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. 2016 May 26;6:26817. doi: 10.1038/srep26817

Vaginal Dysbiosis from an Evolutionary Perspective

Natalia Schlabritz-Loutsevitch 1,a, Scott E Gygax 2, Edward Dick Jr 3, William L Smith 2, Cathy Snider 3, Gene Hubbard 4, Gary Ventolini 1
PMCID: PMC4880931  PMID: 27226349

Abstract

Evolutionary approaches are powerful tools for understanding human disorders. The composition of vaginal microbiome is important for reproductive success and has not yet been characterized in the contexts of social structure and vaginal pathology in non-human primates (NHPs). We investigated vaginal size, vulvovaginal pathology and the presence of the main human subtypes of Lactobacillus spp./ BV-related species in the vaginal microflora of baboons (Papio spp.). We performed morphometric measurements of external and internal genitalia (group I, n = 47), analyzed pathology records of animals from 1999–2015 (group II, n = 64 from a total of 12,776), and evaluated vaginal swabs using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (group III, n = 14). A total of 68 lesions were identified in 64 baboons. Lactobacillus iners, Gardnerella vaginalis, Atopobium vaginae, Megasphaera I, and Megasphaera II were not detected. L. jensenii, L. crispatus, and L. gasseri were detected in 2/14 (14.2%), 1/14 (7.1%), and 1/14 (7.1%) samples, respectively. BVAB2 was detected in 5/14 (35.7%) samples. The differences in the vaginal milieu between NHP and humans might be the factor associated with human-specific pattern of placental development and should be taken in consideration in NHP models of human pharmacology and microbiology.

Microbial involvement is essential for the reproductive success of the host1. The composition of the human vaginal microbiome is critical for maintaining the first line of defense against pathogens2. The landscape of the vaginal microbiome depends on socio-economic conditions, country of origin, promiscuity, hormonal status, and other factors3. An abnormal microbiome composition is associated with such pathological conditions as bacterial vaginosis, vulvar pain4, susceptibility to sexually transmitted diseases (STD) and non-sexually transmitted diseases, infertility and adverse pregnancy outcomes5.

Evolutionary approaches are powerful tools for understanding human disorders. Baboons (Papio spp., an Old World non-human primate (NHP)) are extensively evaluated and used in reproductive research6,7. A key difference between the vaginal microbiomes of human and NHPs is the universal dominance of lactobacilli in humans, in contrast to the relative paucity of these species in NHPs8,9. However, the subtypes of the vaginal microbiome have not yet been characterized in the contexts of social family structure and vaginal pathology in Papio spp. This information is essential to understanding the pathophysiology of human disorders and to develop effective treatment strategies. Although one of the important factors influencing microbial diversity is vaginal size8,10, there have been no reports on this parameter in baboons. In the present study, we aimed to investigate vaginal size, vulvovaginal pathology and the presence of the main human subtypes of Lactobacillus spp.–L. crispatus, L. gasseri, L. jensenii and L. iners11–in the vaginal microflora of baboons.

Results

Morphometry of baboon external genitalia

The mean diameter of the introitus was 1.33 ± 0.6 cm, the mean distance from the cervix to the introitus was 6.88 ± 1.7 cm, and the mean distance from the introitus to the fornix was 7.45 ± 1.7 cm. The mean ano-genital distance was 2.38 ± 1.2 cm (all data are presented as the mean ± SEM).

Pathology of the vagina and vulva

A total of 68 lesions were observed in 64 baboons (from total n = 12,776, where “n” is the total number of morphologic diagnoses in baboons at Texas Biomedical Research institute from 1999 through 2015.) (Table 1). The most common pathological findings were vaginal stenosis (n = 19), vulvar ulcers (n = 19) and inflammatory changes (vaginitis (n = 11) and vulvitis (n = 6)). Vaginal stenosis, vulvar ulcers, vulvitis, vaginal ulcers, and vulvar strictures were presumed to be sequelae of Herpesvirus papio 2 (HPV2) infection12,13,14,15 and combined represented 69% (n = 47) of total lesions observed. Only one case of vaginitis was cultured and yielded beta-hemolytic Streptococcus spp. Four neoplasms were identified: two papillomas and one myxoma in the vagina and a squamous cell carcinoma involving the vulva.

Table 1. Lesions of the vulva and vagina in the baboon colony housed at the Southwest National Primate Research Center (1999–2015).

Organ No. cases % of cases
Vagina    
Constriction/Stenosis/Stricture 19 45.24
Vaginitis 11 26.19
Ulcer 4 9.52
Hyperplasia 2 4.76
Papilloma 2 4.76
Prolapse 2 4.76
Adenosis 1 2.38
Myxoma 1 2.38
Total 42 100
Vulva    
Ulcer 17 65.38
Vulvitis 6 23.08
Histoplasma duboisii 1 3.85
Squamous cell carcinoma 1 3.85
Stricture 1 3.85
Total 26 100
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Note: With the exception of a single biopsy (vaginal papilloma), all diagnoses were made at necropsy. Four animals had two diagnoses each at necropsy: two baboons had vaginitis and vulvitis, one animal had a vaginal ulcer and a vulvar ulcer, and one had vaginitis and vaginal stenosis.

Lactobacillus and Bacteroides species

The age, reproductive history, housing, and PCR findings for the baboons from which vaginal swabs were collected and evaluated by PCR analysis for lactobacilli and pathological bacterial subspecies are summarized in Table 2. L. iners, Gardnerella vaginalis, Atopobium vaginae, Megasphaera I and Megasphaera II were not detected in the specimens studied. L. jensenii, L. crispatus, and L. gasseri were detected in 2/14 (14.2%), 1/14 (7.1%), and 1/14 (7.1%) samples, respectively. BVAB2 was detected in 5/14 (35.7%) samples. Four BVAB2-positive animals were housed in the same harem cage. The tuf PCR was negative for other Lactobacilli spp.

Table 2. Age, reproductive history, housing, and PCR findings for baboons with vaginal swabs.
  Age (years) Number of pregnancies/stillbirths Number of females in the group at the time of analysis1 Pregnant (yes/no) Lactobacillus spp.*** Human BV associated species****
1 6 1/0 11* yes none none
2 16 4/0 11* no L. crispatus none
3 12 6/0 11* yes none none
4 12 7/0 11* yes none none
5 9 5/0 11* no none none
6 15 2/0 11* no L. jensenii,L. gasseri BVAB2
7 5 0/0 16** no none BVAB2
8 12 3/0 16** no none none
9 15 6/0 16** n/a none BVAB2
10 16 6/2 16** yes L. gasseri none
11 14 2/0 16** no none BVAB2
12 11 5/0 16** no none none
13 17 6/0 N/A Yes, early abortion none none
14 14 4/0 N/A yes none BVAB2
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1The animal population was split between two harem cages, animals marked * were housed in one cage, animals marked ** were housed in another cage.

***L. crispatus, L. gasseri, L. jensenii, L. iners.

****BV– bacterial vaginosis associated bacteria. Gardnerella vaginalis, Atopobium vaginae, Megasphaera type I, Megasphaera type II, and Bacterial Vaginosis Associated Bacterium 2 (BVAB2).

Discussion

Host-microbiome interactions are critical for host development. The reproductive evolution of the host is accompanied by microbial evolution and vice versa16. Numerous examples of this microbial evolution have recently been reported for baboons and include Papio-unique Brucella sub-species17,18 and papilloma and HPV219. The definition of “normal” vaginal microbial communities differs among species. A healthy human vaginal environment is characterized by the dominance of lactobacilli20,21. These lactobacilli transform glycogen into lactic acid, generating an acidic environment22 and forming protective biofilms23 that prevent the colonization and proliferation of potentially pathogenic organisms.

NHPs may rely on different defense mechanisms for protection against sexually transmitted diseases. The differences between humans and NHPs include the vaginal pH (acidic in humans (pH < 4.5)22 and acidic-alkaline in baboons (pH = 5.5–6.524), the anatomy of the utero-cervical junction (sharp anterflexio in women compared to “scarcely noticeable” ventroflexio in baboons)25, and increased diversity of microbial communities in baboons compared to humans24. Interestingly, microbial diversity in primates is determined by the size of the vagina (or baculum length)8. The length of the vagina is 10–12 cm in humans26 and approximately 7 cm in baboons in our study. The discrepancies between published observations (decreased microbial diversity despite increased vaginal size in humans) could be explained, among others things, by the great ability for the vagina to stretch25 and increase vaginal size due to sexual swelling27 in baboons. Additionally, social structure and copulative behavior of baboons and humans also differ28. Baboons live in harem communities (one male and typically 10–15 females), and males require several vaginal introductions before ejaculation. In general, the specific social structure and higher promiscuity might have been important for promoting species development29,30. A comparison of the general distribution of parasites between NHP and humans revealed a relative abundance of fungi and bacteria (22% and 38%, respectively) in humans compared to NHPs (3% and 10%, respectively)31. These differences in the overall microbial landscape may be responsible for the development of specific local, including vaginal, protective mechanisms. Interestingly, the differences in vaginal lactobacilli between baboons and humans are not accompanied by differences in vaginal fungal composition32.

The histological and cytological changes of the vagina during the menstrual cycle are similar in humans and baboons33, including an increased level of glycogen-enriched cells during ovulation33,34. Differences in the structural morphology of the vagina include epithelial maturation (which occurs in the early proliferative phase in baboons but the ovulation phase in humans), the absence of erythrocytes in the vaginal smear around ovulation35 and the presence of cornification of the vaginal epithelium in 10% of baboon specimens36; in humans, hyperkeratosis represents a metaplastic change37. In Papio spp. the microbial milieu does not change upon the administration of exogenous progestins and is independent of menstrual cycle phases9,24, whereas levonorgestrel therapy and menstrual cycle phases are associated with changes in microbial communities in humans38,39. Evolutionary pressure may have resulted in the formation of hormone-sensitive microbial communities.

The frequencies of vaginal and vulvar pathologies among all pathological diagnoses in baboons are 0.6% and 0.04% (respectively)40. In our study, the most common pathology was vaginal stricture (45%), presumably associated with HPV2 (Simian agent 8)12. The disease, which is the most common STD in captive baboons, has devastating consequences in Papio spp., preventing intercoitus14. However, recent publications have suggested that these lesions may also be associated with Treponema infection41,42. The course of infection with herpesvirus simplex is not as devastating in humans43, possibly due to the protective role of L. crispatus during viral infection. Conversely, the clinical course of infection with Treponema pallidum in baboons41,44,45 is mild compared to that in humans. Baboons have not been reported to have STDs caused by Ureaplasma, Gardnerella vaginalis, Atopobium vaginae, or Megasphaera I. In agreement with this observation, we did not detect these four species in our sample set. Interestingly, in contrast to humans, baboons do not exhibit increased numbers of infection-related stillbirths and preterm births25,46.

The abundance of lactobacilli in our study (21.5%) is in agreement with a previous report9 in which lactobacilli were detected in 16% of wild-caught baboons but lower than the rate reported by Skangalis et al. (47.4%)47. L. crispatus is one of the most frequently detected phylotypes in the human vaginal microbiome (85%)11, but is among the lactobacilli with the lowest abundances in baboons8. In agreement with this observation, L. crispatus was detected in only one animal in our study (7.1%), a young female in a harem cage of 11 females. Yildirim et al. detected L. crispatus in olive but not yellow baboons8. The species in our study are hybrids of yellow, olive, and hamadryas baboons; therefore, it is difficult to draw conclusions regarding the specificity of subspecies. In Rhesus macaques (another Old World NHP), the abundance of L. crispatus is much lower (0.65%)48, and L. johnsonii49 and L. reuteri48 are predominant. In humans, L. crispatus protects against G. vaginalis50, which has not been detected in the baboon vaginal microbiome. Remarkably, the genome of G. vaginalis includes the tetracycline resistance gene (tet(M)). This gene is also detected in N. gonorrhoeae and U. urealyticum, vaginal microbial species that are present in humans but absent in baboons51. However, the tetM gene was the most abundant gene in vaginal swabs of wild and captive baboons52. The source of this gene remains to be elucidated. L. crispatus protects against viral infection50,53. Viral infection of cytotrophoblasts decrease their invasive capacity54, leading to shallow trophoblast invasion. Trophoblast invasion in baboons is shallow in contrast to deep invasion in humans55. In humans, the abundance of L. crispatus may decrease the viral load and thus promote trophoblast invasion (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Comparison of the vaginal environment and selected reproductive differences between baboons (Papio spp.) and humans.

Figure 1

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Blue represents an acidic and red represents an alkaline environment (modified from63).

According to a phylogenetic tree, L. iners and L. gasseri are related species56; however, L. iners was not detected in the samples in our study, whereas L. gasseri was present in 2/14 samples. In macaques, L. iners was not detected, but L. gasseri was present in 2/304 samples, and the most common was L. johnsonii (85/30448), which is related to L. iners and L. gasseri. L. iners has the shortest genome57 and is dominant in Caucasian/Asian women (34.1%)58, whereas L. gasseri is present at a much lower abundance (6.3%)58. Considering the evolution of macaques, baboons and hominids59,60, the absence of L. iners might be the result of intra-species evolution.

In humans, bacterial vaginosis is associated with an abundance of Megasphaera type I, BVAB2, Gardnerella vaginalis and Atopobium vaginae61. Megasphaera type I, BVAB2, and G. vaginalis are rare or absent in sexually unexposed women. In our study, we did not detect G. vaginalis, Atopobium vaginae, and Megasphaera type I in baboons. In agreement with observations in humans, the majority of BVAB2-positive animals (four out of five) were multiparous 14- to 15-year-old animals, an age comparable to perimenopause in humans62. Only one nulliparous young animal was BVAB2-positive, which was attributed to the housing of this baboon in the harem cage with the other BVAB2-positive animals. The diagnosis of BV is non-existent in NHPs. Interestingly, the majority of the vaginal anaerobic flora in baboons is represented by the common species of BV in humans (Sneathia from the phylum Fusobacteria24). These microbes produce short chain fatty acids (SCFAs)63, volatile substances, which stimulate the mating behavior of NHPs64. Lactobacilli and an acidic environment in the vagina may be predisposing factors for the acquisition of BV in baboons.

In conclusion: our study confirmed the low abundance of human-specific Lactobacillus spp. in baboons. The absence of L. iners, Gardnerella vaginalis, Atopobium vaginae, and Megasphaera I in the vaginal microflora of Papio spp. is a novel finding. The presence of lactobacilli might indicate a predisposition to BV in NHPs.

Materials and Methods

Animal characteristics, housing and handling

Overall study design

This study included three groups of baboon, hybrids of yellow, olive, and hamadryas baboons (Papio spp.). In group I, morphometric measurements of external and internal external genitalia were obtained during bi-annual health checks (n = 16) or necropsy (n = 31). In group II, animals with available pathology records on pathological vulvar and vaginal changes were retrospectively analyzed (n = 64). In group III, vaginal swabs from baboons obtained during health exams were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (n = 14).

Group composition and animal housing

Group I. Baboons were housed in two open-top 6-acre metal and concrete corrals with dirt floors and gang cages with concrete floors at the SNPRC (Southwest National Primate Research Center, Texas Biomedical Research Institute) as previously described)65 Group II. Pathology records of animals housed at SNPRC from 1999–2015 were retrospectively analyzed. Group III. Vaginal swabs of 14 baboons (Papio spp.) housed in harem cages at the SNPRC were collected during routine reproductive examinations (n = 12) or necropsy (n = 2). All animal care procedures were approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of the Texas Biomedical Research Institute, which is accredited by the International Association for the Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care, in accordance with the approved guidelines.

Morphometry of external genitalia

Animals were sedated via intramuscular injection of ketamine (10 mg/kg) as described previously65. The ano-genital distance was measured with a measuring tape from the middle of the anus to the middle of the introitus. The diameter of the introitus was measured from the upper to the lower pole (Fig. 2A). During necropsy, the length of the vagina was measured using a ruler from the introitus to the cervix (introitus to cervix distance) and to the left fornix (introitus to fornix distance) (Fig.2B).

Figure 2.

Figure 2

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External (A) and internal (B) measurements, performed in baboons (Papio spp).

Collection of vaginal specimens

Vaginal specimens were collected using sterile cotton swabs after the perineal skin was cleaned with Betadine solution and rinsed several times with sterile saline solution. Specimens were stored at −80 °C until further evaluation (8–9 years).

Polymerase chain reaction

A real-time PCR (qPCR) assay was used to detect and determine the relative concentrations of the vaginal flora as described previously66,67. The qPCR assays identified vaginal Lactobacillus spp., including L. crispatus, L. gasseri, L. iners, and L. jensenii. The assays also detected facultative anaerobic bacteria (Gardnerella vaginalis, Atopobium vaginae (AV), bacterial vaginosis-associated bacteria (BVAB2), and Megasphaera I and II). qPCR analysis of gene transcripts was performed using a Bio-Rad iCycler RealTime PCR machine and 2× Taqman Master Mix. RNA was extracted using TRIzol (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). Primer probe sets were designed in-house using the software packages Primer ExpressTM v2.0 (Applied Biosystems) and Beacon Designer v2.0 (PREMIER Biosoft International). Additionally PCR, detecting tuf gene, encoding elongation factor Tu, from 33 strains representing 17 Lactobacillus gene target was performed68.

Additional Information

How to cite this article: Schlabritz-Loutsevitch, N. et al. Vaginal Dysbiosis from an Evolutionary Perspective. Sci. Rep. 6, 26817; doi: 10.1038/srep26817 (2016).

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the help and dedication of the many excellent animal caretakers, technicians, and veterinarians of the Southwest National Primate Center. This investigation was supported by Southwest National Primate Research Center grant P51 RR013986 from the National Center for Research Resources and the National Institutes of Health, which are currently supported by the Office of Research Infrastructure Programs through P51 OD011133. This investigation was conducted in facilities constructed with support from the Office of Research Infrastructure Programs (ORIP) of the National Institutes of Health through grant numbers C06 RR015456 and C06 RR014578. The research was also supported by a New Investigator (UTHSCSA) grant and Southwest National Primate Center Pilot study grant to N.S-L., NIH grant HD21350 to Dr. Peter Nathanielsz (UTHSC—San Antonio) and start-up funds to N.S-L and G.V.

Footnotes

Author Contributions N.S.-L. designed the study, preformed morphometric measurements, specimen collection, and wrote the manuscript. S.E.G. and W.L.S. performed molecular biology analyses and participated in writing the manuscript. E.D. and G.H. performed pathology evaluation, prepared figures, and participated in writing the manuscript. C.S. performed pathology work, analysed animals’ history and husbandry, and edited the manuscript. G.V. designed the study and participated in writing the manuscript. All authors reviewed and approved the manuscript.

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