Skip to main content
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America logoLink to Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
. 1993 Apr 1;90(7):2789–2792. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.7.2789

Bone lead content assessed by L-line x-ray fluorescence in lead-exposed and non-lead-exposed suburban populations in the United States.

J F Rosen 1, A F Crocetti 1, K Balbi 1, J Balbi 1, C Bailey 1, I Clemente 1, N Redkey 1, S Grainger 1
PMCID: PMC46181  PMID: 8464891

Abstract

Measurements of lead (Pb) in bone reflect cumulative Pb exposure, whereas blood Pb levels are indices of absorption during the previous 21-30 days. This study was undertaken to estimate bone Pb concentrations by L-line x-ray fluorescence (LXRF) in a United States suburban population which was exposed to unusually high levels of Pb in emissions from an adjacent factory during 1963-1981, compared with concentrations similarly estimated in a matched suburban community without unusual Pb exposure. The mean bone Pb value in 269 residents of the highly exposed suburb (15 ppm) was 3-fold greater than that of the reference suburb (5 ppm). LXRF estimates of bone Pb identified those individuals at risk for adverse effects of Pb, whereas blood Pb levels were uninformative. Average LXRF-estimated bone Pb concentrations in residents of the unusually exposed suburb approximated estimated values in workers at Pb-processing factories.

Full text

PDF
2789

Images in this article

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Barry P. S. Concentrations of lead in the tissues of children. Br J Ind Med. 1981 Feb;38(1):61–71. doi: 10.1136/oem.38.1.61. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Blanusa M., Ivicić N., Simeon V. Lead, iron, copper, zinc and ash in deciduous teeth in relation to age and distance from a lead smelter. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 1990 Oct;45(4):478–485. doi: 10.1007/BF01700618. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Bonithon-Kopp C., Huel G., Grasmick C., Sarmini H., Moreau T. Effects of pregnancy on the inter-individual variations in blood levels of lead, cadmium and mercury. Biol Res Pregnancy Perinatol. 1986;7(1):37–42. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Chettle D. R., Scott M. C., Somervaille L. J. Lead in bone: sampling and quantitation using K X-rays excited by 109Cd. Environ Health Perspect. 1991 Feb;91:49–55. doi: 10.1289/ehp.919149. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Craswell P. W., Price J., Boyle P. D., Heazlewood V. J., Baddeley H., Lloyd H. M., Thomas B. J., Thomas B. W., Williams G. M. Chronic lead nephropathy in Queensland: alternative methods of diagnosis. Aust N Z J Med. 1986 Feb;16(1):11–19. doi: 10.1111/j.1445-5994.1986.tb01107.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Drasch G. A., Böhm J., Baur C. Lead in human bones. Investigations on an occupationally non-exposed population in southern Bavaria (F.R.G.). I. Adults. Sci Total Environ. 1987 Jul;64(3):303–315. doi: 10.1016/0048-9697(87)90252-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Gross S. B., Pfitzer E. A., Yeager D. W., Kehoe R. A. Lead in human tissues. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1975 Jun;32(3):638–651. doi: 10.1016/0041-008x(75)90127-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Hu H., Milder F. L., Burger D. E. X-ray fluorescence measurements of lead burden in subjects with low-level community lead exposure. Arch Environ Health. 1990 Nov-Dec;45(6):335–341. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1990.10118752. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Kalef-Ezra J. A., Slatkin D. N., Rosen J. F., Wielopolski L. Radiation risk to the human conceptus from measurement of maternal tibial bone lead by L-line x-ray fluorescence. Health Phys. 1990 Feb;58(2):217–218. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Kijewski H., Lowitz H. D. Der Nachweis von Blei als Hydrid in Knochenbiopsieproben von Patienten mit lange zurückliegenden Bleivergiftungen. Arch Toxicol. 1982 Sep;50(3-4):301–311. doi: 10.1007/BF00310862. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Manton W. I. Total contribution of airborne lead to blood lead. Br J Ind Med. 1985 Mar;42(3):168–172. doi: 10.1136/oem.42.3.168. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Markowitz M. E., Weinberger H. L. Immobilization-related lead toxicity in previously lead-poisoned children. Pediatrics. 1990 Sep;86(3):455–457. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Miller J. Z., Slemenda C. W., Meaney F. J., Reister T. K., Hui S., Johnston C. C. The relationship of bone mineral density and anthropometric variables in healthy male and female children. Bone Miner. 1991 Aug;14(2):137–152. doi: 10.1016/0169-6009(91)90091-d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Mushak P. Defining lead as the premiere environmental health issue for children in America: criteria and their quantitative application. Environ Res. 1992 Dec;59(2):281–309. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(05)80036-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Needleman H. L., Gunnoe C., Leviton A., Reed R., Peresie H., Maher C., Barrett P. Deficits in psychologic and classroom performance of children with elevated dentine lead levels. N Engl J Med. 1979 Mar 29;300(13):689–695. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197903293001301. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Nilsson U., Attewell R., Christoffersson J. O., Schütz A., Ahlgren L., Skerfving S., Mattsson S. Kinetics of lead in bone and blood after end of occupational exposure. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1991 Jun;68(6):477–484. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1991.tb01273.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Patterson C., Ericson J., Manea-Krichten M., Shirahata H. Natural skeletal levels of lead in Homo sapiens sapiens uncontaminated by technological lead. Sci Total Environ. 1991 Sep;107:205–236. doi: 10.1016/0048-9697(91)90260-l. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Piomelli S., Rosen J. F., Chisolm J. J., Jr, Graef J. W. Management of childhood lead poisoning. J Pediatr. 1984 Oct;105(4):523–532. doi: 10.1016/s0022-3476(84)80414-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Rabinowitz M. B., Wetherill G. W., Kopple J. D. Magnitude of lead intake from respiration by normal man. J Lab Clin Med. 1977 Aug;90(2):238–248. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Roels H. A., Buchet J. P., Lauwerys R. R., Bruaux P., Claeys-Thoreau F., Lafontaine A., Verduyn G. Exposure to lead by the oral and the pulmonary routes of children living in the vicinity of a primary lead smelter. Environ Res. 1980 Jun;22(1):81–94. doi: 10.1016/0013-9351(80)90121-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Rosen J. F., Markowitz M. E., Bijur P. E., Jenks S. T., Wielopolski L., Kalef-Ezra J. A., Slatkin D. N. L-line x-ray fluorescence of cortical bone lead compared with the CaNa2EDTA test in lead-toxic children: public health implications. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Jan;86(2):685–689. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.2.685. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Rosen J. F., Markowitz M. E., Bijur P. E., Jenks S. T., Wielopolski L., Kalef-Ezra J. A., Slatkin D. N. Sequential measurements of bone lead content by L X-ray fluorescence in CaNa2EDTA-treated lead-toxic children. Environ Health Perspect. 1991 Jun;93:271–277. doi: 10.1289/ehp.9193271. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Samuels E. R., Meranger J. C., Tracy B. L., Subramanian K. S. Lead concentrations in human bones from the Canadian population. Sci Total Environ. 1989 Dec 15;89(3):261–269. doi: 10.1016/0048-9697(89)90265-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Schroeder H. A., Tipton I. H. The human body burden of lead. Arch Environ Health. 1968 Dec;17(6):965–978. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1968.10665354. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Silbergeld E. K., Schwartz J., Mahaffey K. Lead and osteoporosis: mobilization of lead from bone in postmenopausal women. Environ Res. 1988 Oct;47(1):79–94. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(88)80023-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Somervaille L. J., Chettle D. R., Scott M. C., Tennant D. R., McKiernan M. J., Skilbeck A., Trethowan W. N. In vivo tibia lead measurements as an index of cumulative exposure in occupationally exposed subjects. Br J Ind Med. 1988 Mar;45(3):174–181. doi: 10.1136/oem.45.3.174. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Steenhout A., Pourtois M. Lead accumulation in teeth as a function of age with different exposures. Br J Ind Med. 1981 Aug;38(3):297–303. doi: 10.1136/oem.38.3.297. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Thompson G. N., Robertson E. F., Fitzgerald S. Lead mobilization during pregnancy. Med J Aust. 1985 Aug 5;143(3):131–131. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1985.tb122859.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Trotter M., Hixon B. B. Sequential changes in weight, density, and percentage ash weight of human skeletons from an early fetal period through old age. Anat Rec. 1974 May;179(1):1–18. doi: 10.1002/ar.1091790102. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Wielopolski L., Rosen J. F., Slatkin D. N., Zhang R., Kalef-Ezra J. A., Rothman J. C., Maryanski M., Jenks S. T. In vivo measurement of cortical bone lead using polarized x rays. Med Phys. 1989 Jul-Aug;16(4):521–528. doi: 10.1118/1.596353. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Winneke G., Hrdina K. G., Brockhaus A. Neuropsychological studies in children with elevated tooth-lead concentrations. I. Pilot study. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1982;51(2):169–183. doi: 10.1007/BF00378161. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Winneke G., Krämer U., Brockhaus A., Ewers U., Kujanek G., Lechner H., Janke W. Neuropsychological studies in children with elevated tooth-lead concentrations. II. Extended study. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1983;51(3):231–252. doi: 10.1007/BF00377755. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Wittmers L. E., Jr, Aufderheide A. C., Wallgren J., Rapp G., Jr, Alich A. Lead in bone. IV. Distribution of lead in the human skeleton. Arch Environ Health. 1988 Nov-Dec;43(6):381–391. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1988.9935855. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Ziegler E. E., Edwards B. B., Jensen R. L., Mahaffey K. R., Fomon S. J. Absorption and retention of lead by infants. Pediatr Res. 1978 Jan;12(1):29–34. doi: 10.1203/00006450-197801000-00008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America are provided here courtesy of National Academy of Sciences

RESOURCES