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. 2015 Oct 1;53(4):1750–1758. doi: 10.1007/s13197-015-1967-0

Nutritional and therapeutic perspectives of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.): a review

Rahman Ullah 1, M Nadeem 1,✉, A Khalique 2, M Imran 3, S Mehmood 4, A Javid 5, J Hussain 4
PMCID: PMC4926888  PMID: 27413203

Abstract

The ancient grain is becoming enormously popular in modern food regimen in many countries; the higher proportion of α-linolenic acid makes chia the superb source of omega-3 fatty (about 65 % of the oil content). Omega-3 fatty acid has been associated with a large number of physiological functions in human body. Chia seed is a potential source of antioxidants with the presence of chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, myricetin, quercetin, and kaempferol which are believed to have cardiac, hepatic protective effects, anti-ageing and anti-carcinogenic characteristics. It is also a great source of dietary fibre which is beneficial for the digestive system and controlling diabetes mellitus with higher concentration of beneficial unsaturated fatty acids, gluten free protein, vitamin, minerals and phenolic compounds. Therapeutic effects of chia in the control of diabetes, dyslipidaemia, hypertension, as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-blood clotting, laxative, antidepressant, antianxiety, analgesic, vision and immune improver is scientifically established.

Keywords: Chia, Omega-3 fatty acids, Protein, Fibre, Nutritional and therapeutic properties

Introduction

Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) was originated from Mexico and Guatemala; it has been the part of human food for about 5500 years. Traditionally, the seeds were used by Aztecs and Mayas people in the preparation of folk medicines, food and canvases. In pre-historic times in Columbian societies, it was the second main crop after beans (Armstrong 2004). Whole and ground versions of chia along with its oil was the part of food, ancient cosmetics and the part of religious rituals in pre-historic times in Aztecs communities (Beltran-Orozco and Romero 2003). The word chia is derived from a Spanish word chian which means oily, it is oilseed, with a power house of omega-3 fatty acids, superior quality protein, higher extent of dietary fibre, vitamins, minerals and wide range of polyphenolic antioxidants which act as antioxidant and safeguard the seeds from chemical and microbial breakdown (Cahill 2003). Existence of chia as an integral part of the pre-Columbian diet had made their diets even superior to today’s diet (Hentry et al. 1990) which is also admitted by the modern science. The massive nutritional and therapeutic potential of chia is little known, chia offers a great future perspective for feed, food, medical, pharmaceutical and neutraceutical sectors. Information contained in this review can be useful for health conscious people who want to be healthy through natural foods. This paper describes the huge nutritional and therapeutic potential of chia seed to make it the part of an average diet for better health and longevity.

Chia seed history

Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) belongs to the family Labiatae, originated from Mexico and northern and Gualtemala. The seeds have been the part of human nutrition since 1500 BC (Cahill 2003; Ayerza and Coates 2005). Traditionally seeds have been used as a food, in a wide range of folk medicines, primary cosmetics and a part of religious rituals in pre-Columbian societies (Craig 2004). The diets in pre-Columbian regimes were as nutritious as today (Hentry et al. 1990). The chia seed is widely used in many countries since thousands of years due to its massive nutritional and therapeutic potential (Fernandez et al. 2006a).

Botanical description

Chia belong to the family Lamiaceae; Genera Salvia Specie; hispanica, commonly known as chia, Spanish sage, Mexican chia and black chia (Hentry et al. 1990). Plant is an annual herb bears flower in summer, with a height of about one meter with reverse petiolate and serrated leaves (4–8 cm long; 3–5 cm wide) with hermaphrodite flowers (USDA 2011). Plant can grow in a wide range of well drained clay and sandy soils with reasonable salt and acid tolerance. It can produce 500–600 kg seed/acre but under appropriate agronomic conditions the yield of 2500 kg/acre has also been reported (Cahill 2003).

Nutritional composition of seed

The protein, fat, carbohydrate, dietary fibre, ash and dry matter contents of chia seeds ranged from 15 to 25 %, 30–33 %, 41 %, 18–30 %, 4–5 % and 90–93 % with a wide range of polyphenols (Ixtaina et al. 2008). The heavy metal content of seeds was within the safe limits with no potentially toxic mycotoxins and gluten (Peiretti and Gai 2009). Currently chia seed is widely used for the extraction of bio-active compounds for the development of functional foods (Bresson et al. 2009). The protein content of chia seed grown in different habitats ranged from 18.8 % to 21.5 %, the variation in protein content was probably be due to agronomic, climatic and soil conditions (Ting et al. 1990). In another study regarding the nutritional characterization of chia seed; medicinal characteristics of chia seed] reported that seed exhibited 20 % protein, 25 % fibre and 34 % oil. The high fibre content of chia seed as health perspective, fibre increases stool volume, prevent from diverticulosis and cancer. Comparison of nutritional characteristics chia with some other foods, mineral and vitamin content is presented in Table 1. The declaration chia a functional food by the European Parliament had a great deal of effect on its popularity, chia seed is now extensively used as a part of foods in Mexico, Argentina, Chile, New Zealand, Japan, USA, Canada and Australia for different purposes. Chia is considered as a safe food with no potentially harmful effects and widely used in baked goods, nutritional supplements, cereal bars, cookies, bread, snacks etc. (Beltran-Orozco and Romero 2003). Chia seed contains appreciable amount of fibre, which can absorb up 15 times water the weight of seed. The presence of higher extents of fibre help in diabetes mellitus by slowing down the digestion process and release of glucose, it also improves the peristaltic movement of intestine and reducing plasma cholesterol. The biological value of chia is superior to cereals and higher content of calcium, magnesium and potassium than milk (De Tucci 2006). US dietary guidelines recommend consuming chia as a primary source of food, chia sprouts are used in salads, chia seed is used in beverages and cereals based foods and it can be consumed in raw form (Ali et al. 2012).

Table 1.

Nutrient value of chia seed

Nutrient USDA Comparison of fibre content of some foods
Reference: Fernández et al. 2006b.
Energy (100 g) 486 Chia 37.7
Protein % 16.54 Walnuts 5.2
Fat % 30.47 Fava Beans 19.0
Vitamin C mg 1.6 Figs and Plums 17.0
Thiamine mg 0.62 Dried Peas 4.4
Riboflavin mg 0.17 Breakfast Cereals 4.0
Niacin mg 883 Banana 4.0
Folate μg 49 Lentils 12–15
Calcium mg 631 Almond 14.0
Potassium mg 407 Carrots 2.9
Magnesium mg 335 White Bread 2.2
Phosphorus mg 860 Cauliflower 2.1
Selenium (μg) 55.2 Peanut 8.1
Iron mg 7.72 Quince 6.4
Zinc 4,58 Kiwi 1.6
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USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 24 (2011)

Protein content

With 20 % protein content, chia possesses a massive potential to correct and prevent protein energy malnutrition. Protein content of the seed greatly depends upon environmental and agronomic factors. The protein content of chia seed is greater than protein content of all the cereals. The absence of gluten in chia is another unique feature of chia that it can be digested by the patients suffering from celiac disease. The literature revealed the presence of 9 essential amino acids in chia in appreciable amount. Foods rich in protein had a great deal of effect on weight loss due to the loss of fats in the body. The results of a study revealed that intake of 25 % protein of the total energy, consequence in a significant fat loss (Skov et al. 1999). Consumption of high protein diet may also help to maintain body weight. The effect of high protein (18 % of the total energy intake) and low protein diet (5 % of the total energy intake) on 113 overweight male and females was investigated for 4 weeks. It was concluded that the group which was fed over high protein diet lost more weight than the other group which was kept over low protein diet (Lejeune et al. 2005a). The regular intake of chia may help the overweight men and women to lose weight; however, this aspect needs detailed investigation. The major protein in chia seed is globulin which constitutes about 52 % of the total protein with mostly 11S and 7S proteins and molecular size ranged from 15 to 50 kDa. Albumins and globulins revealed a better thermal stability, albumins, globulins, prolamins and glutenins denatured at 103, 105, 85.6 and 91 °C. Seed revealed a good balance of essential and non-essential amino acids (Sandoval-Oliveros and Paredes-Lopez 2013).

Fibre content

The dietary fibre contained in foods and especially in whole grains is an important biocomponent due to its potential health benefit. A large number of research studies have shown the effect of fibre consume such as the decrease of risk for coronary heart disease, risk for diabetes mellitus type 2, and several types of cancer (Reyes-Caudillo et al. 2008) On other hand, the consumption of dietary fibre has been associated with the increases of post meal satiety and decreases subsequent hunger. According to the American Dietetic Association dietary fibre has demonstrated benefits for health maintenance and disease prevention (USDA 2000). Chia seed contains between 34 and 40 g of dietary fibre per 100 g, equivalent to 100 % of the daily recommendations for the adult population; the defatted flour possesses 40 % fibre, 5–10 % of which is soluble and forms part of the mucilage. (Mohd et al. 2012) This fibre content is higher than quinoa, flaxseed, and amaranth, even grater compared with other dried products (Table 2). Therefore, chia seed can be used in the prevention of many cardiovascular diseases and diabetes, among others, as demonstrated by a number of epidemiological studies (Tables 3 and 4).

Table 2.

Fibre content of some foods

Food Fibre g/100 g Food Fibre g/100 g
Chia 34.4 Dried Plums 7.1
Flax Seed 27.3 Dried Fig 9.8
Amaranth 6.7 Dried Apple 8.7
Quiona 7.0 Dried Banana 9.9
Amond 12.2 Dried Peaches 8.2
Peanuts 8.5 Dried Pears 7.5
Soybean 9.6
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U.S. Department of Agriculture (2011)

Table 3.

Protein content

Cereal Protein Content%
Chia 20.70
Oats 16.89
Barley 12.48
Corn 9.42
Rice 6.50
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(Ayerza and Coates 2005)

Table 4.

Amino acid profile of chia

Amino Acid Chia (g/100 g) Soybean (g/100 g)
Aspartic acid 1.69 5.11
Threonine 0.71 1.77
Serine 1.05 2.36
Glutamic acid 3.50 7.88
Glycine 0.95 1.88
Alanine 1.05 1.91
Valine 0.95 2.10
Cysteine 0.41 0.65
Methionine 0.59 0.54
Isoleucine 0.80 1.97
Leucine 1.37 3.31
Tryptophane 0.44 0.59
Tyrosine 0.56 1.54
Phenylalanine∗ 1.016 1.01 2.12
Lysine 0.97 2.71
Histidine 0.53 1.10
Arginine 2.14 3.15
Proline 0.77 2.38
Reference U.S. Department of Agriculture (2011). Seed Proteins; Shewry and Casey (2003).
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Minerals

The huge nutritional potential is evident from the fact that it contains 6, 11 and 4 times higher calcium, phosphorous and magnesium. The calcium, phosphorous and potassium content of chia is many folds greater than wheat, rice, oats and corn with 6 and 2.4 times greater iron spinach and liver (Beltran-Orozco and Romero 2003). The concentration of macronutrients in chia is as; calcium 631, potassium 407, magnesium 335, phosphorus 860 mg/100 g. Microelements; selenium 55.2, copper 0.924, iron 7.72, manganese 2.72, molybdenum 0.2, sodium 16 and zinc 4.58 μg/100 g.

Chemical characteristics of chia seed oil (CSO)

Iodine value, saponification value, tocopherol content of chia oil was 207, 193.3 and 480 mg/kg, with 0.1 and 0.3 ppm Cu and Fe, respectively. The oil revealed a lower peroxide and anisidine value 1.0 (meqO2/kg) and 0.3 the induction period of oil as measured on Rancimat was 2.3 h. Contradictory findings regarding oil yield has been reported in literature, Coates and Ayerza (1996) reported that yield of CSO was 32.2 to 36.8 as compared to 35.6 to 38.6 reported from Chia seeds grown in Argentina. The difference in oil yield could be connected to the difference in climatic conditions, agronomic practices, fertilization regimes, irrigation practices etc. (Chapman 2001). The higher values of tocoperols can have a positive impact on the storage stability of chia oil. The lower induction period in the investigation was correlated to the higher extent of unsaturated fatty acids present in chia oil. However, detailed investigation is required on the processing performance and storage stability of chia oil as this aspect of this marvellous oil has not been studied so far. The comparison of chemical characteristics of chia oil of various sources and protein content of chia seed is given in Fig. 1. Chia produces light coloured essential oil in higher concentration; the major part of oil is used in the formulation of omega-3 supplements. Chia leaf oil can also be used a condiment/flavour enhancer (Ahmed et al. 2006; Beltran-Orozco and Romero 2003). The higher concentration of omega-3 in chia oil can help to correct the dislipidemia i.e. increased LDL, triglyceride and lower HDL cholesterol.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Chemical characteristics of chia from various sources. Reference: Ayerza and Coates (2004). PV: Peroxide Value (meqO2/kg)

Fatty acid composition

The trend of healthy life style has a high degree of effect on the utilization of functional foods. American Heart Association also directs the consumers to shift from saturated fats to unsaturated oils (USDA 2000). Foods with lower contents of saturated fatty acids are the order of day and in recent year’s significant increase in the demand of such products have been observed. The great deal of shifting from saturated fats to unsaturated sources of oils is greatly attributed to the large number of incidences of cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, obesity, diabetes other health related disorders (Hansel et al. 2007). The situation has led to the increased consumption of functional foods containing higher content of polyunsaturated fatty acids. The hypercholesterolemic effect of saturated acids and health benefits of polyunsaturated fatty acids has been well recognized (Lokuruka 2007). Omega-3 fatty acids have three carbon atoms between last double bond methyl group, whereas omega-6 has six carbon atoms in between the methyl group and last double bond (Pawlosky et al. 2003). The presence of higher concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids in chia oil has increased its popularity and cultivation many folds. Omega-3 fatty acids are comprised of three essential fatty acids; alpha-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid whereas omega-6 is comprised of linoleic acid and arachidonic acid (Pawlosky et al. 2003). Chia seed with appreciable amounts of ω-3 alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) and ω-6 linoleic acid. Of all the known food sources chia contains the highest concentration of these fatty acids. On an average it contains about 64 % ω-3 and 19 % ω-6 fatty acids (Ali et al. 2012). The seed is appropriately known as power house of omega fatty acids. Eicosapentaenoic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid have cardio-protective effects (Manzella and Paolisso 2005) (Tables 5).

Table 5.

Fatty acid composition of chia (salvia hispanica l.) oil

Fatty Acid Ricardo Ayerza R Ayerza and W Coates Luz Magali Álvarez-Chávez Ixtaina et al. (2011)
C16:0 9.66 3.40 6.30 7.2
C18:0 4.34 3.40 3.10 3.8
C18:1 6.84 18.00 7.50 15.2
C18:2 17.65 63.20 19.9 19.1
C18:3 64.08 7.63 63.4 64.7
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Phytochemicals in chia seed

Unrestrained free radicals in human body leads to oxidative damage of animated organs and biochemical compounds, oxidative stresses can consequence in diabetes, arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, inflammation, various types of cancers (Kris-etherton et al. 2002). The increased knowledge of benefits of consuming natural antioxidants has led to a considerable increase in their consumption (Jeong et al. 2004). Free radicals can protect from the bad consequences by neutralizing the free radicals (Nadeem et al. 2014). The total phenolic content in chia seed extract was 8.8 % on dry matter basis (Reyes-Caudillo et al. 2008). The presence of caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid and quercetin can be correlated with higher extents of phenolics in chia. Uribe et al. (2011) described that chia seed is potentially a great source of antioxidants, the massive antioxidant potential can be utilized for better health and preservation of food lipid systems. Ayerza and Coates 2001 isolated polyphenolics from chia seed viz. chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, myricetin, quercetin and kaempferol. Hernandez (2012) has also reported a higher concentration of phenolic compounds in chia seed. The strong in vitro antioxidant activity of chia seed has been studied in detail (Serpen et al. 2012). Tepe et al. (2006) studied the antioxidant activity of ethanolic chia seed extract and reported that polyphenols of chia seed considerably inhibited the free radicals in beta carotene linoleic acid system. The free radical scavenging activity of chia seed was even greater than many potentially strong natural antioxidant sources; antioxidant activity of chia seed was greater than Moringa oleifera, sesame cake extract as described by Nadeem et al. (2013); Nadeem et al. (2014). Craig (2004) reported that the existence of polyphenols in chia seed protect it from oxidative deterioration. Crosby (2005) characterized the phenolics of chia seed through HPLC and reported that chia seed contained chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, quercetin, phenolic glycoside k and glycoside Q in appreciable amounts. The antioxidant activity of these phenolic compounds has been well documented. Reyes-Caudillo et al. (2008) also reported that chia seed with a wide range of antioxidant compound can be regarded as a great source of antioxidants. Tepe et al. (2006) reported that phenolics of chia seed can appreciably inhibit the lipid peroxidation phenomenon. Quercetin, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid are believed to have anti-carcinogenic, antihypertensive, neuron protective effects (Shahidi and Naczk 1995). Ayerza and Coates (2002) demonstrated that chia seed possessed the following polyphenolic compounds; Myricetin, quercetin, kaemferol, Caffeic acid, Flavonol glycosides and Chlorogenic acid. The results of a recent investigation regarding the stabilization of winterized cottonseed oil revealed that supplementation of winterized cottonseed oil added with 750 ppm chia seed extract significantly prolonged the shelf stability of cottonseed oil at ambient temperature (Nadeem et al. 2015a).

Therapeutic perspectives of chia

Cardio-protective effects

Alpha-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acids play a vital role in the formation of vital biochemical compounds such as prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes which are encountered in numerous physiological functions (Pawlosky et al. 2003). Omega-3 fatty has the capability of blocking calcium and sodium channel dysfunctions, which otherwise can consequences in hypertension (Leaf and Kang 1998). Omega-3 fatty acids improve the parasympathetic tone, heart rate variability and protect ventricular arrhythmia. Fatty acid composition of chia has been reported in literature (Ricardo Ayerza; R Ayerza and W Coates), the concentration of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in all the studies were consistent with minor variations (Table 2). Alpha-linolenic acid content of the seed greatly depends upon the developmental stage, a declining trend (23 %) in the concentration of alpha-linoenic acid has been reported in the fully matured seed, and the similar fashion of decline has also been reported in lignin content (Norlaily Mohd Ali,). Ingeborg et al. (2004) performed a meta-analysis to determine the quantitative correlation between the ingestion of alpha-linoenic acid and mortalities from heart failures, increased intake of alpha-linoenic acid decreased the risk of heart failures (combined relative risk 0.79). The results of a scientific investigation conducted in St. Michael Hospital in Toronto Canada revealed some key benefits of chia, which are (1) best source of omega-3 fatty acids, (2) higher iron and fibre content gluten free, more calcium and magnesium than milk, (3) 37 g seed on daily basis stabilized blood glucose level in diabetic patients, (4) prevent myocardial infraction and strokes by inhibiting platelets aggregation, (5) lower systolic blood pressure up to 6 mmHg (Vuksan et al. 2007; Vuksan et al. 2010). Fernandez et al. 2008 have also reported some medicinal properties of chia which include the reduction of cholesterol, inhibition of blood clotting, prevent stresses and epilepsy, improvement of the immune system, eating chia in pregnancy helps in the development of retina and brain of foetus. The findings of a study performed over male Wistar rats disclosed that feeding chia seed had a great declining effect on triglycerides and enhanced the beneficial HDL cholesterol. The other benefit of feeding chia seed was the reduction of omega-6 in plasma, consequences in a lower omega-6: omega-3 ratio which has a cardio-protective effect (Ayerza and Coates 2007). In another investigation, the impact of feeding chia seed to a group of rats in which dyslipidemia was introduced. The results of this study revealed that feeding chia seed greatly decreased the visceral adiposity, decreased triglycerides and decreased LDL cholesterol. The effect of feeding chia seed (50 g/day) to 12 healthy individuals for 30 days was investigated. The diastolic blood pressure decreased from 66.1 to 61.5 mmHg with significant decline in serum triglycerides and no side effect was reported (Vertommen et al. 2005) (Tables 6 and 7).

Table 6.

Phytosterol in chia seed oil as compared to other oils

Source β-Sitosterol Stigmasterol Stigmastanol
Chia Jalisco 7.96 1.83 2.27
Chia Sinaloa 4.59 1.38 2.17
Evening primrose 8.62 0.044 NR
Olive 1.33 0.009 NR
Peanut 0.99 0.134 NR
Rape Seed Oil 3.93 0.025 NR
Sesame 3.31 0.33 NR
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Reference: (Phillips and Wiliams 2000)

Table 7.

Therapeutic value of chia

Therapeutic value Reference
Cardiac protective Munoz et al. (2012b)
Helps to control diabetes EFSA (2009)
Potential source of several bio-active peptides, Repair of damaged tissue and general well-being Segura-Campos et al. (2013)
Control of dyslipidaemia Chicco et al. (2009)
Potential to lower the bad LDL cholesterol and increase beneficial HDL cholesterol Ayerza, and Coates (2005)
Brenna et al. (2009)
Control of hypertension and triglycerides and Rodea-González et al. (2012)
Anti-inflammatory
Antioxidant activity for commercial uses Nadeem et al. (2015a)
Chia is non-allergic (whole/ground) EFSA 2005; EFSA 2009
Antiplatelet, Antiplatelet, anti-carcinogenic, laxative, hypotensive, cardiac tonic, cardiovascular protector, treatment of anaemia, improves dermatitis, analgesic Ayerza and Coates, 2005
http://animales-campo.vivavisos.com.ar.
Antidepressant, antianxiety, vision and immune improver
EPA and DHA improver in blood Nieman et al. 2009
Antineoplastics Adams et al. (2006)
Hypotensives Vuksan et al. (2007)
Celiac disease, constipation and vasodilatation Adams et al. (2005)
Joint pain, kidney disorders Wojcikowski et al. (2006)
Antiviral Jiang et al. (2005)
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Angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory peptides of chia

The perceived side effects of synthetic angiotensin I-converting enzymes (ACE-I) on human body has led to the discovery of natural bioactive peptides having ACE-I inhibitory effect. A peptide of chia was tested for ACE-I inhibitory effect in terms of hydrolysate and ultra-filtered fractions. The hydrolysate revealed 58.46 % inhibition, while the inhibition of ultra-filtered fraction was 69.31 %. Amino acid profile of this fraction was determined and it was further purified through gel filtration chromatography. The amino acid profile revealed a significant inhibition of ACE-I of chia seed by obstructing the angiotensin II generation. The results suggest the potential of harvesting the bioactive peptides to control ACE-I in a more natural way with decreased risk factors. Hydrolysed chia proteins was added into white bread and carrot cream, the hydrolysis generates peptides with potential ACE inhibitory activities with no significant effect on quality of these food products (Segura-Campos et al. 2013).

Effect of chia on immune system

Fernandez et al. (2008) studied the effect of chia seed on the immune system of 23 days old Weanling male Wistar rats, the concentrations of thymus and serum IgE were used as an indicator of immunity. Trial was conducted for one month, rats were divided into three groups, one group was fed on chia seeds 150 (g/kg diet), second group was fed on chia oil 50 (g/kg diet), while the third group was kept control. Diets of both the groups were formulated in such a way that they had similar concentration of alpha-linoenic acid and energy. After the termination of feed phase, body weights of all the three groups were measured after 4 h of fasting and blood was analysed for serum IgE concentration (ng/ml). The results evidenced no difference in body weight and IgE, when chia was administered in seed or oil form. Concentration of IgE was considerably higher in both the groups as compared to the control. Inclusion of chia in any form did not induce any symptom of abnormal behaviour, diarrhoea, dermatitis, supplementation of diets with other sources of omega-3 fatty acids such as flaxseed or marine products usually results in allergy, fishy flavour, problems of gastrointestinal tract, diarrhoea (Ayerza and Coates 2005).

Chia oil as skin curative

A study was performed to determine the likely benefits of topical omega-3 fatty acids, topical products containing chia oil formulated. Five patients with pruritus affected by end stage renal disease and five health volunteers having xerotic pruritus were used in this investigation. A topical formulation was prepared by the addition of 4 % chia oil and applied for 8 weeks. Itching indications, trans-epidermal water loss and skin capacitance were measured on a 6 points scale. Application of topical formulation added with chia oil significantly improved the skin hydration, lichen simplex chronicus, and prurigo nodularis in all the patients. Healthy volunteers suffering from xerotic pruritus also revealed improvement in skin hydration followed by the trans epidermal water loss and capacitance of skin (Jeong et al. 2010).

Omega-3 neutraceutical from chia oil

Health benefits of omega fatty acid have been discussed in detail in the upper part of this review, in a recent investigation, chia oil was fractionated into olein and stearin fractions with the objective to produce high omega-3 neutraceutical. Fatty acid composition revealed that omega-3 fatty acids in olein fraction were more than 80 % HPLC determination revealed that neutraceutical fraction had higher concentration of antioxidant substances as compared to parent chia oil. (Rahman et al. 2015).

Uses of chia seed

The approval of chia seed as a Novel Food by the European Parliament has led to high degree of usage of chia seed in a wide range of foods. It is already well established that chia does not have anti-allergic, anti-nutritional and toxic effect on human health. Biscuits, pasta, cereal bars, snacks and yoghurt and cake are usually supplemented with chia seed (The Chia Company 2009; Borneo et al. 2010). Chia is one of the few medicinal plants that produce essential oil in a great concentration, which is used for the preparation of omega-3 capsules. Nutritional value of butter oil was enhanced by blending with chia oil from 6.5 % to 25 %, concentration of omega-3 fatty acids in chia fortified butter oil ranged from 4.17 % to 16.74 % (Nadeem et al. 2015b). These results evidenced the successful application of chia oil to butter oil, however, further study should be performed to study the suitability of chia oil in other dairy products. The oil extracted from the leaves of chia is utilized as scent and condiment (Ahmed et al. 2006). It is revealed from the studies that chia seed had a higher concentration of phytosterols which have and cancer and cardio-protective effect with antimicrobial activities (Alonso-Calderon et al. 2013). Recently, it is established that mucilage of chia seed can be utilized as a functional coating with improved functional properties (Munoz et al. 2012a).

Insect control

The leaves of chia contain an essential oil that contains β-caryophyllene, globulol, γ-muroleno, β-pinene, α-humoleno, germacren-B, and widdrol. These compounds are believed to have strong repellent characteristics to a wide range of insects (Ahmed et al. 2006).

Acknowledgments

The authors are highly obliged to all the scientists, researchers and contributors whose work has been include in this review. Financial assistance for this study was provided by Higher Education Commission of Pakistan.

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