of this solution were pipetted into a round-bottom flask. The chloroform was removed at 40 °C under vacuum and linoleic acid (40 mg), Tween 80 emulsifier (400 mg), and distilled water (100 mL) were added to the flask with vigorous shaking. Aliquots (4.8 mL) of this emulsion were transferred into test tubes containing 0.2 mL of a concentration range of the extract. The tubes were shaken and incubated at 50 °C in a water bath. As soon as the emulsion was added to each tube, the zero time absorbance was measured at 470 nm. β-carotene bleaching inhibition was calculated using the following equation: (absorbance after 2 h of assay/initial absorbance) × 100.

Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) assay

Porcine (Sus scrofa) brains were obtained from official slaughtering animals, dissected, and homogenized with a Polytron in ice cold Tris–HCl buffer (20 mM, pH 7.4) to produce a 1:2 w/v brain tissue homogenate which was centrifuged at 3000 g for 10 min. An aliquot (100 μL) of the supernatant was incubated with 200 μL samples of a concentration range of the extract in the presence of FeSO4 (10 mM; 100 μL) and ascorbic acid (0.1 mM; 100 μL) at 37 °C for 1 h. The reaction was stopped by the addition of trichloroacetic acid (28 % w/v, 500 μL), followed by thiobarbituric acid (TBA, 2 %, w/v, 380 μL), and the mixture was then heated at 80 °C for 20 min. After centrifugation at 3000 g for 10 min to remove the precipitated protein, the color intensity of the malondialdehyde (MDA)-TBA complex in the supernatant was measured by its absorbance at 532 nm. The inhibition ratio (%) was calculated using the following formula: Inhibition ratio (%) = [(A–B)/A] × 100 %, where A and B were the absorbance of the control and the sample solution, respectively.

Enrichment of cream cheese with A. aegerita powder

Cream cheese

Full-fat cream cheese “a la Kajmak”, produced from cow milk by Mlekara Šabac was purchased from a local supermarket and kept in refrigerator at +4 °C until further analysis. All the samples were used before expiry date of the product. Composition of the cream cheese stated on the packaging was- energy: 242 kcal; fat: 23.5 g; proteins: 6.1 g and carbohydrates: 1.53 g including lactose: 1.1 g, all values expressed by 100 g.

The packaging showed the presence of no artificial preservatives. Experiments of inoculating Malt Agar (MA) and Muller–Hinton Agar (MHA) plates with cheese diluted 1 in 10 with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and kept at 25°C and 37 °C, for 48 h, showed no bacterial nor fungal contamination of the product.

Sensorial evaluation of new functional product

The test was attended by 75 untrained participants, all staff members of Department of Plant Physiology of Institute for Biological Research “Siniša Stanković”. The overall acceptance, smell and taste of the product were evaluated using the method described by Reis et al. (2012b). A full-fat cream cheese, product of Šabac Dairy (Serbia) was used. Cream cheese was used as a control in relation to a new product-cream cheese enriched with dry powder of mushroom Agrocybe aegerita and was evaluated by the participants. The product was made simply by mixing the dry powder of Agrocybe aegerita (3 g/100 g of cream cheese) with cream cheese allowing the mixture to stand for 24 h (in order to allow cream cheese to fully absorb the taste and smell of mushroom). Participants were asked to evaluate overall acceptance of cream cheese alone and cream cheese enriched with mushroom powder on a scale 1–5 (1-extremely dislike, 2-dislike, 3-neither like nor dislike, 4-like, 5-extremely like). Results were averaged by number of participants.

Furthermore, nutritional value of the enriched cream cheese was calculated again by taking into account the nutritional value of the cream cheese stated on the label of the product, and the content of fat, proteins and carbohydrates from chemical analysis of A. aegerita.

Results and discussion

Chemical composition

Results regarding the nutritional value of A. aegerita are presented in Table 1. Carbohydrates and proteins are the most abundant compounds (84.51 g/100 g dw and 6.68 g/100 g dw, respectively). Mushrooms are generally considered to be a good source of digestable proteins, and are reported to contain all the essential amino acids needed in the human diet (Mshandete and Cuff 2007). Ash content was low (6.69 g/100 g dw); A. aegerita was also poor in fat (2.13 g/100 g dw) and had low caloric value (383.91 kcal/100 g dw), which makes this mushroom a good candidate for low-caloric diets (Table 1). Trehalose was the dominant sugar (12.49 g/100 g dw), while sugar alcohol mannitol was present at 0.93 g/100 g dw (Table 1). This information is consistent with previously published data related to the sugar profile in mushrooms (Bernas et al. 2006). Organic acids are amongst the many antioxidant compounds determined in mushrooms (Ribeiro et al. 2007; Cámara et al. 1994). They play a decisive role in determining organoleptic properties of mushrooms, giving them a distinctive taste and smell (Ribeiro et al. 2007; Cámara et al. 1994; Valentão et al. 2005). Organic acids are known for their chemical stability and slow changes during storage. Also, there is a possibility of a protective role against various diseases (Bernas et al. 2006). As for the chemical profiles of organic acids, the presence of four organic acids was determined. Malic acid was the most abundant organic acid (1.82 g/100 g dw), followed by citric acid (0.88 g/100 g), then fumaric acid (0.26 g/100 g) and oxalic acid (0.09 g/100 g) (Table 1). Total content was 3.06 g/100 g dw.

Table 1.

Nutritional value and hydrophilic compounds of Agrocybe aegerita (mean ± SD)

Ash (g/100 g dw) Proteins (g/100 g dw) Fat (g/100 g dw) Carbohydrates (g/100 g dw) Energy (kcal/100 g dw)
6.69 ± 0.33 6.68 ± 0.26 2.13 ± 0.02 84.50 ± 0.24 383.90 ± 1.02
Mannitol (g/100 g dw) Trehalose (g/100 g dw) Total (g/100 g dw)
0.93 ± 0.01 12.49 ± 0.09 13.42 ± 0.08
Oxalic acid (g/100 g dw) Malic acid (g/100 g dw) Citric Acid (g/100 g dw) Fumaric Acid (g/100 g dw) Total (g/100 g dw)
0.09 ± 0.01 1.82 ± 2.21 0.88 ± 0.01 0.26 ± 0.01 3.06 ± 2.23
Open in a new tab

dw dry weight

As for the fatty acid composition, the most dominant fatty acid in A. aegerita is linoleic acid (78.40 %), (Table 2), followed by palmitic (13.07 %), oleic and stearic acids (3.03 % and 2.13 %, respectively). Other fatty acids were represented with a share less than 1.00 %. The main fatty acids found by Shuai et al. (2012) in A. aegerita were linoleic acid (C18:2n6c) > palmitic acid (C16:0) > oleic acid (18:1n9c). A total FA value of 33.13 mg/10 g was reported in literature for A. aegerita, while ratio between unsaturated fatty acids and saturated fatty acids was 3.80. The prevalence of PUFA over MUFA (in case of A. aegerita 78.60 % over 3.47 %), and the determination of high amount of linoleic acid is significant factor in defining the mushroom as healthy food (Chang and Miles 2004). Linoleic acid (omega-6 fatty acid) which is essential for human organism is the precursor of mushroom aromatic compounds, giving them their specific taste (Ribeiro et al. 2007). The intake of dietary fats through food is necessary for optimal functioning and balance of fats in the organism (Ribeiro et al. 2007; Ergönül et al. 2013). Unsaturated fatty acids are essential for our health, having a strong beneficial effect in the prevention and management of cardiovascular diseases, triglyceride level, blood pressure etc., whereas saturated fatty acids, which are present in higher amounts in food of animal origin, are associated with increased levels of triglycerides in the blood and commonly are associated with hypertension etc. (Simpoulos 1999). Previously published data, including information obtained in this study indicate that mushrooms have high share of dietary fats. The proportion of lipids goes from 1.75 % in fresh per 100 g fruiting bodies to 5.5 % in dried mushrooms, where they have important role in biochemical processes (Barros et al. 2008). Nearly 75 % of total fatty acids have been determined to be unsaturated in selected mushrooms (Volvariella volvacea, Lentinula edodes, Agaricus bisporus, Auricularia auricula, Tremella fuciformis). The high content of unsaturated fatty acids is due to the linoleic acid which accounts for 76 % in L. edodes, 70 % in V. volvacea, and 69 % in A. bisporus (Chang and Miles 2004). Our chemical analysis revealed the presence of a group of related compounds with similar chemical structure called tocopherols. Tocopherols are a highly represented group of compounds in wild mushrooms having the antioxidant role. They play a role in preventing degenerative damage caused by oxidative stress. The usual tocopherol concentration in mushrooms is rather lower than those in plants and is 40–600 μg/100 g dw. It is also determined that cultivated species (588.24 μg/100 g dw) have lower tocopherol concentration than the wild-growing (45.01 μg/100 g dw), (Stojković et al. 2013). In the studied mushroom, γ-tocopherol was the most abundant isoform (86.08 μg/100 g dw), followed by β-tocopherol (8.80 μg/100 g dw), δ-tocopherol (3.40 μg/100 g dw) and α-tocopherol (2.10 μg/100 g dw) (Table 2). From the obtained results, it can be concluded that tocopherols are highly represented group of compounds in wild growing mushroom. For a long time, α-tocopherol was considered to be the most active form of vitamin E and was reported to have the highest biological activity. However, recent studies have shown that the other forms are also active (Heleno et al. 2010).

Table 2.

Lipophilic compounds of Agrocybe aegerita (mean ± SD)

C6:0 0.10 ± 0.01
C8:0 0.13 ± 0.01
C10:0 0.08 ± 0.01
C12:0 0.06 ± 0.01
C14:0 0.23 ± 0.01
C14:1 0.01 ± 0.00
C15:0 0.43 ± 0.01
C16:0 13.07 ± 0.11
C16:1 0.29 ± 0.01
C17:0 0.25 ± 0.01
C18:0 2.13 ± 0.02
C18:1n9 3.03 ± 0.01
C18:2n6 78.40 ± 0.10
C18:3n3 0.07 ± 0.01
C20:0 0.49 ± 0.01
C20:1 0.05 ± 0.01
C20:2 0.03 ± 0.00
C20:3n3 + C21:0 0.08 ± 0.01
C20:5n3 0.02 ± 0.00
C22:0 0.40 ± 0.01
C22:1n9 0.02 ± 0.01
C23:0 0.11 ± 0.01
C24:0 0.45 ± 0.01
C24:1 0.07 ± 0.02
Total SFA (% of total FA) 17.93 ± 0.07
Total MUFA (% of total FA) 3.47 ± 0.03
Total PUFA (% of total FA) 78.60 ± 0.10
α-Tocopherol 2.10 ± 1.10
β-Tocopherol 8.80 ± 2.20
γ-Tocopherol 86.08 ± 12.90
δ-Tocopherol 3.40 ± 0.20
Total (μg/100 g dw) 100.38 ± 13.81
Open in a new tab

dw dry weight, FA Fatty acids, SFA Saturated fatty acids, MUFA Monounsaturated fatty acids, PUFA Polyunsaturated fatty acids

To our knowledge no chemical profiling of fatty acids, organic acids and tocopherols has been performed on A. aegerita. Instead, accessible data revealed a number of compounds of different chemical nature that are determined in various extracts of genus Agrocybe. Diyabalange et al. (2008) described the presence of ceramide, methyl-β-D-glucopyranoside and α-D-glucopyranoside, along with linoleic acid and its methyl ester. Our studies are in accordance with previous studies reporting the presence of palmitic acid, linoleic acid, mannitol and trehalose in the fruiting body of A. aegerita (Valentão et al. 2005). A novel lectin was isolated from aqueous extract of A. aegerita from China by affinity chromatography (Zhao et al. 2003). A. aegerita was also reported to contain several bioactive metabolites, such as indole derivatives with free radical-scavenging ability (Kim et al. 1997), polysaccharides with hypoglycemic activity (Tadashi et al. 1994) and agrocybin, a peptide with anti-fungal activity (Ngai et al. 2005). Previously, Gao et al. (Gao et al. 2010) reported that the protein components from A. aegerita showed tumor rejection activity. Also two antitumor lectins, AAL and AAL-2, were identified from the protein components of A. aegerita (Zhao et al. 2003; Feng et al. 2010).

Antioxidant activity

Antioxidant activity of the methanolic extract was measured by four different methods (Table 3). These assays measured free radical scavenging activity, reducing power and lipid peroxidation inhibition. Concerning the Folin-Ciocalteu assay, higher values mean higher reducing power; for the other assays, the results are presented in EC50 values, what means that higher values correspond to lower reducing power or antioxidant potential. The extract gave 17.36 mg GAE/g extract in the Folin-Ciocalteu assay, and revealed high DPPH radical-scavenging activity assay (EC50 = 7.23 mg/mL). Slightly higher effect was observed in the β-carotene/linoleate assay (EC50 = 6.11 mg/mL), while Ferricyanide/Prussian blue assay and TBARS assays showed even higher effects (EC50 = 2.66 mg/ml; EC50 = 0.39 mg/mL, respectively). The same behavior was previously reported for other mushroom species. The observed antioxidant activity may be the consequence of the presence of different antioxidant compounds described in the previous section such as tocopherols (mainly α-tocopherol) and organic acids and due to the phenolic acids (Petrovic et al. 2014) presented in Agrocybe aegerita. Lo and Cheung (2005) reported antioxidant activity of the methanol crude extract of A. aegerita and its fractions, isolated by liquid–liquid partition, using scavenging activity of 2,2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) radical cation (ABTS) and inhibition of lipid peroxidation of rat brain homogenate. The ethyl acetate (EA) fraction, which showed the most potent antioxidant activity in the mentioned two assays (0.254 mM Trolox per mg of sample and 0.0502 mg/mL, respectively), was further fractionated by a Sephadex LH-20 column into four subfractions (EA1–EA4). EA3 exhibited the strongest radical-scavenging activity in the ABTS (0.934 mM Trolox per mg of sample) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical (0.139 mg/mL), and showed a similar extent of in vitro inhibition of human LDL oxidation to caffeic acid. Significant correlation was found between the total phenolic content and the antioxidant activity (p < 0:01) in the EA fraction and its subfractions.

Table 3.

Antioxidant activity of Agrocybe aegerita methanolic extract (mean ± SD)

Reducing power Scavenging activity Lipid peroxidation inhibition
Folin-Ciocalteu (mg GAE/g extract) Ferricyanide/Prussian blue (EC50; mg/mL) DPPH scavenging activity (EC50; mg/mL) Β-carotene/linoleate (EC50; mg/mL) TBARS (EC50; g/mL)
17.36 ± 0.88 2.66 ± 0.10 7.23 ± 0.18 6.11 ± 1.60 0.39 ± 0.06
Open in a new tab

EC 50 Extract concentration corresponding to 50 % of antioxidant activity or 0.5 of absorbance for the Ferricyanide/Prussian blue assay, GAE Gallic acid equivalents

Sensory evaluation test

Our attempt to combine science, the food industry and consumers interest resulted in creation of new product that has been chemically defined and tested among participants for its acceptability. Cream cheese enriched with dry powder of A. aegerita is a unique product with an increased nutritional value and praised by majority of the participants who are a part of sensory evaluation test. The results of sensorial evaluation are presented in the Table 4. From the above table it is evident that panelists liked cream cheese enriched with A. aegerita more in comparison to cream cheese alone. The average grade of cream cheese alone was 3.86 while of cream cheese enriched with A. aegerita powder was 4.39. Overall, acceptance of cream cheese with addition of the mushroom powder was graded higher and was more acceptable to majority of panelists in comparison to cream cheese alone. This can be considered a pilot experiment in which it can be determined how the addition of mushroom powder enhanced the overall nutritional value, taste and smell of cream cheese (Table 4). Energetic value of cream cheese alone was 242 kcal/100 g and of cream cheese enriched with A. aegerita powder was 255 kcal/100 g of product. Also, our sensory evaluation test revealed the general mood of participants to accept such a product, as it is cost-effective, which is the important factor for production on a larger scale. It should be noted that the enriched product benefits the consumers in nutritional sense, along with the fact that results of our sensory evaluation test showed that this product was highly acceptable for the consumers. Namely, in the 2012, Brennan and the associates (Brennan et al. 2012) used A. aegerita’s spent compost (hyphae and the base of the mushroom), a food waste from its production, and incorporated it in the form of flour in ready-to-eat extruded cereal snack product. The improvement of nutritional value of snack bars, as well as other products widely used (including dairy, meat products etc.) is a necessity due to public demand for healthy food. Low fat and high carbohydrate content make mushrooms great candidates for healthier processed food.

Table 4.

Sensorial evaluation and nutritional value of the cream cheese and cream cheese enriched with A. aegerita powder

Overall acceptabilitya Cream cheese Cream cheese + A. aegerita
3.86 ± 0.68 4.39 ± 0.48
Proteins (g/100 g product) 6.1 6.3
Fat (g/100 g product) 23.5 23.7
Carbohydrates (g/100 g product) 1.53 4.07
Energy (kcal/100 g product) 242 255
Open in a new tab

1 = extremely dislike, 2 = dislike, 3 = neither like nor dislike, 4 = like; 5 = extremely like

aThe results are expressed as the average of all grades

Conclusion

One of the reasons why mushroom extracts/preparations are not available to broad masses is perhaps inconsistence in amount of fruiting bodies and chemical similarities. More precisely, the amount of available wild mushrooms varies depending on a number of factors (humidity, the availability of hosts etc.). Also, if they are harvested from different locations, it may result in discrepancies in chemical profile, and subsequently in different activity. Since A. aegerita is part of the mushroom cultivation, and the fungal material is primarily available, attention should definitely be dedicated to it. According to chemical profile and bioactivities presented herein, A. aegerita was explored regarding antioxidant purposes. We have shown that edible A. aegerita possessed functional compounds with regards to the identified organic acids, fatty acids and tocopherols. The new product enriched with A. aegerita might be a functional food due to the health-beneficial effects of incorporated mushroom powder.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of Serbia for financial support (grant No. 173032) and to the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) for financial support to CIMO and Â. Fernandes (SFRH/BD/76019/2011).

Conflict of interest

There is no conflict of interest associated with the authors of this paper.

Footnotes

Research highlights

• Agrocybe aegerita proved to be a rich source of linoleic acid.

• Analysis of the extract showed high content of carbohydrates and proteins.

• Malic acid was the most abundant organic acid and γ-tocopherol was the most abundant isoform.

• Methanolic extract exhibited high antioxidant activity.

• Dried fruiting body proved to be a great enhancer of flavor when incorporated in cream cheese, based on the results of sensory evaluation.

Contributor Information

Isabel C. F. R. Ferreira, Phone: +351-273-303219, Email: iferreira@ipb.pt

Marina Soković, Phone: +381-11-2078419, Email: mris@ibiss.bg.ac.rs.

References

  1. Altobelli E. Lignicolous fungi with medicinal properties. Sci Acta. 2011;5:10–19. [Google Scholar]
  2. Alves MJ, Ferreira ICFR, Dias J, Teixeira V, Martins A, Pintado M. A review on antimicrobial activity of mushroom (Basidiomycetes) extracts and isolated compounds. Planta Med. 2012;78:1707–1718. doi: 10.1055/s-0032-1315370. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. AOAC . Official methods of analysis. 16. Arlington: Association of Official Analytical Chemists; 1995. [Google Scholar]
  4. Barros L, Correia DM, Ferreira ICFR, Baptista P, Santos-Buelga C. Optimization of the determination of tocopherols in Agaricus sp. edible mushrooms by a normal phase liquid chromatographic method. Food Chem. 2008;110:1046–1050. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.03.016. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Barros L, Pereira E, Calhelha RC, Duenas M, Carvalho AM, Santos-Buelga C, Ferreira ICFR. Bioactivity and chemical characterization in hydrophilic and lipophilic compounds of Chenopodium ambrosioides L. J Funct Foods. 2013;5:732–1740. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2013.07.019. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  6. Bernas E, Jaworska G, Lisiewska Z. Edible mushrooms as a source of valuable nutritive constituents. Acta Sci Pol. 2006;5:5–20. [Google Scholar]
  7. Boh B, Berovic M, Zhang J, Zhi-Bin L. Ganoderma lucidum and its pharmaceutically active compounds. Biotechnol Annu Rev. 2007;13:265–301. doi: 10.1016/S1387-2656(07)13010-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Brennan MA, Derbyshire E, Tiwari BK, Brennan CS. Extruded snack products with coproducts from chestnut mushroom (Agrocybe aegerita) production: interactions between dietary fiber, physicochemical characteristics and glycemic load. J Agric Food Chem. 2012;60:4396–4401. doi: 10.1021/jf3008635. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Cámara MM, Díez C, Torija ME, Cano MP. HPLC determination of organic acids in pineapple juices and nectars. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch. 1994;198:52–56. doi: 10.1007/BF01195284. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  10. Chang ST, Miles P (2004) Mushrooms. Cultivation, nutritional value, medicinal effect, and environmental impact. 2004 2nded CRC Press
  11. Diyabalange T, Mulabagal V, Mills M, DeWit DL, Nair MG. Health-beneficial qualities of the edible mushroom, Agrocybe aegerita. Food Chem. 2008;108:97–102. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.10.049. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  12. Ergönül PG, Akata I, Kalyoncu F, Ergönül B (2013) Fatty acid compositions of six wild edible mushroom species. Sci World J Article ID 163964 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  13. Feng L, Sun H, Zhang Y, Li DF, Da-Cheng W. Structural insights into the recognition mechanism between an antitumor galectin AAL and the Thomsen-Friedenreich antigen. FASEB J. 2010;24:3861–3868. doi: 10.1096/fj.10-159111. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Ferreira ICFR, Heleno S, Reis F, Stojkovic D, Queiroz MJRP, Vasconcelos H, Sokovic M. Chemical features of Ganoderma polysaccharides with antioxidant, antitumor and antimicrobial activities. Phytochemistry. 2014 doi: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2014.10.011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Gao T, Bi H, Ma S, Lu J. The antitumor and immunostimulating activities of water soluble polysaccharides from Radix aconiti, Radix aconiti lateralis and Radix aconiti kusnezoffii. Nat Prod Commun. 2010;5:447–455. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Heleno SA, Barros L, Sousa MJ, Martins A, Ferreira ICFR. Tocopherols composition of Portugese wild mushrooms with antioxidant capacity. Food Chem. 2010;119:1443–1450. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.09.025. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  17. Kim WG, Kee LI, Kim JP, Ryoo IJ, Koshino H, Yoo ID. New indole derivatives with free radical scavenging activity from A. cylindracea. J Nat Prod. 1997;60:721–723. doi: 10.1021/np970150w. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Lindequist U, Timo J, Julich HW. The pharmacological potential of mushrooms. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2005;2:285–299. doi: 10.1093/ecam/neh107. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Lo KM, Cheung PCK. Antioxidant activity of extracts from the fruiting bodies of Agrocybe agerita var. alba. Food Chem. 2005;89:533–539. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.03.006. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  20. Mshandete AM, Cuff J. Proximate and nutrient composition of three types of indigenous edible wild mushrooms grown in Tanzania and their utilization prospects. Afr J Food Agric Nutr Dev. 2007;7:1–6. [Google Scholar]
  21. Ngai PH, Zhao Z, Ng TR. Agrocybin: an antifungal peptide from edible mushroom A. cylindracea. Peptides. 2005;26:191–196. doi: 10.1016/j.peptides.2004.09.011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Petrovic J, Glamoclija J, Stojkovic D, Nikolic M, Ciric A, Fernades A, Ferreira ICFR, Sokovic M. Bioactive composition, antimicrobial activities and the influence of Agrocybe aegerita (Brig.) Sing on certain quorum-sensing-regulated functions and biofilm formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Food Funct. 2014;5:3296–3303. doi: 10.1039/C4FO00819G. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Popović V, Živković J, Davidović S, Stevanović M, Stojković D. Mycotherapy of cancer: an update on cytotoxic and antitumor activities of mushrooms, bioactive principles and molecular mechanisms of their action. Curr Top Med Chem. 2013;13:2791–2806. doi: 10.2174/15680266113136660198. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Reis FS, Martins A, Barros L, Ferreira ICFR. Antioxidant properties and phenolics profile of the most widely appreciated cultivated mushrooms: a comparative study between in vivo and in vitro samples. Food Chem Toxicol. 2012;50:1201–1207. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2012.02.013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Reis FS, Stojković D, Soković M, Glamočlija J, Ćirić A, Barros L, Ferreira ICFR. Chemical characterization of Agaricus bohusii, antioxidant potential and antifungal preserving properties when incorporated in cream cheese. Food Res Int. 2012;48:620–626. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2012.06.013. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  26. Ribeiro B, Valentao P, Baptista RM, Seabra PB. Phenolic compounds, organic acids profiles and antioxidative properties of beefsteak fungus (Fistulina hepatica) Food Chem Toxicol. 2007;45:1805–1813. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2007.03.015. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Shuai J, Yijie C, Man W, Yin Y, Pan Y, Gu B, Yu G, Li Y, Wong BHC, Liang Y, Sun H. A novel lectin from Agrocybe aegerita shows high binding selectivity for terminal N-acetyl glucosamine. Biochem J. 2012;443:369–378. doi: 10.1042/BJ20112061. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Simpoulos AP. Essential fatty acids in health and chronic disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;70:560S–569S. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/70.3.560s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Stojković D, Reis FS, Barros L, Glamočlija J, Ćirić A, van Griensven LJLD, Soković M, Ferreira ICFR. Nutrients and non-nutrients composition and bioactivity of wild and cultivated Coprinus comatus (O.F.Müll.) Pers. Food Chem Toxicol. 2013;59:289–296. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.06.017. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Stojković DS, Barros L, Calhelha RC, Glamočlija J, Ćirić A, Van Griensven LJLD, Soković M, Ferreira ICFR. A detailed comparative study between chemical and bioactive properties of Ganoderma lucidum from different origins. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2014;65:42–47. doi: 10.3109/09637486.2013.832173. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Tadashi K, Sobue S, Ukai S. Polysaccharides in fungi XXXI, structural features of and hypoglycemic activity of two polysaccharides from hot water extracts of Agrocybe cylindracea. Carbohydr Res. 1994;251:81–87. doi: 10.1016/0008-6215(94)84277-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Ullrich R, Nüske J, Scheibner K, Spantzel J, Hofrichter M. Novel haloperoxidase from the Agaric Basidiomycete Agrocybe aegerita. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2004;70:4575–4581. doi: 10.1128/AEM.70.8.4575-4581.2004. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Valentão P, Lopes G, Valente M, Barbosa P, Andrade PB, Silva BM, Baptista P, Seabra RM. Quantitation of nine organic acids in wild mushrooms. J Agric Food Chem. 2005;53:3626–3630. doi: 10.1021/jf040465z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Vaz AJ, Heleno SA, Martins A, Almeida MG, Vasconcelos MH, Ferreira ICFR. Wild mushrooms Clitocybe alexandria and Lepista inversa: In vitro antioxidant activity and growth inhibition of human tumour cell lines. Food Chem Toxicol. 2010;48:2881–2884. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2010.07.021. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Wasser SP, Weis AL. Medicinal properties of substances occurring in higher basidiomycetes mushrooms: current perspectives (review) Int J Med Mushrooms. 1999;1:31–62. doi: 10.1615/IntJMedMushrooms.v1.i1.30. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Zhao C, Sun H, Tong X, Qi Y. An antitumour lectin from the edible mushroom Agrocybe aegerita. Biochem J. 2003;374:321–327. doi: 10.1042/bj20030300. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Journal of Food Science and Technology are provided here courtesy of Springer

RESOURCES