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. 2015 Aug 10;171(4):478–490. doi: 10.1111/bjh.13610

Aberrant splicing of genes involved in haemoglobin synthesis and impaired terminal erythroid maturation in SF3B1 mutated refractory anaemia with ring sideroblasts

Simona Conte 1, Shintaro Katayama 2, Liselotte Vesterlund 2, Mohsen Karimi 1, Marios Dimitriou 1, Monika Jansson 1, Teresa Mortera‐Blanco 1, Per Unneberg 3, Elli Papaemmanuil 4, Birgitta Sander 5, Tiina Skoog 2, Peter Campbell 4, Julian Walfridsson 1, Juha Kere 2, Eva Hellström‐Lindberg 1,✉
PMCID: PMC4832260  PMID: 26255870

Summary

Refractory anaemia with ring sideroblasts (RARS) is distinguished by hyperplastic inefficient erythropoiesis, aberrant mitochondrial ferritin accumulation and anaemia. Heterozygous mutations in the spliceosome gene SF3B1 are found in a majority of RARS cases. To explore the link between SF3B1 mutations and anaemia, we studied mutated RARS CD34+ marrow cells with regard to transcriptome sequencing, splice patterns and mutational allele burden during erythroid differentiation. Transcriptome profiling during early erythroid differentiation revealed a marked up‐regulation of genes involved in haemoglobin synthesis and in the oxidative phosphorylation process, and down‐regulation of mitochondrial ABC transporters compared to normal bone marrow. Moreover, mis‐splicing of genes involved in transcription regulation, particularly haemoglobin synthesis, was confirmed, indicating a compromised haemoglobinization during RARS erythropoiesis. In order to define the phase during which erythroid maturation of SF3B1 mutated cells is most affected, we assessed allele burden during erythroid differentiation in vitro and in vivo and found that SF3B1 mutated erythroblasts showed stable expansion until late erythroblast stage but that terminal maturation to reticulocytes was significantly reduced. In conclusion, SF3B1 mutated RARS progenitors display impaired splicing with potential downstream consequences for genes of key importance for haemoglobin synthesis and terminal erythroid differentiation.

Keywords: myelodysplastic syndromes, erythropoiesis, refractory anaemia with ring sideroblasts, SF3B1

Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) constitute a group of clonal stem cell disorders distinguished by pancytopenia, ineffective haematopoiesis and a predisposition to acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) (Hellstrom‐Lindberg, 2005). By contrast, the MDS subgroup refractory anaemia with ring sideroblasts (RARS) is characterized by a stable clinical course, isolated anaemia, expanded erythropoiesis and the morphological presence of ring sideroblasts (RS) (Mufti et al, 2008). Sideroblast formation starts during early erythroid maturation, when iron accumulates in mitochondria in the form of aberrant mitochondrial ferritin (FTMT) (Cazzola et al, 2003; Tehranchi et al, 2005a). Somatic mutations in SF3B1, a core component of the RNA splicing machinery were initially found in more than 70% of RARS patients (Papaemmanuil et al, 2011). In parallel, Yoshida et al (2011) reported additional mutations affecting multiple components of the RNA splicing machinery in MDS (U2AF35, ZRSR2, SRSF2 and SF3B1). Of these, SF3B1 mutations alone had a positive predictive value for disease phenotypes with ring sideroblasts of 97·7% (Malcovati et al, 2011). Interestingly, SF3B1 mutated samples show under‐expressed mRNA profiles with emphasis on mitochondrial pathways (Papaemmanuil et al, 2011).

More recently we reported mutational data from a cohort of 159 morphologically well‐defined patients with RARS and refractory cytopenia with multilineage dysplasia and ring sideroblasts (RCMD‐RS) and showed (81/90) 90% SF3B1 mutations in the former category and (48/67) 72% in the latter, if patients with TP53 mutations were removed. Moreover, no differences in survival or disease progression were observed between RARS or RCMD‐RS patients with sole SF3B1 mutations, and those with additional mutations in the two main other genes TET2 and DNMT3A. SF3B1 wild type patients showed a varying mutational pattern; 10/33 (33%) had other splice factor mutations (SRSF2, U2AF1, ZRSR2), and 11/30 (37%) had epigenetic mutations (TET2, DNMT3A, ASXL1) (Malcovati et al, 2015).

We and others have shown that the markedly under‐expressed iron transporter gene ABCB7 is an important mediator of the RARS phenotype (Nikpour et al, 2013; Dolatshad et al, 2015).

Albeit these findings indicate that abnormal RNA is a common consequence of SF3B1 mutations, downstream targets associated with the development of ineffective erythropoiesis have not yet been identified, nor the maturation phase during which erythropoiesis is affected. Splicing patterns and gene expression undergo major changes during normal cell differentiation (An et al, 2014; Cheng et al, 2014; Pimentel et al, 2014) making longitudinal studies during erythroid maturation highly relevant (Nikpour et al, 2010, 2013). We speculated that SF3B1 mutations could alter splicing and expression patterns of genes essential for normal erythroid maturation.

Hereby, we report altered splicing of genes involved in haemoglobin synthesis, and a failure to up‐regulate essential cell growth signalling pathways during erythroid differentiation. Importantly, we present evidence that SF3B1 mutation does not confer a growth or maturation disadvantage to erythroid cells until terminal maturation into reticulocytes, providing a novel understanding about the mechanism for anaemia in SF3B1 mutated RARS.

Material and methods

Sample collection, erythroid and myeloid cell cultures

Patients with MDS, <5% marrow blasts, and >15% ring sideroblasts [RARS, RCMD‐RS, RARS associated with marked thrombocytosis (RARS‐T)] were diagnosed using World Health Organization (WHO) criteria and a multi‐professional conference approach (Howe et al, 2004; Vardiman et al, 2009). The study was approved by the Ethics Research Committee at Karolinska Institutet (2010/427‐31/1 and 2011/1257‐31) and informed consent was obtained from patients and healthy donors. RARS and normal CD34+ cells from bone marrow (BM) were cultured for 14 days, as previously described in detail (Tehranchi et al, 2003; Pellagatti et al, 2007; Nikpour et al, 2010, 2013). In order to obtain fresh mature erythroid progenitors, Glycophorin A (GPA) selection (Miltenyi Biotech, Bergisch Gladbach, Germany) was performed on freshly isolated mononuclear cells (MNCs) with a purity of >95% as previously reported (Tehranchi et al, 2003, 2005a; Nikpour et al, 2010). To induce myeloid differentiation, cells were treated with hydrocortisone (0·01M, StemCell Technology, Grenoble, France) and granulocyte colony‐stimulating factor (20 ng/ml, PeproTech, Rocky Hill, NJ, USA) at day 7 in Myelocult medium. Myeloid purity was evaluated by flow cytometry (CD66b >90%) at day 14 of culture. Reticulocytes were isolated from peripheral blood (PB) of 5 patients maintaining stable anaemia without treatment or transfusions, as described by Petruzzelli et al (2009). Genomic DNA was extracted from isolated CD34+, CD34−, PB CD3+ cells and granulocytes using GenElute™ Mammalian DNA Miniprep Kit (Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) and total RNA using Trizol (Invitrogen, Paisley, UK).

Targeted sequencing of candidate genes

Patient's DNA from PB granulocytes or BM MNCs was screened for recurrently mutated genes in myeloid disorders either by SureSelect (Agilent Technologies, Berkshire, UK) as previously reported (Papaemmanuil et al, 2013) or using high‐throughput sequencing by Haloplex™ target enrichment technology (Agilent Technologies). Haloplex™ target enrichment kit G9901A/B was designed for 42 genes (Table SI) using Halodesign wizard available via Agilent (http://www.halogenomics.com). For details on sequencing data analysis, see Supporting Information.

RNA Sequencing

Total RNA (between 177 ng and 3 μg) from BM CD34+ cells of 3 patients (MDS 12, 13 and 14) and 3 normal bone marrows (NBM) during erythroid differentiation was depleted of ribosomal RNA using RiboMinus Eukaryote kit for RNA‐Seq (LifeTechnologies, Carlsbad, CA, USA). Strand‐specific libraries were constructed using SOLiD™ Total RNA‐Seq Kit according to the manufacturer's instructions (LifeTechnologies). For details on libraries sequencing, see Supporting Information. Samples were sequenced as single‐reads on the SOLiD 5500 Wildfire system. An average of approximately 246 million reads were generated per sample and out of these, an average of 141 million reads were mapped to the human reference genome (hg19). For differential expression and splicing analysis, Cufflinks version 2·1·1 (http://cole-trapnell-lab.github.io/cufflinks/) was used. The alignment of sequence reads in the same sample type were assembled into transcripts by Cufflinks, using RefSeq transcripts as reference.

Assembled transcripts were grouped by Cuffmerge and the merged transcripts assembly was compared with the reference RefSeq transcripts by Cuffcompare using default setting (Trapnell et al, 2012). Relative abundance (fragments per kilobase of exon per million of fragments mapped, FPKM) was calculated. Differential expression and exon‐usage were estimated by Cuffdiff using default setting (Trapnell et al, 2012). An arbitrary cutoff of FPKM>1 was applied, thus genes were considered as expressed if FPKM>1.

Gene set enrichment analysis

The input data for the Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) (Subramanian et al, 2005) were complete lists of genes differentially expressed between RARS and NBM at day 0 and at day 4. The lists were pre‐ranked according to the log10 (P value) of each gene. Probesets (12038 annotated transcripts at day 0 and 9186 at day 4) were collapsed into gene symbol. Inclusion gene set size was set between 15 and 500 and the phenotype was permutated 1000 times. Gene sets that met a false discovery rate (FDR) less than 0·05 were considered. For this analysis, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG; Kanehisa & Goto, 2000) was used as gene matrix.

Statistical analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using GraphPad Prism 6 software (La Jolla, CA, USA). Gene expression and splicing isoform validation data by quantiative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) were analysed using the Comparative Ct method according to User Bulletin #2 (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA). Due to small sample size and skewed distribution, gene expression in patient samples and healthy controls was compared using the Mann–Whitney U test. Statistical analysis for allele burden assessment during erythroid maturation was performed using paired Student t‐test.

Taqman low density array (TLDA)

Gene expression profiles were investigated using TDLA. BM CD34+ cells at day 0 and 4 from 7 RARS and 4 NBM erythroid cultures were run in triplicate. Each TLDA card allowed simultaneous quantification of 61 target genes per sample. TLDA data was analysed using Comparative Ct method according to User Bulletin #2 (Applied Biosystems). For details on TLDA analysis see Supporting Information. Principle Component Analysis (PCA) was performed using R statistics package “prcomp” (http://www.r-project.org/).

Pyrosequencing

Pyrosequencing (PyroMark Q24 system, Qiagen, Düsseldorf, Germany) was applied to follow the fate of the SF3B1 clone during erythroid differentiation. DNA from cultured BM CD34+, freshly isolated BM MNCs and GPA+ cells of RARS patients was used with DNA from NBM, as wild type control. cDNA synthetized using High Capacity cDNA Reverse Transcription kit (Applied Biosystems) was used to assess allele burden in reticulocytes. Mutation‐specific assays (Table SII) were designed using PyroMark assay design software and performed according to the PyroMark Q24 user manual (Qiagen).

Results

Patients

Eighteen patients with SF3B1 mutations and 2 SF3B1 wild type patients had material available for this study. Median age was 74 years (49–91 years) and final diagnosis was established at a multi‐professional conference. Clinical and morphological characteristics as well as the molecular profile of the cohort are presented in Table SIII. Several of the samples had additional recurrent mutations, such as JAK2, TET2 and DNMT3A (Papaemmanuil et al, 2013).

Marked differences in gene expression during early erythroid differentiation

To examine if splicing factor mutations may contribute to dissimilarities between SF3B1 mutated RARS and NBM, we assessed loci‐based differential expressions by RNA sequencing during early erythroid differentiation at two time‐points (day 0 and 4). We detected 5292 loci differentially expressed (FDR<5% and FPKM>1) at day 0 and 2329 loci at day 4 (Fig 1A–B). Next, we investigated the genes showing different development of expression between RARS and NBM over the 4 days in culture. We observed marked alterations during RARS differentiation (Figure 1C‐D). In particular, 953 genes were significantly (FDR<5% and fold change of ≥1·5) up‐regulated during normal erythropoiesis, compared to only 333 genes in the RARS cultures. Hence, the expression of 710 genes failed to increase during RARS erythropoiesis. The functional annotation of these genes was analysed using DAVID (Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery) (Huang da et al, 2009) and the most enriched functional clusters were mainly involved in the cell cycle process including mitosis, spindle organization and chromosome segregation (Table SIV). Furthermore, we identified 511 down‐regulated genes during normal erythropoiesis compared to 893 in RARS, i.e. 222 genes failed to decrease during RARS erythropoiesis. Interestingly, the functional annotation of these 222 genes failed to identify any significant enriched clusters (Table SV). Overall, these data suggest that SF3B1 mutated RARS is associated with decreased gene expression resulting from a failure to up‐regulate genes regulating the cell cycle process during early erythroid differentiation.

Figure 1.

Figure 1

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RNA sequencing reveals gene expression differences between RARS and NBM during early differentiation. Bone marrow CD34+ cells were isolated from 3 RARS patients (MDS12, 13, 14) and 3 NBM controls and cultured in the erythroblast system for 4 days. Samples for RNA were taken at day 0 and day 4. (A) Volcano plots show 5292 loci (both annotated and un‐annotated) up‐regulated at day 0 and (B) 2329 down‐regulated at day 4 (FDR<5% and FPKM>1). Each graph is constructed by plotting the negative log of the P‐value (Y‐axis) versus the log of the fold change (1·5‐fold change) (X‐axis) between RARS and NBM. Red circles denote statistical significance (FDR <5%) defined loci by Cufflinks. (C–D) Venn diagrams display distributions of differentially expressed transcripts between NBM and RARS during early differentiation (0–4 days) based on FDR <5% and a fold change of 1·5. Only annotated transcripts were included for these diagrams. During erythropoiesis, 333 (90 + 243) genes were up‐regulated in RARS and 953 (710 + 243) genes in NBM. 243 genes were up‐regulated both in RARS and NBM. During early RARS erythropoiesis, 893 genes were down‐regulated, compared to 511 in NBM. A total of 289 genes were down‐regulated in both RARS and NBM. (E) Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) of RARS compared to NBM at day 0 reveals positive enrichment plots for canonical pathways of RARS such as spliceosome, oxidative phosphorylation, ribosome and proteasome. (F) Conversely, at day 0 the GSEA analysis shows a negative enrichment of signalling pathways such as: WNT, MAPK and mTOR and ABC transporters. Each vertical stripe represents the rank of a gene within the gene set among all (12038 at day 0 and 9186 at day 4). Name of the gene set is shown to the left, and q value to the right. FPKM, fragments per kilobase of exon per million of fragments mapped; FDR, false discovery rate; MDS, myelodysplastic syndrome; RARS, refractory anaemia with ring sideroblasts; NBM, normal bone marrow; dw, down‐regulated; KEGG, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes.

Gene Set Enrichment Analysis identifies the key pathways of RARS pathogenesis

We used GSEA (Subramanian et al, 2005) to identify biological pathways that showed coordinated up‐regulation or down‐regulation in RARS compared to NBM. With a FDR of less than 0·05, we identified 14 gene sets (out of 151 screened) positively enriched, and 12 gene sets negatively enriched at day 0, whereas 18 and 1 gene sets showed a positive and negative enrichment at day 4, respectively. GSEA based on KEGG database revealed an up‐regulation at both time points for canonical pathways of RARS pathogenesis, such as spliceosome, but also of the oxidative phosphorylation, ribosome and proteasome pathways (Fig 1E). The oxidative phosphorylation enrichment, a possible consequence of the mitochondrial ferritin accumulation or compromised mitochondrial respiratory chain activity, mainly included genes encoding subunits of the Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase) and V (ATP synthase) of the respiratory chain. Ribosomal abnormalities have been previously described in MDS pathophysiology in conjunction with deletion of 5q (Ebert et al, 2008). Studies have shown that haploinsufficiency of ribosomal protein genes causes selective activation of TP53 (p53) in human erythroid progenitor cells (Dutt et al, 2011). The positive enrichment of the proteasome has been reported only in high risk MDS, and often associated with apoptosis after treatment with proteasome inhibitors (Alimena et al, 2011; Liesveld et al, 2011). Conversely, GSEA showed down‐regulation of WNT, MAPK and mTOR signalling pathways involved in apoptosis and transcription regulation, as well as ATP‐binding cassette mitochondrial transporters (ABC transporters) (Figure 1F). The latter gene set included ABCB7, a key mediator of the RARS phenotype (Nikpour et al, 2013) involved in iron metabolism and transport of Fe/S protein precursors.

RARS progenitors up‐regulate genes involved in haemoglobin synthesis

Compared to NBM, several of the top 20 up‐regulated genes in RARS at day 0 were involved in the haem and haemoglobin synthesis pathway (HBM, HBA2, ALAS2, HBA1) (Table 1). In particular, HBA1 and HBA2 encode the α‐globin protein and both genes are located close together in the α‐globin locus on chromosome 16. Mutations of these genes are the most common cause of α‐thalassemia (Murru et al, 1991); however, HBA2 was also reported down‐regulated in differentiating erythroblasts from MDS patients with del(5q) after treatment with lenalidomide (Pellagatti et al, 2007). Interestingly, HBM was initially identified as a pseudogene and later reported as part of the transcriptome profile of human reticulocytes and transcribed in a highly regulated pattern in erythroid cells with its maximal expression during the erythroblast terminal differentiation (Goh et al, 2005). We also confirmed a strong up‐regulation of ALAS2 previously reported in RARS (Pellagatti et al, 2006). The expression levels of ALAS2, HBM, HBA2 and HBA1 were similar in SF3B1 mutated (n = 6) and wild type (n = 2) patients (data not shown).

Table 1.

Top 20 up and down‐regulated genes between RARS and normal bone marrow at day 0

Gene Locus FPKM NBM FPKM MDS log2(MDS/NBM) FDR Function
(A) Up‐regulated genes
XIST chrX:73012039‐73072588 0·026 54·783 11·032 0·004 X‐Inactivation that silences one of the pair of X chromosomes
a HBM chr16:215972‐216767 0·316 170·276 9·075 0·016 Haemoglobin μ, iron ion binding and oxygen binding
FCGBP chr19:40353962‐40440533 0·064 17·509 8·095 0·004 Maintenance of the mucosal structure
TIMD4 chr5:156345573‐156345938 0·996 237·879 7·900 0·004 Regulation of T‐cell proliferation
HBA2 chr16:222845‐223709 1·300 301·970 7·859 0·004 Haemoglobin α‐2, ion and oxygen biniding
ALAS2 chrX:55035487‐55057497 0·415 87·171 7·716 0·004 Haem biosynthetic pathway
HBA1 chr16:226643‐228694 1·097 222·552 7·665 0·004 Haemoglobin α‐1, release of oxygen by erythrocytes and scavenging of haem
HRH1 chr3:11178778‐11304939 0·040 6·833 7·416 0·004 Histamine receptor activity
a VCAM1 chr1:101204878‐101205214 0·695 107·010 7·267 0·007 Integrin binding and cell adhesion molecule binding
EDNRB chr13:78469615‐78549664 0·102 15·320 7·237 0·004 Peptide hormone binding and endothelin receptor activity
ATP6V0D2 chr8:87111077‐87166454 0·112 16·466 7·199 0·004 Providing energy required for transport processes in the vacuolar system
CERS3 chr15:100940599‐101084925 0·022 3·160 7·181 0·034 Sphingosine N‐acyltransferase activity and transcription factor activity
a CD5L chr1:157800703‐157811634 3·677 782·091 7·172 0·004 Scavenger receptor activity, possible role as an inhibitor of apoptosis
RND3 chr2:151324709‐151344221 0·180 25·674 7·154 0·004 GTP binding and GTPase activity
LILRB5 chr19:54753206‐54753669 0·294 41·095 7·127 0·049 Transmembrane signaling receptor activity
LYVE1 chr11:10562786‐10715535 0·480 60·302 6·972 0·007 Autocrine regulation of cell growth
CCL18 chr17:34399750‐34402443 0·033 4·096 6·954 0·035 Immunoregulation and inflammation, chemotactic activity for T cells
MSR1 chr8:15965386‐16050319 0·444 54·932 6·951 0·004 Macrophge scavenger receptor activity
SLC4A1 chr17:42325757‐42345502 0·250 30·605 6·937 0·004 Uptake of carbon dioxide and release of oxygen by erythrocytes
CCL8 chr17:32646065‐32648421 0·295 34·326 6·862 0·004 Protein kinase activity and chemokine activity
(B) Down‐regulated genes
a ULK4P3 chr15:32698800‐32727250 4·611 0·449 −3·360 0·004 ULK4 pseudogene 3, unknown function
WWOX chr16:78760629‐78761056 5·973 0·834 −2·840 0·007 Oxidoreductase that acts as a tumor suppressor and plays a role in apoptosis
CAMK1D chr10:12466821‐12467259 5·474 0·852 −2·684 0·007 Calcium/calmodulin‐dependent kinase, role in apoptosis of erythroleukemia cells
PRKCE chr2:45997530‐45997967 3·401 0·536 −2·665 0·029 Protein kinase activity
a RNF220 chr1:45030902‐45031276 6·598 1·154 −2·516 0·007 Ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation of SIN3B
PRKCH chr14:61933032‐61933557 2·599 0·457 −2·509 0·037 Regulation of cell differentiation in keratinocytes and pre‐B cell receptor
PLCB1 chr20:8291278‐8291669 3·810 0·736 −2·371 0·041 Hydrolysis of phospholipids into fatty acids
GNLY chr2:85921413‐85925977 2·085 0·419 −2·315 0·004 Antimicrobial activity
BCR chr22:23563521‐23563723 33·971 6·880 −2·304 0·018 GTPase and serine/threonine kinase activity
LRIG1 chr3:66488799‐66489239 3·708 0·767 −2·273 0·048 Negative regulator of signaling by receptor tyrosine kinases
INPP5A chr10:134526579‐134527222 1·983 0·424 −2·225 0·047 Inositol‐polyphosphate 5‐phosphatase activity
PRKG1 chr10:53142352‐53143618 1·053 0·242 −2·123 0·021 Mediator of the nitric oxide (NO)/cGMP signaling pathway
AOX2P chr2:201560443‐201660451 32·892 7·630 −2·108 0·004 Aldehyde oxidase 2, pseudogene affiliated with the lncRNA class
SLC16A14 chr2:230899676‐230933816 1·483 0·347 −2·094 0·028 Proton‐linked monocarboxylate transporter
BRF1 chr14:105726207‐105726823 4·543 1·124 −2·015 0·004 RNA Polymerase III Transcription Initiation and Transcription of tRNA
FOXP1 chr3:71532609‐71532947 8·119 2·079 −1·965 0·018 Transcriptional repressor, essential transcriptional regulator of B‐cell
TMEM163 chr2:135360910‐135361983 1·279 0·329 −1·957 0·016 Zinc ion binding
NCK2 chr2:106380446‐106380910 6·308 1·720 −1·874 0·012 Regulation of receptor protein tyrosine kinases and cytoskeletal adaptor activity
FHIT chr3:59928983‐59929714 2·466 0·675 −1·870 0·031 Pyrimidine metabolism and inducer of apoptosis via SRC and AKT1 signaling
STK32B chr4:5202129‐5202796 2·610 0·724 −1·851 0·028 Serine/threonine kinase activity and metal ion binding
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FPKM, fragments per kilobase of exon per million of fragments mapped; FDR, false discovery rate; MDS, myelodysplastic syndrome; RARS, refractory anaemia with ring sideroblasts; NBM, normal bone marrow.

a

Genes commonly deregulated both at day 0 and day 4. Notably, the up‐regulation of TIMD4, ALAS2, CD5L, LYVE1, CCL18 and MSR1 detected by RNA sequencing was confirmed by Taqman Low Density Array.

In contrast to the up‐regulation of haemoglobin synthesis related genes, we found down‐regulation of tumour suppressors and apoptosis‐promoting genes, such as FHIT and CAMK1D (Table 1) suggesting a mechanism for RARS progenitors to survive until a more mature stage of differentiation and a potential contribution to erythroid hyperplasia.

We validated the expression of 5 of the top 20 up‐regulated and down‐regulated in 3 NBM and 6 RARS using qPCR. Indeed, ALAS2, HBM and SLC4A1 were significantly up‐regulated compared to NBM (P = 0·023 for all tested genes) (Fig 2A). In contrast, CAMK1D and FHIT were down‐regulated versus NBM (P = 0·047, P = 0·023 respectively) (Fig 2B).

Figure 2.

Figure 2

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Validation of gene expression profiles. Quantiative polymerase chain reaction analysis of RARS (n = 6) versus NBM (n = 3) confirms (A) the up‐regulation of ALAS2, HBM and SLC4A1 and (B) the down‐regulation of CAMK1D and FHIT observed in the RNA sequencing. Level of statistical significance was assessed using Mann‐Whitney test (*P <0.05).

Finally, at day 4 of erythroid culture, we found up‐regulation of genes with a scavenger receptor role, such as CD5L and CD163. CD163 is an haemoglobin scavenger receptor that may protect from free haemoglobin‐mediated oxidative damage (Moestrup & Moller, 2004) (Table SVI).

SF3B1 mutated RARS progenitors show alternative splicing of genes involved in haemoglobin synthesis

Alternative splicing can generate multiple mRNA isoforms and proteins from a single locus. Changes in the splicing process are important for cell differentiation and may contribute to the difference in gene expression between RARS and NBM (Pellagatti et al, 2006; Nikpour et al, 2010). RNA sequencing revealed 18 mis‐spliced genes at day 0, none of which had been reported before to have a role in MDS (Table SVII). By contrast, 2 genes (ANKHD1 and TMEM14C) showed altered splicing at day 4 and only TMEM14C was differentially spliced at both time points. Interestingly, the function of TMEM14C and TFCP2 is closely related to mitochondria and to haem biosynthesis in particular (Yien et al, 2014). TMEM14C is a mitochondrial transporter and the knockdown of this gene in zebrafish led to profound anaemia without affecting erythroid lineage specification (Nilsson et al, 2009). Two isoforms of TMEM14C were detected in our material: TCONS_00409015 was 3·5 times up‐regulated in RARS compared to NBM, while the expression of TCONS_00409016 was significantly down‐regulated in RARS versus NBM (Fig 3A). Notably, the shorter isoform TCONS_00409016 differs from the other variant in that it has 14 bases (328‐341) missing in the 5′UTR (Figure 3B). An internal ribosome entry site (IRES), a translation initiation alternative to the conventional 5′‐cap translation mechanism, was predicted by UTRdb (Grillo et al, 2010) at position 295‐385 of TMEM14C.

Figure 3.

Figure 3

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Quantification of TMEM14C and TFCP2 transcript splice variants in RARS (n = 5) versus NBM (n = 3). (A) RNA sequencing based analysis shows differential expression of different TCONS corresponding to TMEM14C and TFCP2. (B–C) Top panels show browser view of the exon‐intron structure for TMEM14C and TFCP2, respectively (the red square indicating the differential splicing site). Bottom panel, quantiative polymerase chain reaction detected fold change of the TCONS is shown. (B) In NBM, the TMEM14C isoform TCONS15 was significantly up‐regulated compared to RARS (P = 0·035) while the shorter isoform TCONS16 (missing 14 bp in the 5′UTR) was decreased 1·3 fold in RARS versus NBM (P = 0·035). (C) The levels of TFCP2 transcripts containing exon 6 were significantly lower (P = 0·035) in RARS than NBM, while the isoform TCONS40 was higher expressed in RARS compared to NBM. Delta CT were normalized using GAPDH as reference gene, NBM samples (n = 3) were used as calibrator. Level of statistical significance was assessed using Mann–Whitney test (*P < 0·05). FPKM, fragments per kilobase of exon per million of fragments mapped; FDR, false discovery rate; MDS, myelodysplastic syndrome; RARS, refractory anaemia with ring sideroblasts; NBM, normal bone marrow.

TFCP2 is a transcription factor that activates the transcription of the α‐globin gene, thus regulating the erythroid gene expression (Kang et al, 2005). Among the 3 isoforms found (Fig 3A), TCONS_0012739 showed a skipping of 153 bases (1286–1438) in the sixth exon of the mRNA corresponding to the CP2 DNA binding domain that binds the–α‐globin promoter. CP2 is a major factor in the regulation of globin expression in human and mouse erythroid cells, and CP2 binding to the promoter is essential for the enhanced transcription of globin genes in erythroid differentiation (Chae & Kim, 2003).

We selected TMEM14C and TFCP2 for further splice‐form validation due to their potential relevance to the disease phenotype. We measured the abundance of each splicing isoform in 3 NBM and 5 RARS patients using qPCR. Primers specificity and amplicons identity were validated using Sanger Sequencing (Table SVIII).

In regard to TMEM14C, TCONS_00409015 (referred as TCONS15 in the figure) was significantly up‐regulated in RARS compared to NBM (P = 0·035). By contrast TCONS_00409016 (referred as TCONS16 in the figure) was decreased 1·3‐fold in RARS versus NBM (P = 0·035) (Figure 3B).

For TFCP2 we measured the abundance of transcripts containing exon 6 and interestingly, we observed a 1·3 fold‐decrease in RARS versus NBM (P = 0·035); whereas the expression of TCONS00112740 (referred as TCONS40 in the figure, Taqman probe: Hs_01117310_m1) showed the same trend as in the RNA Sequencing, however inter‐patient variation was high and the comparison was not statistically significant (Fig 3C).

In order to assess the impact of SF3B1 mutations on these erythroid‐related genes, we measured the expression of TMEM14C and TFCP2 splice variants in two additional SF3B1 wild type patients analysed by exome sequencing (Table SIII, data from exome sequencing not shown). With the caveat of the statistical limitation, we observed that TMEM14C TCONS15 was significantly down‐regulated in SF3B1 wild type compared to mutated patients (P = 0·001) (Fig. S1). This indicates that SF3B1 mutations might contribute to ineffective erythropoiesis by altering the splicing of genes involved in haemoglobin syntesis. Functional studies will be needed to establish how these genes cooperate in generating the RARS phenotype.

The additional 16 mis‐spliced genes (Table SVII) were related to various functions, such as DNA replication (DUT), MAPK signalling pathway (MBIP), transcription regulation (ZNF518B, EIF2B4, TGIF2), blood coagulation (PROCR), intracellular trafficking and energy metabolism (ACBD3, SNX3, CYP2S1, NUDT7). Of note, the coverage of ABCB7 for which we previously showed altered exon usage at day 7 and 14 of erythroid culture was suboptimal for analysis of splicing patterns. Taken together, these results show that the inappropriate splicing seems to be closely associated not only with aberrant expression, but also with a dys‐regulation of downstream target genes important for erythroid differentiation.

TLDA analysis confirms data from RNA sequencing and highlights a clear heterogeneity of the RARS cohort

We then used a gene expression approach to study selected genes during early erythroid differentiation (day 0–4) from 7 RARS patients and 4 NBM. The assay included 61 genes that were selected based on pilot RNA sequencing results (data not shown) and previous publications (Pellagatti et al, 2006; Nikpour et al, 2010). TLDA data revealed 20 genes differentially expressed at day 0 and 17 genes at day 4 (P < 0·05) between RARS and NBM (Table SIX). The up‐regulation of TIMD4, ALAS2, CD5L LYVE1, CCL18 and MSR1, observed in the RNA sequencing (Table 1), and CXCL12 (Table SVI) was validated and confirmed by TLDA (Table SIX).

Importantly, several of the genes selected for this assay (ABCB7, ALAS2, APOE, HBB, MFN2, SEPP1) were differentially expressed between RARS and NBM and involved in the defence against oxidative stress (Miyata & Smith, 1996; Saito et al, 1999; Shen et al, 2007; Liesa et al, 2012; Khechaduri et al, 2013). These data corroborate with the up‐regulation of the oxidative phosphorylation pathway observed in the GSEA and suggest that RARS progenitors may be challenged by oxidative stress at an early phase of differentiation.

Principle Component Analysis was performed to identify patterns and variance in the gene expression data obtained by TLDA, which included more RARS patients than in the RNA sequencing analysis. The RARS population showed a heterogeneity at both time points, while NBMs were much more uniform in gene expression, especially at day 0. All samples were SF3B1 mutated (Table SI) and clustered independently from the amino acid substitutions (Fig 4A–B). Furthermore, another PCA highlighted the target genes that contribute to distinguish NBM from RARS both at day 0 (Fig 4C) and day 4 (Fig 4D) which include SEPP1, APOE, HBB and ALAS2.

Figure 4.

Figure 4

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The RARS cohort is heterogeneous and shows defective terminal maturation into erythrocytes. RARS patients (n = 7) and NBM (n = 4) were analysed at day 0 and 4 of erythroid differentiation by Taqman Low Density Array. (A) Principle Component Analysis (PCA) shows a marked heterogeneity in the gene expression of RARS samples (MDS 1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11) compared to only a minimal inter‐individual variation in the NBM population (NBM 16, 18, 19, 20) both at day 0 (B) and at day 4. (C) Genes that contribute to distinguish NBM from RARS are displayed at day 0 (D) and day 4. (E) SF3B1 allele burden was quantified by pyrosequencing at different time points in 5 RARS samples cultured in erythroblast system (Ery). Two patients (MDS 8 and MDS 11) were also cultured in a myeloid culture system (Mye) between days 7–14. Allele burden was stable (± 10%) both during erythroid and myeloid differentiation. (F) SF3B1 allele burden of different cell fractions: BM CD34+, cultured erythroblasts at day 14, GPA+ and reticulocytes from RARS patients (n = 4). There is a 1·5‐fold decrease of the allele burden in the RARS reticulocytes compared to CD34+ cells (P = 0·017) and erythroblast at day 14 (P = 0·033) in addition to a 1·4‐fold decrease when comparing to GPA+ cells (P = 0·011). Level of statistical significance was assessed using paired Student t‐test (*P < 0·05). MDS, myelodysplastic syndrome; RARS, refractory anaemia with ring sideroblasts; NBM, normal bone marrow

Selection against SF3B1 occurs first during terminal maturation into erythrocytes

Mechanisms behind the low reticulocyte count and surviving erythrocytes in RARS have, to our knowledge, not been studied. To test whether SF3B1 mutated erythroid progenitors have a growth disadvantage compared to SF3B1 wildtype cells, we analysed the allele burden of SF3B1 (Table SII) in RARS samples during erythroid differentiation (n = 5) (days 0, 4, 7, 11 and 14) (Nikpour et al, 2010, 2013), two of which were also exposed to myeloid maturation. For these experiments we utilized samples from SF3B1 mutated RARS without need for transfusions or growth factor treatment.

Interestingly, the SF3B1 allele burden was stable (± 10%) during both erythroid and myeloid differentiation (Fig 4E). The pattern was similar in patients with and without transfusion need, i.e. the production or not of erythrocytes did not influence the results. Furthermore, to exclude the possibility that the culture system promoted survival of mutated cells, glycophorin A was used to select GPA+ cells from freshly isolated BM CD34− cells of 7 RARS patients carrying different SF3B1 mutations (H662Q, K700E, N626D, E622D, K666R, T663I). allele burden in the GPA+ fraction was similar (41% ± 5·40SE) to the BMCD34+ and erythroblast D14 fractions previously evaluated (46% ± 4·09SE and 43% ±6·66SE, respectively) (Fig 4F).

We finally assessed SF3B1 allele burden in reticulocytes obtained from non‐transfused RARS subjects with stable anaemia and a median of 47% (33–70) RS of total erythroblasts. We obtained fresh blood from 4 patients (MDS 8, 12, 13, 14) and one healthy control, isolated RNA from reticulocytes and performed SF3B1 mutational analysis using cDNA. Indeed, the mutant cDNA was expressed only in the reticulocytes from the patients and not in the control (Supplementary Figure 2). The SF3B1 allele burden was 1·5‐fold lower in reticulocytes compared to corresponding fresh CD34+ cells (P = 0·017) and cells cultured for 14 days (P = 0·033), and 1·4‐fold lower than in freshly isolated GPA+ cells (P = 0·011). These results imply reduced differentiation of SF3B1 mutated erythroblasts into mature erythrocytes (Fig 4F).

Discussion

To test the hypothesis that SF3B1 mutations in RARS (Papaemmanuil et al, 2011; Yoshida et al, 2011) implicate mRNA abnormalities, which may alter gene function essential for erythroid maturation, we focused this study to SF3B1 mutated RARS, RCMD‐RS and RARS‐T, with or without other candidate mutations (Papaemmanuil et al, 2012) but identified two SF3B1 wild type patients for comparison. We adopted a genome wide approach to evaluate the impact of SF3B1 mutations on the transcriptome and to depict dissimilarities between RARS and NBM that could add to the understanding of the disease phenotype.

RNA sequencing of RARS BM mononuclear (Visconte et al, 2012, 2015) and CD34+ (Dolatshad et al, 2015) cells was previously used to study normal bone marrow, and SF3B1 mutated and wild type patients from different WHO subgroups showing deregulated gene expression and splicing of genes involved in iron homeostasis and mitochondrial function.

By contrast, our study is the first to specifically address aberrancies during erythroid differentiation. Aberrant splicing is thought to play a pivotal role in the pathogenetic mechanism of myeloid malignancies carrying splice factor mutations, but little is known about SF3B1 specific gene targets in RARS pathogenesis. A preliminary report revealed 230 splicing events significantly enriched in CD34+ cells from SF3B1 mutated RARS, of which 90% were caused by misrecognition of the 3′ splice site. Fifty per cent of these sites resulted in frameshift, indicating that SF3B1 mutations simultaneously may cause detrimental consequences in many genes (Shiozawa et al, 2014).

In the present study, we report aberrant splicing of the mitochondrial transporter TMEM14C and the α‐globin transcription factor TFCP2, both regulating erythroid gene expression and involved in haemoglobin synthesis. In particular, the skipping of 150 bases in the CP2 domain that binds the α‐globin promoter may indicate that aberrant splicing affects key genes for erythroid differentiation, suggesting a possible link between splicing and transcription regulation. Furthermore, we detected two isoforms of TMEM14C differentially spliced between RARS and NBM. The shorter isoform, TCONS00409016, has 14 bases missing in the 5′UTR within the predicted internal ribosome entry site (IRES). IRES elements have been shown to be important for translation of specific mRNAs during mitosis, apoptosis and hypoxia (Hellen & Sarnow, 2001). Therefore, a sequence change in the 5′UTR and in the IRES element may affect the translation of TMEM14C, with consequences for mitochondrial function and haemoglobin synthesis (Yien et al, 2014). Interestingly, two SF3B1 wild type patients showed a significantly different pattern with regard to TMEM14C TCONS15, a finding that warrants further investigation. We suggest that the aberrant expression of genes involved in haemoglobin synthesis and the splicing of erythroid‐related genes may play a key role in the ineffective erythropoiesis of RARS. Therfore, it will be very valuable to further unravel the role of TMEM14C and TFCP2 in the ineffective erythropoiesis of RARS.

Furthermore, gene expression data from RNA sequencing and TLDA revealed a marked up‐regulation of haem and haemoglobin genes, a positive enrichment of the oxidative phosphorylation pathway and a down‐regulation of ABC transporters, all essential for mitochondria to execute their functions through the different cellular compartments. These findings, together with ABCB7 down‐regulation during erythroid differentiation of RARS CD34+ cells versus NBM (Boultwood et al, 2008; Nikpour et al, 2013), implicate a mitochondrial dysfunction associated with the accumulation of mitochondrial ferritin (Cazzola et al, 2003). Haem synthesis and mitochondrial respiration are intrinsically coupled by their shared metabolic pathways and mitochondrial location in the cell. The marked up‐regulation of several haemoglobin genes in the RARS transcriptome may be viewed as a compensatory reaction to the defective terminal erythroid maturation with accumulation of iron in mitochondria instead of incorporation into haem. While haemoglobin genes were up‐regulated in RARS CD34+ freshly isolated progenitors, corresponding studies in NBM CD34+ showed that the process of differentiation‐associated haemoglobin accumulation occurred first at day 6 followed by a rapid raise in the ratio between foetal and adult haemoglobin production between day 7 and day 9 (Wojda et al, 2002). Therefore, the early up‐regulation of haemoglobin genes observed in RARS may indicate a compromised haemoglobinization during the subsequent phases of RARS erythropoiesis. The ineffective erythropoiesis, a hallmark of RARS, depicts an erythroid defect associated with decreased erythrocytes production despite increased early erythropoiesis (Tanno & Miller, 2010) and up‐regulation of haemoglobin genes.

RARS is characterized by a failure of erythroid maturation and anaemia (Corey et al, 2007) but the exact stage of maturation at which this defect occurs is poorly understood (Hattangadi et al, 2011). Previous investigations have described apoptotic features of RARS erythroblasts in patient biopsies (Hellstrom‐Lindberg et al, 1997) as well as in erythroid culture systems (Tehranchi et al, 2003, 2005a,b). Interestingly, this does not translate into a decreased proportion of marrow erythroid cells, but rather to erythroid expansion, indicating concomitant stimulation of erythroid proliferation and survival (Nikpour et al, 2013). To explore at which level of differentiation anaemia develops in RARS, we followed the fate of SF3B1 mutated BM progenitors throughout differentiation. We showed that the allele burden of SF3B1 mutated progenitors remained stable during marrow erythroid differentiation (14 days), suggesting that SF3B1 mutations do not inhibit growth and maturation of marrow erythroblasts, in spite of mitochondrial iron accumulation. Conversely, the decreased allele burden in reticulocytes indicates that the real threat to erythropoiesis develops during terminal differentiation to erythrocytes.

We believe that these investigations offer novel insights into the erythroid differentiation process and the mechanisms of anaemia in SF3B1 mutated RARS, providing evidence that aberrant splicing of key genes involved in iron transport and haemoglobin synthesis may alter terminal erythroid maturation. Hence, drugs targeting this process may help to relieve the anaemia of these patients. A potential therapeutic candidate is ACE‐536, which was recently shown to target late stage erythropoiesis in a mouse model of MDS (Suragani et al, 2014) and which preliminary study also has shown efficacy in an early phase 1 trial (Attie et al, 2014) enrolling anaemic RARS patients.

Authors contribution

SC performed experiments and wrote the manuscript. EH‐L designed the study and supervised the writing of the manuscript. LV, SK, PU, JK, MK, TMB, JW provided input on experiments. LV, TS, MD, performed experiments. SK analysed RNA sequencing data, EP, PC, MK, targeted sequencing. MJ, BS, provided clinical and morphological data. All authors approved the final manuscript.

Supporting information

Fig S1. Differences between RARS patients SF3B1 mutated and wild type.

Fig S2. SF3B1 mutational analysis in reticulocytes.

Table SI. List of 42 genes selected for targeted sequencing by Haloplex.

Table SII. Pyrosequencing primers used to quantify SF3B1 allelic burden.

Table SIII. Clinical characteristics of patients at diagnosis and sampling.

Table SIV. Gene annotation cluster of the 710 genes that failed to up‐regulate in RARS.

Table SV. Gene annotation cluster of the 222 genes that failed to down‐regualte in RARS.

Table SVI. Top 20 up and down‐regualted genes between RARS and NBM at day 4.

Table SVII. Mis‐spliced genes in RARS versus NBM at day 0 of the erythoid culture.

Table SVIII. Primers designed to validate splice isoforms by qPCR.

Table SIX. Differentially expressed genes between RARS and NBM by TLDA.

Click here for additional data file. (1.7MB, pdf)

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the National Genomics Infrastructure and SciLife Laboratory through Uppsala Genome Centre and UPPMAX (b2013263) for the RNA sequencing computation analysis. This study was supported by grants from the Swedish Cancer Society, the Cancer Society in Stockholm (EH‐L) and by the Scientific Research Council (EH‐L and JK). SC is the recipient of a PhD fellowship from Karolinska Institutet.

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Supplementary Materials

Fig S1. Differences between RARS patients SF3B1 mutated and wild type.

Fig S2. SF3B1 mutational analysis in reticulocytes.

Table SI. List of 42 genes selected for targeted sequencing by Haloplex.

Table SII. Pyrosequencing primers used to quantify SF3B1 allelic burden.

Table SIII. Clinical characteristics of patients at diagnosis and sampling.

Table SIV. Gene annotation cluster of the 710 genes that failed to up‐regulate in RARS.

Table SV. Gene annotation cluster of the 222 genes that failed to down‐regualte in RARS.

Table SVI. Top 20 up and down‐regualted genes between RARS and NBM at day 4.

Table SVII. Mis‐spliced genes in RARS versus NBM at day 0 of the erythoid culture.

Table SVIII. Primers designed to validate splice isoforms by qPCR.

Table SIX. Differentially expressed genes between RARS and NBM by TLDA.

Click here for additional data file. (1.7MB, pdf)

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