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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2018 Feb 20.
Published in final edited form as: Neuroscience. 2016 Dec 18;343:284–297. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.12.011

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Paternal deprivation impacts offspring care. (A) When both the mother and father are present (MF), mothers display more pup licking/grooming and adopt an overarching position (Nurse/Huddle) over pups compared to fathers, but they do not differ on levels of pup carrying, nest building, or self-grooming behaviors. (B) There were no differences in pup licking and grooming, nursing, pup carrying, nest building, and self-grooming between MF mothers and mothers only (MO), without the father. (C) There were lower levels of pup directed licking and grooming and pup carrying in MO nests compared to MF nests. Additionally, there were higher instances of offspring left alone on the nest in the MO condition. (D) Finally, MF males weighed less at weaning (PND21) while MO males weighed the same as females. In adulthood, male subjects weigh more than female subjects, regardless of rearing condition. Data are shown as mean + SEM. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01. Alphabetic letters indicate the results from a post-hoc test following an ANOVA. Bars labeled with different letters differ significantly from each other.