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. 2016 Nov 1;188(16):1157–1165. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.151179

Table 2:

Risk factors for Parkinson disease

Nonmodifiable risk factors14–16 Modifiable risk factors
Increased risk Possible decreased risk

  • Age (mean age 65 yr)

  • Sex (M:F = 1.5:1.0)

  • Genetics (10% of cases)

    • LRRK2 mutation (most common)

    • Glucocerebrosidase gene mutation

    • Parkin mutation (juvenile onset)

  • Industrial exposure17

  • Heavy metals (i.e., manganese, lead, copper)16,19

  • Pesticides (i.e., rotenone, paraquat)15,21

  • Obstructive sleep apnea (maybe in women)22

  • Smoking (may be protective)18

  • Caffeine (may lower risk, relative risk 0.69; does not imply causality)20

Note: F = female, M = male.