We thank Bridgewater and Babin (1) for their perspective. We are aware of, and appreciate, the consideration of ecosystem services in the management of Biosphere Reserves. However, we see a strong imperative for establishing a protected area (PA) category focused specifically on protecting ecosystem services, for several key reasons articulated in our paper (2) and below.
First, although China has indeed 33 Biosphere Reserves, all of them were established for biodiversity conservation, excepting one for geological heritage (Table 1). Ecosystem services were not considered in the delineation or establishment of any of China’s Biosphere Reserves, as indicated in the protection targets shown here and in more extensive descriptions available elsewhere.
Table 1.
ID | Name | Protection targets | Level of nature reserve | Established year | Year listed in BRs |
1 | Tianchi Bogda Peak | Forest ecosystem and mountain lakes | Provincial | 1980 | 1990 |
2 | Huanglong Temple | Giant panda and forest ecosystem | Provincial | 1983 | 2001 |
3 | Baishuijiang | Giant panda and forest ecosystem | National | 1978 | 2000 |
4 | Baotianman | Forest ecosystem | National | 1980 | 2001 |
5 | Chebaling | Subtropical forest ecosystem | National | 1981 | 2007 |
6 | Dalai Lake | Inland wetland and wildlife | National | 1986 | 2002 |
7 | Daxing'anling Hanma | Cold temperate conifer forest | National | 1995 | 2015 |
8 | Dinghu Mountain | Subtropical forest ecosystem | National | 1956 | 1979 |
9 | Fanjing Mountain | Forest ecosystem and golden monkey | National | 1978 | 1986 |
10 | Fenglin | Korean pine forest | National | 1958 | 1997 |
11 | Foping | Giant panda and forest ecosystem | National | 1978 | 2004 |
12 | Fujian Wuyi Mountain | Subtropical forest ecosystem | National | 1979 | 1987 |
13 | Gaoligong Mountain | Forest ecosystem and wildlife | National | 1983 | 1997 |
14 | Changbai Mountain | Forest ecosystem and volcano relics | National | 1960 | 1980 |
15 | Jinggang Mountain | Subtropical forest ecosystem | National | 1981 | 2012 |
16 | Jiuzhaigou | Giant panda and forest ecosystem | National | 1978 | 1997 |
17 | Mao'er Mountain | Even-green forest ecosystem | National | 1976 | 2012 |
18 | Maolan | Karst forest ecosystem | National | 1984 | 1996 |
19 | Nanji Islands | Marine ecosystem and birds | National | 1989 | 1998 |
20 | Niubeiliang | Takin and its habitat | National | 1988 | 2015 |
21 | Saihan Wula | Forest ecosystem and red deer | National | 1997 | 2001 |
22 | Shankou Mangrove | Mangrove forest ecosystem | National | 1990 | 1993 |
23 | Laoticshan Snake Island | Snakes, migratory birds, and their habitat | National | 1980 | 2014 |
24 | Shennongjia | Golden monkey and forest ecosystem | National | 1982 | 1990 |
25 | Wolong | Giant panda and forest ecosystem | National | 1963 | 1980 |
26 | Wuda Lianchi | Volcano relics | National | 1980 | 2003 |
27 | Xishuang Banna | Elephant and tropical forest | National | 1958 | 1993 |
28 | Xilingole Grassland | Meadow and sparse forest | National | 1985 | 1987 |
29 | Xingkai Lake | Wetland ecosystem, red-crowned crane | National | 1986 | 2007 |
30 | Yading | Forest ecosystem and glacier | National | 1996 | 2010 |
31 | Yancheng Wetland | Red-crowned crane and coastal ecosystem | National | 1983 | 1992 |
32 | Tianmu Mountain | Ginkgo, katsura tree, and forest ecosystem | National | 1975 | 1996 |
33 | Qomolangma Mountain | Montane forest, desert, and snow leopard | National | 1988 | 2004 |
Table 1 reprinted with permission from the Chinese National Committee for the Man and the Biosphere Program, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, available at www.mab.cas.cn/zgswqbhqwl/cbrnzgswqbhqwl_cyzl/201411/t20141116_267618.html (in Chinese). BRs, Biosphere Reserves.
Second, according to the criteria for Biosphere Reserve nomination, there are three key considerations, including conservation, development, and logistic support (Table 2)—and none of these prioritizes ecosystem services. Conservation refers to “the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species and genetic variation.” It stresses “the importance of the site for conservation of biological and cultural diversity at regional or global scales.” Although there is mention of “protecting cultural diversity and biodiversity, including genetic variation, species, ecosystems and landscapes and securing services provided by such diversity,” ecosystem services do not constitute key criteria in nomination of Biosphere Reserves. Development refers to fostering “economic and human development which is socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable.” It is required to “indicate current activities and the potential of the proposed biosphere reserve in fulfilling the objective of fostering sustainable economic and socio-cultural development, including by securing flows of ecosystem services from the biosphere reserve.” Thus, although securing ecosystem services is one of the objectives for biosphere management, it is not a criterion for establishing a Biosphere Reserve.
Table 2.
Criterion | Elaboration |
Conservation | Protecting cultural diversity and biodiversity, including genetic variation, species, ecosystems, and landscapes and securing services provided by such diversity |
Development | Fostering economic and human development that is environmentally and socially sustainable and culturally appropriate |
Logistic support | Facilitating demonstration projects, environmental education, and sustainable development education and training, research, and monitoring. Although education, research, monitoring, and capacity enhancement are seen as components of the logistic or knowledge-generation function of biosphere reserves, they are also integral to the conservation and development functions |
Table 2 data from United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, available at www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/SC/pdf/biosphere_reserve_nomination_form_2013_en.pdf and www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/main-characteristics/functions/.
Third, our suggestion to establish PAs explicitly for sustaining the provision of ecosystem services is based on three considerations vital in China and across much of the world today. The first consideration is that, currently, China’s nature reserves do not secure key regulating ecosystem services (2), including water retention (e.g., for flood control, irrigation and drinking water security, and hydropower production efficiency); soil retention (for landscape stability and sustainability, underpinning food and livelihood security); sandstorm prevention (for air quality downwind and livelihood security in source regions); and carbon sequestration (for global climate security). Because key areas for biodiversity conservation do not always match well with those for ecosystem services, the current nature reserves systems cannot meet the requirements for sustainable development in China. The second consideration is that, although there are six categories in the International Union for Conservation of Nature PA system, none is oriented around securing ecosystem services. The third consideration is that, to our knowledge, there are no PA types oriented around securing ecosystem services in the PA system of many countries, including for example Austria, Canada, Germany, Russia, South Africa, and the United Kingdom.
Thus, we see an urgent need to establish a PA category for ecosystem services, for the purpose of securing ecosystem services in China and across the world. Given the ever-intensifying human pressures on land, this approach is vital for realizing the necessary local and national support for, effectiveness of, and durability of investments in conservation (2).
Footnotes
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
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