Table 1.
Characteristics of cases and controls for all-cause mortality and overdose mortality.
| All Cause Cases (n=699) |
Controls (n=699) |
OR (95% CI) | P-value | Overdose Cases (n=380) |
Controls (n=380) |
OR (95% CI) |
P- value |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age, mean years (SD) | 41.4 (11.9) | 41.4 (11.9) | a | 0.980 | 40 (9.3) | 39.9 (9.3) | a | 0.920 |
| Sex, n (%) | 1.000 | 1.000 | ||||||
| Men | 611 (87.4) | 611 (87.4) | a | 304 (80.0) | 304 (80.0) | a | ||
| Women | 88 (12.6) | 88 (12.6) | 76 (20.0) | 76 (20.0) | ||||
| Release year, n (%) | a | 1.000 | a | 1.000 | ||||
| 1999 | 33 (4.7) | 33 (4.7) | 21 (5.5) | 21 (5.5) | ||||
| 2000 | 111 (15.9) | 111 (15.9) | 40 (10.5) | 40 (10.5) | ||||
| 2001 | 81 (11.6) | 81 (11.6) | 41 (10.8) | 41 (10.8) | ||||
| 2002 | 70 (10.0) | 70 (10.0) | 39 (10.3) | 39 (10.3) | ||||
| 2003 | 91 (13.0) | 91 (13.0) | 37 (9.7) | 37 (9.7) | ||||
| 2004 | 72 (10.3) | 72 (10.3) | 37 (9.7) | 37 (9.7) | ||||
| 2005 | 72 (10.3) | 72 (10.3) | 48 (12.6) | 48 (12.6) | ||||
| 2006 | 70 (10.0) | 70 (10.0) | 30 (7.9) | 30 (7.9) | ||||
| 2007 | 40 (5.7) | 40 (5.7) | 39 (10.3) | 39 (10.3) | ||||
| 2008 | 41 (5.9) | 41 (5.9) | 30 (7.9) | 30 (7.9) | ||||
| 2009 | 18 (2.6) | 18 (2.6) | 18 (4.7) | 18 (4.7) | ||||
| Race/ethnicity, n (%) | 0.084 | |||||||
| Non-Hispanic White | 493 (70.5) | 443 (63.4) | Reference | 301 (79.2) | 242 (63.7) | Reference | ||
| Non-Hispanic African American | 127 (18.2) | 129 (18.5) | 0.90 (0.69, 1.18) | 0.443 | 51 (13.4) | 76 (20.0) | 0.53 (0.35, 0.79) | 0.002 |
| Non-Hispanic American Indian | 0.38 (0.17, 0.88) | 0.024 | 0.87 (0.34, 2.22) | 0.770 | ||||
| Hispanic/Latino | 53 (7.6) | 83 (11.9) | 0.57 (0.39, 0.83) | 0.003 | 15 (3.9) | 41 (10.8) | 0.30 (0.16, 0.56) | <0.001 |
| Non-Hispanic other race | 26 (3.7) | 44 (6.3) | 0.65 (0.34, 1.23) | 0.184 | 13 (3.4) | 21 (5.5) | 0.27 (0.08, 0.85) | 0.025 |
|
Length of incarceration, mean years
(SD) |
1.7 (2.6) | 2.2 (3.4) | 0.92 (0.88, 0.96) | <0.001 | 1.3 (3.0) | 1.8 (2.9) | 0.93 (0.87, 0.99) | 0.025 |
| Education, mean years (SD) | 10.6 (2.3) | 10.6 (2.6) | 1.00 (0.96, 1.04) | 0.973 | 10.7 (2.0) | 10.7 (2.4) | 1.00 (0.94, 1.06) | 0.936 |
| GED obtained in prison, n (%) | 0.004 | 0.174 | ||||||
| No | 368 (52.6) | 420 (60.1) | Reference | 198 (52.1) | 217 (57.1) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 331 (47.4) | 279 (39.9) | 1.38 (1.11, 1.72) | 182 (47.9) | 163 (42.9) | 1.22 (0.92, 1.61) | ||
| Homeless at release, n (%) | <0.001 | 0.007 | ||||||
| No | 587 (84.0) | 631 (90.3) | Reference | 320 (84.2) | 345 (90.8) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 112 (16.0) | 68 (9.7) | 1.81 (1.30, 2.53) | 60 (15.8) | 35 (9.2) | 1.86 (1.19, 2.92) | ||
| Had children, n (%) | 0.015 | 0.007 | ||||||
| No | 264 (37.8) | 223 (31.9) | Reference | 149 (39.2) | 115 (30.3) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 435 (62.2) | 476 (68.1) | 0.75 (0.59, 0.94) | 231 (60.8) | 265 (69.7) | 0.65 (0.47, 0.89) | ||
| Custody level, n (%) | 0.093 | 0.176 | ||||||
| Maximum/Medium | 127 (18.2) | 104 (14.9) | Reference | 39 (10.3) | 51 (13.4) | Reference | ||
| Minimal | 572 (81.8) | 595 (85.1) | 0.78 (0.59, 1.04) | 341 (89.7) | 329 (86.6) | 1.36 (0.87, 2.14) | ||
| Military service, n (%) | 0.085 | 0.413 | ||||||
| No | 583 (83.4) | 561 (80.3) | Reference | 333 (87.6) | 326 (85.8) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 116 (16.6) | 138 (19.7) | 0.77 (0.56, 1.04) | 47 (12.4) | 54 (14.2) | 0.83 (0.52, 1.31) | ||
| Married, n (%) | 0.057 | 0.197 | ||||||
| No | 599 (85.7) | 573 (82.0) | Reference | 338 (88.9) | 326 (85.8) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 100 (14.3) | 126 (18.0) | 0.75 (0.56, 1.01) | 42 (11.1) | 54 (14.2) | 0.76 (0.49, 1.16) | ||
| Visits during incarceration, n (%) | 0.009 | 0.541 | ||||||
| No | 525 (75.1) | 482 (69.0) | Reference | 293 (77.1) | 286 (75.3) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 174 (24.9) | 217 (31.0) | 0.72 (0.57, 0.92) | 87 (22.9) | 94 (24.7) | 0.90 (0.64, 1.27) | ||
| Drug possession-related arrest, n (%) | 0.546 | 0.137 | ||||||
| No | 340 (48.6) | 351 (50.2) | Reference | 156 (41.1) | 176 (46.3) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 359 (51.4) | 348 (49.8) | 1.07 (0.86, 1.33) | 224 (58.9) | 204 (53.7) | 1.25 (0.93, 1.68) | ||
| Substance dependence by screen, n (%) | 0.005 | <0.001 | ||||||
| No | 145 (20.7) | 187 (26.8) | Reference | 38 (10.0) | 92 (24.2) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 554 (79.3) | 512 (73.2) | 1.46 (1.12, 1.90) | 342 (90.0) | 288 (75.8) | 2.86 (1.88, 4.37) | ||
| History of injection drug use, n (%) | <0 .001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| No | 326 (46.6) | 437 (62.5) | Reference | 99 (26.1) | 213 (56.1) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 373 (53.4) | 262 (37.5) | 2.11 (1.66, 2.68) | 281 (73.9) | 167 (43.9) | 3.48 (2.51, 4.83) | ||
| History of heroin use, n (%) | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| No | 398 (56.9) | 504 (72.1) | Reference | 126 (33.2) | 271 (71.3) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 301 (43.1) | 195 (27.9) | 2.03 (1.60, 2.57) | 254 (66.8) | 109 (28.7) | 5.53 (3.80, 8.06) | ||
|
History of pharmaceutical opioid use, n
(%) |
0.013 | <0.001 | ||||||
| No | 597 (85.4) | 628 (89.8) | Reference | 295 (77.6) | 337 (88.7) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 102 (14.6) | 74 (10.2) | 1.51 (1.09, 2.08) | 85 (22.4) | 43 (11.3) | 2.20 (1.48, 3.28) | ||
| History of tobacco use, n (%) | <0 .001 | |||||||
| No | 80 (11.4) | 136 (19.5) | Reference | 28 (7.4) | 52 (13.7) | Reference | 0.004 | |
| Yes | 619 (88.6) | 563 (80.5) | 1.89 (1.39, 2.56) | 352 (92.6) | 328 (86.3) | 2.14 (1.28, 3.60) | ||
|
Substance that causes most serious
problems, n (%) |
||||||||
| None | 364 (52.1) | 360 (51.5) | Reference | 185 (48.7) | 205 (53.9) | Reference | ||
| Alcohol | 91 (13.0) | 100 (14.3) | 0.91 (0.66, 1.27) | 0.588 | 29 (7.6) | 39 (10.3) | 0.74 (0.42, 1.31) | 0.303 |
| Cocaine, other stimulants, inhalants | 123 (17.6) | 155 (22.2) | 0.78 (0.58, 1.06) | 0.118 | 62 (16.3) | 97 (25.5) | 0.72 (0.48, 1.08) | 0.116 |
| Marijuana | 30 (4.3) | 37 (5.3) | 0.79 (0.48, 1.33) | 0.380 | 9 (2.4) | 17 (4.5) | 0.57 (0.24, 1.35) | 0.200 |
| Opiates and sedatives | 91 (13.0) | 47 (6.7) | 2.04 (1.34, 3.10) | <0.001 | 95 (25.0) | 22 (5.8) | 4.83 (2.78, 8.37) | <0.001 |
|
Substance abuse treatment in prison
during index incarceration, n (%) |
0.005 | 0.051 | ||||||
| No | 531 (76.0) | 487 (69.7) | Reference | 284 (74.7) | 260 (68.4) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 168 (24.0) | 212 (30.3) | 0.70 (0.54, 0.90) | 96 (25.3) | 120 (31.6) | 0.72 (0.52, 1.00) | ||
|
Substance abuse treatment in prison during
prior incarceration, n (%) |
<0.001 | 0.003 | ||||||
| No | 463 (66.2) | 527 (75.4) | Reference | 214 (56.3) | 253 (66.6) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 236 (33.8) | 172 (24.6) | 1.69 (1.31, 2.18) | 166 (43.7) | 127 (33.4) | 1.59 (1.17, 2.16) | ||
|
Drug possession infraction in prison, n
(%) |
0.069 | 0.005 | ||||||
| No | 619 (88.6) | 639 (91.4) | Reference | 323 (85.0) | 348 (91.6) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 80 (11.4) | 60 (8.6) | 1.40 (0.97, 2.01) | 57 (15.0) | 32 (8.4) | 1.96 (1.22, 3.15) | ||
|
Paraphernalia possession infraction in
prison, n (%) |
0.979 | |||||||
| No | 694 (99.3) | 699 (100.0) | Reference | 378 (99.5) | 380 (0.0) | Reference | 0.980 | |
| Yes | 5 (0.7) | 0 (0.0) | N/A | 2 (0.5) | 0 (0.0) | N/A | ||
| Used drugs in prison, n (%) | 0.592 | 0.184 | ||||||
| No | 648 (92.7) | 653 (93.4) | Reference | 343 (90.3) | 353 (92.9) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 51 (7.3) | 46 (6.6) | 1.12 (0.74, 1.71) | 37 (9.7) | 27 (7.1) | 1.43 (0.84, 2.44) | ||
| HIV, n (%) | 0.451 | 1.000 | ||||||
| No | 683 (97.7) | 687 (98.3) | Reference | 374 (98.4) | 374 (98.4) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 16 (2.3) | 12 (1.7) | 1.33 (0.63, 2.82) | 6 (1.6) | 6 (1.6) | 1.00 (0.32, 3.10) | ||
| Asthma, n (%) | 0.024 | |||||||
| No | 596 (85.3) | 614 (87.8) | Reference | 330 (86.8) | 337 (88.7) | Reference | 0.420 | |
| Yes | 103 (14.7) | 85 (12.2) | 1.22 (0.92, 1.71) | 50 (13.2) | 43 (11.3) | 1.21 (0.77, 1.90) | ||
| COPD, n (%) | 0.024 | 0.277 | ||||||
| No | 621 (88.8) | 645 (92.3) | Reference | 349 (91.8) | 356 (93.7) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 78 (11.2) | 54 (7.7) | 1.55 (1.06, 2.26) | 31 (8.2) | 24 (6.3) | 1.41 (0.76, 2.63) | ||
| Cirrhosis during incarceration, n (%) | <0.001 | 0.220 | ||||||
| No | 671 (96.0) | 693 (99.1) | Reference | 373 (98.2) | 377 (99.2) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 28 (4.0) | 6 (0.9) | 4.67 (1.93, 11.27) | 7 (1.8) | 3 (0.8) | 2.33 (0.60, 9.02) | ||
| Hepatitis C, n (%) | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| No | 484 (69.2) | 561 (80.3) | Reference | 220 (57.9) | 291 (76.6) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 215 (30.8) | 138 (19.7) | 1.97 (1.51, 2.59) | 160 (42.1) | 89 (23.4) | 2.82 (1.96, 4.06) | ||
| Pain during incarceration, n (%) | 0.825 | 0.919 | ||||||
| No | 127 (18.2) | 124 (17.7) | Reference | 61 (16.1) | 62 (16.3) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 572 (81.8) | 575 (82.3) | 0.97 (0.73, 1.29) | 319 (83.9) | 318 (83.7) | 1.02 (0.69, 1.52) | ||
|
Narcotic prescriptions in 60 days before
release, n (%) |
0.075 | 0.014 | ||||||
| No | 629 (90.0) | 648 (92.7) | Reference | 325 (85.5) | 347 (91.3) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 70 (10.0) | 51 (7.3) | 1.40 (0.97, 2.04) | 55 (14.5) | 33 (8.7) | 1.79 (1.12, 2.84) | ||
| History of depression, n (%) | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| No | 379 (54.2) | 438 (62.7) | Reference | 177 (46.6) | 228 (60.0) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 320 (45.8) | 261 (37.3) | 1.51 (1.19, 1.91) | 203 (53.4) | 152 (40.0) | 1.89 (1.37, 2.61) | ||
| History of panic disorder, n (%) | 0.017 | <0.001 | ||||||
| No | 34 (4.9) | 17 (2.4) | Reference | 345 (90.8) | 368 (96.8) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 665 (95.1) | 682 (97.6) | 2.06 (1.14, 3.75) | 35 (9.2) | 12 (3.2) | 3.56 (1.70, 7.45) | ||
| History of bipolar disorder n (%) | <0.001 | 0.003 | ||||||
| No | 580 (83.0) | 625 (89.4) | Reference | 291 (76.6) | 324 (85.3) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 119 (17.0) | 74 (10.6) | 1.79 (1.29, 2.47) | 89 (23.4) | 56 (14.7) | 1.79 (1.22, 2.61) | ||
| History of schizophrenia, n (%) | 0.013 | 0.017 | ||||||
| No | 645 (92.3) | 667 (95.4) | Reference | 341 (89.7) | 358 (94.2) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 54 (7.7) | 32 (4.6) | 1.81 (1.13, 2.90) | 39 (10.3) | 22 (5.8) | 2.06 (1.14, 3.75) | ||
|
History of suicide attempt before
incarceration, n (%) |
0.001 | 0.292 | ||||||
| No | 687 (98.3) | 689 (98.6) | Reference | 370 (97.4) | 374 (98.4) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 12 (1.7) | 10 (1.4) | 1.59 (1.20, 2.12) | 10 (2.6) | 6 (1.6) | 1.80 (0.60, 5.37) | ||
|
Psychiatric medications in 60 days
before release, n (%) |
<0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| No | 497 (71.1) | 594 (85.0) | Reference | 249 (65.5) | 308 (81.1) | Reference | ||
| Yes | 202 (28.9) | 105 (15.0) | 2.62 (1.94, 3.52) | 131 (34.5) | 72 (18.9) | 2.37 (1.66, 3.39) |
a
Matching criteria