Skip to main content
PMC home page
Neurotherapeutics logoLink to Neurotherapeutics
. 2008 Jan;5(1):3–13. doi: 10.1016/j.nurt.2007.11.003

The history and future of deep brain stimulation

Jason M Schwalb 1,✉, Clement Hamani 2
PMCID: PMC5084122  PMID: 18164479

Summary

The advancement of electrical stimulation of the central nervous system has been a story of fits and bursts with numerous setbacks. In many ways, this history has paralleled the history of medicine and physics. We have moved from anecdotal observation to double-blinded, prospective randomized trials. We have moved from faradic stimulation to systems that lie completely under the skin and can deliver complex electrical currents to discrete areas of the brain while controlled through a device that is not much bigger than a PDA. This review will discuss how deep brain stimulation has developed into its current form, where we see the field going and the potential pitfalls along the way.

Key Words: DBS, history, cerebral localization

References

  • 1.Rossi U. The history of electrical stimulation of the nervous system for the control of pain. In: Simpson BA, editor. Electrical stimulation and the relief of pain. 1st ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier B.V.; 2003. pp. 5–16. [Google Scholar]
  • 2.Debru A. The power of torpedo fish as a pathological model to the understanding of nervous transmission in Antiquity. C R Biol. 2006;329:298–302. doi: 10.1016/j.crvi.2006.03.001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3.Kellaway P. The part played by the electric fish in the early history of bioelectricity and electrotherapy. Bull Hist Med. 1946;20:112–137. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 4.Devinsky O. Electrical and magnetic stimulation of the central nervous system: historical overview. In: Devinsky O, Beric A, Dogali M, editors. Electrical and magnetic stimulation of the brain and spinal cord. 1st ed. New York: Raven Press; 1993. pp. 1–16. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 5.Fritsch G, Hitzig E. The electrical excitability of the cerebrum. In: Wilkins RW, ed. Neurosurgical classics, 1st ed: American association of neurological surgeons, 1992:15–27.
  • 6.Morgan JP. The first reported case of electrical stimulation of the human brain. J Hist Med Allied Sci. 1982;37:51–64. doi: 10.1093/jhmas/XXXVII.1.51. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7.Bartholow R. Medical electricity: a practical treatise on the applications of electricity to medicine and surgery. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Henry C. Lea’s Son & Co.; 1882. [Google Scholar]
  • 8.Horsley V. Case of occipital encephalocele in which a correct diagnosis was obtained by means of the induced current. Brain. 1884;7:228–243. doi: 10.1093/brain/7.2.228. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 9.Vilensky JA, Gilman S. Horsley was the first to use electrical stimulation of the human cerebral cortex intraoperatively. Surg Neurol. 2002;58:425–426. doi: 10.1016/S0090-3019(02)00920-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10.Horsley V. Remarks on the surgery of the central nervous system. Br Med J. 1890;2:1286–1292. doi: 10.1136/bmj.2.1562.1286. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11.Gildenberg PL. Evolution of basal ganglia surgery for movement disorders. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2006;84:131–135. doi: 10.1159/000094844. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 12.Spiegel EA, Wycis HT, Marks M, Lee AS. Stereotactic apparatus for operations on the human brain. Science. 1947;106:349–350. doi: 10.1126/science.106.2754.349. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 13.Horsley V, Clarke R. The structure and functions of the cerebellum examined by a new method. Brain. 1908;31:45–124. doi: 10.1093/brain/31.1.45. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 14.Jensen RL, Stone JL, Hayne RA. Introduction of the human Horsley-Clarke stereotactic frame. Neurosurgery. 1996;38:563–567. doi: 10.1097/00006123-199603000-00029. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 15.Monnier M. Contributions experimenteles a la physiologie du trone cerebral chez l’homme: III. Stimulation et coagulation du lemniscus median. Helvet. Physiol et Pharmacol. acta. 1951;9:C10–C10. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16.Hassler R, Reichert T. Indikationen und Localizations—Methode der gezielten Himoperationen. Nervenarzt. 1954;25:441–441. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 17.Gildenberg PL. History of movement disorder surgery. In: Lozano AM, editor. Movement disorder surgery. 1st ed. Basel: Karger; 2000. pp. 1–20. [Google Scholar]
  • 18.Ervin FR, Mark VH. Stereotactic thalamotomy in the human. Part II, Physiologic observations on the human thalamus. Arch Neurol. 1960;3:368–380. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1960.00450040018002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 19.Guiot G, Hardy J, Albe-Fessard D. Delimitation precise des structures sous-corticales et identification de noyaux thalamiques chez l’homme par l’electrophysioligie stereotaxique. Neurochirurgia. 1961;5:1–18. [Google Scholar]
  • 20.Tasker RR, Organ LW, Hawrylyshyn PA. The thalamus and mid-brain of man. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas; 1982. [Google Scholar]
  • 21.Tasker RR. One man’s recollection of 50 years of functional and stereotactic neurosurgery. Neurosurgery. 2004;55:968–974. doi: 10.1227/01.NEU.0000137276.54894.30. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 22.Chardack WM, Gage AA, Greatbatch W. A transistorized, self-contained, implantable pacemaker for the long-term collection of complete heart block. Surgery. 1960;48:643–654. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 23.Kopell BH, Rezai AR. Psychiatric neurosurgery: a historical perspective. In: Rezai AR, Rasmussen SA, Greenberg BD, editors. Surgery for psychiatric disorders. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company; 2003. pp. 181–198. [Google Scholar]
  • 24.Rezai AR, Lozano AM. Deep brain stimulation for chronic pain. In: Burchiel KJ, editor. Surgical management of pain. 1st ed. New York: Thieme; 2002. pp. 565–576. [Google Scholar]
  • 25.Hosobuchi Y, Adams JE, Rutkin B. Chronic thalamic stimulation for the control of facial anesthesia dolorosa. Arch Neurol. 1973;29:158–161. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1973.00490270040005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26.Mazars G, Merienne L, Cioloca C. Treatment of certain types of pain with implantable thalamic stimulators. Neurochirurgie. 1974;20:117–124. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 27.About Medtronic—Our History, 1971–1980 [online]. Available at: http://www.medtronic.com/corporate/1971_1980.html. Accessed October 21, 2007.
  • 28.Sturm V, Kuhner A, Schmitt HP, Assmus H, Stock G. Chronic electrical stimulation of the thalamic unspecific activating system in a patient with coma due to midbrain and upper brain stem infarction. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1979;47:235–244. doi: 10.1007/BF01406406. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 29.Hassler R, Ore GD, Bricolo A, Dieckmann G, Dolce G. EEG and clinical arousal induced by bilateral long-term stimulation of pallidal systems in traumatic vigil coma. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1969;27:689–690. doi: 10.1016/0013-4694(69)91313-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 30.Hassler R, Ore GD, Dieckmann G, Bricolo A, Dolce G. Behavioural and EEG arousal induced by stimulation of unspecific projection systems in a patient with post-traumatic apallic syndrome. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1969;27:306–310. doi: 10.1016/0013-4694(69)90060-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 31.Rosenow J, Das K, Rovit RL, Couldwell WT, Irving S. Cooper and his role in intracranial stimulation for movement disorders and epilepsy. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2002;78:95–112. doi: 10.1159/000068011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 32.Freed CR, Breeze RE, Fahn S. Placebo surgery in trials of therapy for Parkinson’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:353–354. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200002033420512. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 33.Cavanna AE, Strigaro G, Monaco F. Brain mechanisms underlying the placebo effect in neurological disorders. Funct Neurol. 2007;22:89–94. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34.Polio A, Tone E, Lopiano L, et al. Expectation modulates the response to subthalamic nucleus stimulation in Parkinsonian patients. Neuroreport. 2002;13:1383–1386. doi: 10.1097/00001756-200208070-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35.Mercado R, Constantoyannis C, Mandat T, et al. Expectation and the placebo effect in Parkinson’s disease patients with subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation. Mov Disord. 2006;21:1457–1461. doi: 10.1002/mds.20935. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 36.Schwalb JM, Lozano AM. Surgical management of tremor. Neurosurg Q. 2004;14:60–68. doi: 10.1097/00013414-200403000-00010. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 37.Benabid AL, Pollak P, Gervason C, et al. Long-term suppression of tremor by chronic stimulation of the ventral intermediate thalamic nucleus. Lancet. 1991;337:403–406. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(91)91175-T. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 38.Blond S, Siegfried J. Thalamic stimulation for the treatment of tremor and other movement disorders. Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wien) 1991;52:109–111. doi: 10.1007/978-3-7091-9160-6_30. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 39.Madrazo I, Drucker-Colin R, Diaz V, Martinez-Mata J, Tones C, Becerril JJ. Open microsurgical autograft of adrenal medulla to the right caudate nucleus in two patients with intractable Parkinson’s disease. N Engl J Med. 1987;316:831–834. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198704023161402. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 40.Backlund EO, Granberg PO, Hamberger B, et al. Transplantation of adrenal medullary tissue to striatum in parkinsonism: first clinical trials. J Neurosurg. 1985;62:169–173. doi: 10.3171/jns.1985.62.2.0169. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 41.Laitinen LV, Bergenheim AT, Hariz MI. Leksell’s posteroventral pallidotomy in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. J Neurosurg. 1992;76:53–61. doi: 10.3171/jns.1992.76.1.0053. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 42.Laitinen LV, Bergenheim AT, Hariz MI. Ventroposterolateral pallidotomy can abolish all parkinsonian symptoms. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1992;58:14–21. doi: 10.1159/000098965. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 43.DeLong MR, Georgopoulos AP, Crutcher MD, Mitchell SJ, Richardson RT, Alexander GE. Functional organization of the basal ganglia: contributions of single-cell recording studies. Ciba Found Symp. 1984;107:64–82. doi: 10.1002/9780470720882.ch5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 44.Siegfried J, Lippitz B. Bilateral chronic electrostimulation of ventroposterolateral pallidum: a new therapeutic approach for alleviating all parkinsonian symptoms. Neurosurgery. 1994;35:1126–1129. doi: 10.1227/00006123-199412000-00016. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 45.Ghika J, Villemure JG, Fankhauser H, Favre J, Assal G, Ghika-Schmid F. Efficiency and safety of bilateral contemporaneous pallidal stimulation (deep brain stimulation) in levodopa-responsive patients with Parkinson’s disease with severe motor fluctuations: a 2-year follow-up review. J Neurosurg. 1998;89:713–718. doi: 10.3171/jns.1998.89.5.0713. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 46.Kumar R, Lang AE, Rodriguez-Oroz MC, et al. Deep brain stimulation of the globus pallidus pars intema in advanced Parkinson’s disease. Neurology. 2000;55:S34–39. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 47.Kumar R, Lozano AM, Montgomery E, Lang AE. Pallidotomy and deep brain stimulation of the pallidum and subthalamic nucleus in advanced Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 1998;13(suppl 1):73–82. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 48.Pollak P, Benabid AL, Gross C, et al. Effects of the stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in Parkinson disease. Rev Neurol (Paris) 1993;149:175–176. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 49.Andy OJ, Jurko MF, Sias FR. Subthalamotomy in treatment of parkinsonian tremor. J Neurosurg. 1963;20:860–870. doi: 10.3171/jns.1963.20.10.0860. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 50.Burns RS, Chiueh CC, Markey SP, Ebert MH, Jacobowitz DM, Kopin IJ. A primate model of parkinsonism: selective destruction of dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta of the substantia nigra by N-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1983;80:4546–4550. doi: 10.1073/pnas.80.14.4546. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 51.Aziz TZ, Peggs D, Sambrook MA, Crossman AR. Lesion of the subthalamic nucleus for the alleviation of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced parkinsonism in the primate. Mov Disord. 1991;6:288–292. doi: 10.1002/mds.870060404. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 52.Benazzouz A, Gross C, Feger J, Boraud T, Bioulac B. Reversal of rigidity and improvement in motor performance by subthalamic high-frequency stimulation in MPTP-treated monkeys. Eur J Neurosci. 1993;5:382–389. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.1993.tb00505.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 53.Bergman H, Wichmann T, DeLong MR. Reversal of experimental parkinsonism by lesions of the subthalamic nucleus. Science. 1990;249:1436–1438. doi: 10.1126/science.2402638. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 54.Hamani C, Richter E, Schwalb JM, Lozano AM. Bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation for Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review of the clinical literature. Neurosurgery. 2005;56:1313–1321. doi: 10.1227/01.NEU.0000159714.28232.C4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 55.Yu H, Neimat JS. The treatment of movement disorders by neural deep brain stimulation. Neurotherapeutics. 2008;5:26–36. doi: 10.1016/j.nurt.2007.10.072. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 56.Kupsch A, Benecke R, Muller J, et al. Pallidal deep-brain stimulation in primary generalized or segmental dystonia. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:1978–1990. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa063618. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 57.Eskandar EN, Flaherty A, Cosgrove GR, Shinobu LA, Barker FG. Surgery for Parkinson disease in the United States, 1996 to 2000: practice patterns, short-term outcomes, and hospital charges in a nationwide sample. J Neurosurg. 2003;99:863–871. doi: 10.3171/jns.2003.99.5.0863. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 58.Coffey RJ. Deep brain stimulation for chronic pain: results of two multicenter trials and a structured review. Pain Med. 2001;2:183–192. doi: 10.1046/j.1526-4637.2001.01029.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 59.Deuschl G, Schade-Brittinger C, Krack P, et al. A randomized trial of deep-brain stimulation for Parkinson’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:896–908. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa060281. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 60.Burchiel KJ, Anderson VC, Favre J, Hammerstad JP. Comparison of pallidal and subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation for advanced Parkinson’s disease: results of a randomized, blinded pilot study. Neurosurgery. 1999;45:1375–1382. doi: 10.1097/00006123-199912000-00024. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 61.Rothlind JC, Cockshott RW, Starr PA, Marks WJ. Neuropsychological performance following staged bilateral pallidal or subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation for Parkinson’s disease. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2007;13:68–79. doi: 10.1017/S1355617707070105. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 62.Holloway KL, Baron MS, Brown R, Cifu DX, Came W, Ramakrishnan V. Deep brain stimulation for dystonia: a meta-analysis. Neuromodulation. 2006;9:253–261. doi: 10.1111/j.1525-1403.2006.00067.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 63.Mayberg HS, Lozano AM, Voon V, et al. Deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression. Neuron. 2005;45:651–660. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2005.02.014. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 64.Leone M, Franzini A, Felisati G, et al. Deep brain stimulation and cluster headache. Neurol Sci. 2005;26(suppl 2):s138–s139. doi: 10.1007/s10072-005-0427-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 65.Larson PS. Deep brain stimulation for psychiatric disorders. Neurotherapeutics. 2008;5:50–58. doi: 10.1016/j.nurt.2007.11.006. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 66.Dorsey ER, Constantinescu R, Thompson JP, et al. Projected number of people with Parkinson disease in the most populous nations, 2005 through 2030. Neurology. 2007;68:384–386. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000247740.47667.03. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 67.Keller MB. Issues in treatment-resistant depression. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66:5–12. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v66n0101. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 68.Rush AJ, Trivedi MH, Wisniewski SR, et al. Acute and longer-term outcomes in depressed outpatients requiring one or several treatment steps: a STAR*D report. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163:1905–1917. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.11.1905. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 69.Pagnin D, de Queiroz V, Pini S, Cassano GB. Efficacy of ECT in depression: a meta-analytic review. J Ect. 2004;20:13–20. doi: 10.1097/00124509-200403000-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 70.Green AL, Wang S, Bittar RG, et al. Deep brain stimulation: a new treatment for hypertension? J Clin Neurosci. 2007;14:592–595. doi: 10.1016/j.jocn.2006.04.015. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 71.Schiff ND, Giacino JT, Kalmar K, et al. Behavioural improvements with thalamic stimulation after severe traumatic brain injury. Nature. 2007;448:600–603. doi: 10.1038/nature06041. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 72.Halpern CH, Samadani U, Litt B, Jaggi JL, Baituch GH. Deep brain stimulation for epilepsy. Neurotherapeutics. 2008;5:59–67. doi: 10.1016/j.nurt.2007.10.065. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 73.Schwalb JM, Riina HA, Skolnick B, Jaggi JL, Simuni T, Baltuch GH. Revision of deep brain stimulator for tremor. Technical note. J Neurosurg. 2001;94:1010–1012. doi: 10.3171/jns.2001.94.6.1010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 74.North RB, McNamee JP, Wu L, Piantadosi S. Artificial neural networks: application to electrical stimulation of the human nervous system. Neurosurg Focus. 1997;2:e1–e1. doi: 10.3171/foc.1997.2.1.1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 75.Bin-Mahfoodh M, Hamani C, Sime E, Lozano AM. Longevity of batteries in internal pulse generators used for deep brain stimulation. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2003;80:56–60. doi: 10.1159/000075161. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 76.Nuttin BJ, Gabriels LA, Cosyns PR, et al. Long-term electrical capsular stimulation in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neurosurgery. 2003;52:1263–1272. doi: 10.1227/01.NEU.0000064565.49299.9A. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 77.Greenberg BD, Malone DA, Friehs GM, et al. Three-year outcomes in deep brain stimulation for highly resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2006;31:2384–2393. doi: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301165. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 78.Sun FT, Morrell MJ, Wharen RE. Responsive cortical stimulation for the treatment of epilepsy. Neurotherapeutics. 2008;5:68–74. doi: 10.1016/j.nurt.2007.10.069. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 79.Yianni J, Nandi D, Shad A, Bain P, Gregory R, Aziz T. Increased risk of lead fracture and migration in dystonia compared with other movement disorders following deep brain stimulation. J Clin Neurosci. 2004;11:243–245. doi: 10.1016/j.jocn.2003.10.003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 80.Questions and answers about Medtronic Activa Parkinson’s control therapy [online]. Available at: http://www.medtronic.com/neuro/parkinsons/activa_qa4.html#9. Accessed October 23, 2007.
  • 81.Blomstedt P, Hariz MI. Are complications less common in deep brain stimulation than in ablative procedures for movement disorders? Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2006;84:72–81. doi: 10.1159/000094035. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 82.Chung SJ, Hong SH, Kim SR, Lee MC, Jeon SR. Efficacy and safety of simultaneous bilateral pallidotomy in advanced Parkinson’s disease. Eur Neurol. 2006;56:113–118. doi: 10.1159/000095701. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 83.Su PC, Tseng HM, Liu HM, Yen RF, Liou HH. Subthalamotomy for advanced Parkinson disease. J Neurosurg. 2002;97:598–606. doi: 10.3171/jns.2002.97.3.0598. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 84.Patel NK, Heywood P, O’Sullivan K, McCarter R, Love S, Gill SS. Unilateral subthalamotomy in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Brain. 2003;126:1136–1145. doi: 10.1093/brain/awg111. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 85.Su PC, Tseng HM, Liu HM, Yen RF, Liou HH. Treatment of advanced Parkinson’s disease by subthalamotomy: one-year results. Mov Disord. 2003;18:531–538. doi: 10.1002/mds.10393. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 86.Alvarez L, Macias R, Lopez G, et al. Bilateral subthalamotomy in Parkinson’s disease: initial and long-term response. Brain. 2005;128:570–583. doi: 10.1093/brain/awh397. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 87.Duma CM, Jacques D, Kopyov OV. The treatment of movement disorders using Gamma Knife stereotactic radiosurgery. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 1999;10:379–389. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 88.Young RF, Jacques S, Mark R, et al. Gamma knife thalamotomy for treatment of tremor: long-term results. J Neurosurg. 2000;93(suppl 3):128–135. doi: 10.3171/jns.2000.93.supplement. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 89.Keep MF, Mastrofrancesco L, Erdman D, Murphy B, Ashby LS. Gamma knife subthalamotomy for Parkinson disease: the subthalamic nucleus as a new radiosurgical target. Case report. J Neurosurg. 2002;97:592–599. doi: 10.3171/jns.2002.97.supplement. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 90.Ohye C, Shibazaki T, Zhang J, Andou Y. Thalamic lesions produced by gamma thalamotomy for movement disorders. J Neurosurg. 2002;97:600–606. doi: 10.3171/jns.2002.97.supplement. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 91.Okun MS, Stover NP, Subramanian T, et al. Complications of gamma knife surgery for Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol. 2001;58:1995–2002. doi: 10.1001/archneur.58.12.1995. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 92.Siderowf A, Gollump SM, Stem MB, Baltuch GH, Riina HA. Emergence of complex, involuntary movements after gamma knife radiosurgery for essential tremor. Mov Disord. 2001;16:965–967. doi: 10.1002/mds.1178. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 93.Lipsman N, Neimat JS, Lozano AM. Deep brain stimulation for treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: the search for a valid target. Neurosurgery. 2007;61:1–11. doi: 10.1227/01.neu.0000279719.75403.f7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 94.Cosgrove GR, Rauch SL. Stereotactic cingulotomy. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 2003;14:225–235. doi: 10.1016/S1042-3680(02)00115-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Neurotherapeutics are provided here courtesy of Elsevier

RESOURCES