Table 2.
Gestational weight gain (GWG) by maternal and neonatal characteristics (ANOVA).
| Variable | Sub-category | n | GWG up to 28 Weeks (n = 105) Mean (SD) | 95% CI | p-Value | Total GWG (n = 119) Mean (SD) | 95% CI | p-Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All | - | 6.33 (2.85) | 5.78–6.89 | - | 9.30 (3.72) | 8.63–9.98 | - | |
| Education level | None/primary | 16 | 5.72 (2.80) | 4.20–7.24 | 0.519 | 7.34 (3.72) | 5.51–9.17 | 0.072 |
| Secondary | 99 | 6.46 (2.92) | 5.85–7.07 | 9.64 (3.71) | 8.90–10.37 | |||
| Higher | 2 | 5.13 (0.11) | 1.84–8.42 | 8.60 (0.57) | 3.42–13.78 | |||
| Income level (LKR (Sri Lankan rupee)) | <9000 | 5 | 6.67 (2.57) | 3.33–10.00 | 0.978 | 9.08 (4.91) | 5.75–12.41 | 0.474 |
| 9000–13,999 | 20 | 6.09 (2.62) | 4.73–7.46 | 8.30 (3.44) | 6.64–9.96 | |||
| 14,000–19,999 | 32 | 6.27 (3.35) | 5.26–7.27 | 9.42 (3.23) | 8.11–10.74 | |||
| 20,000–31,999 | 45 | 6.52 (2.77) | 5.60–7.45 | 9.23 (4.21) | 8.12–10.34 | |||
| ≥32,000 | 16 | 6.04 (2.44) | 4.30–7.79 | 10.70 (3.31) | 8.77–12.61 | |||
| Area of residence | Urban | 9 | 4.53 (3.49) | 2.40–6.66 | 0.167 | 7.44 (3.93) | 4.97–9.92 | 0.306 |
| Sub-urban | 52 | 6.68 (3.33) | 5.86–7.50 | 9.28 (3.99) | 8.25–10.31 | |||
| Rural | 55 | 6.18 (2.15) | 5.37–7.00 | 9.52 (3.46) | 8.52–10.52 | |||
| History of LBW deliveries | Yes | 22 | 5.33 (3.03) | 4.14–6.52 | 0.062 | 8.04 (3.36) | 6.48–9.59 | 0.077 |
| No | 97 | 6.60 (2.76) | 5.99–7.21 | 9.60 (3.76) | 8.85–10.33 | |||
| History of miscarriage or abortion | Yes | 32 | 6.47 (2.75) | 5.43–7.51 | 0.759 | 8.87 (3.75) | 7.56–10.17 | 0.442 |
| No | 87 | 6.28 (2.91) | 5.62–6.94 | 9.46 (3.77) | 8.67–10.25 | |||
| Hyperemesis gravidarum a | Yes | 20 | 6.34 (3.21) | 5.03–7.65 | 0.978 | 9.04 (4.20) | 7.37–10.70 | 0.730 |
| No | 97 | 6.32 (2.80) | 5.70–6.93 | 9.36 (3.67) | 8.60–10.12 | |||
| Parity | Primiparous | 40 | 6.89 (2.39) | 5.86–7.92 | 0.208 | 10.00(4.00) | 8.84–11.16 | 0.146 |
| Multiparous | 79 | 6.11 (3.00) | 5.46–6.76 | 8.95 (3.54) | 8.12–9.77 | |||
| Pre-pregnancy BMI category b | Underweight | 23 | 8.43 (2.94) 1 | 7.24–9.62 | <0.001 * | 12.00(4.07) 1 | 10.58–13.43 | <0.001 * |
| Normal | 69 | 6.18 (2.26) 2 | 5.51–6.85 | 9.10 (3.12) 2 | 8.27–9.92 | |||
| Overweight | 20 | 5.73 (3.38) 2,3 | 4.60–6.86 | 7.89 (3.81) 2 | 6.37–9.42 | |||
| Obese | 7 | 2.76 (0.97) 3 | 0.44–5.08 | 6.50 (3.30) 2 | 3.92–9.08 | |||
| Energy intake c | <EER | 21 | 5.57 (3.04) | 4.32–6.82 | 0.188 | 8.05 (3.44) | 6.44–9.67 | 0.083 |
| ≥EER | 93 | 6.51 (2.85) | 5.87–7.16 | 9.62 (3.80) | 8.86–10.39 | |||
| Carbohydrate intake (g/day) | 229–429 | 25 | 5.97 (3.08) | 4.78–7.15 | 0.798 | 8.03 (3.60) | 6.56–9.50 | 0.089 |
| 430–629 | 58 | 6.41 (2.99) | 5.60–7.23 | 10.00 (3.68) | 9.03–10.96 | |||
| 630–829 | 31 | 6.45 (2.63) | 5.29–7.61 | 9.16 (3.88) | 7.84–10.49 | |||
| Protein intake d | <RDA | 21 | 5.49 (3.21) | 4.24–6.74 | 0.141 | 7.81 (3.56) | 6.20–9.41 | 0.039 * |
| ≥RDA | 93 | 6.53 (2.80) | 5.89–7.18 | 9.68 (3.74) | 8.92–10.44 | |||
| Sex of the newborn | Male | 53 | 6.44 (2.78) | 5.63–7.25 | 0.552 | 9.23 (3.31) | 8.25–10.21 | 0.976 |
| Female | 53 | 6.10 (2.75) | 5.28–6.91 | 9.21 (3.86) | 8.23–10.19 |
a During first trimester. b Based on WHO international BMI cut-off values [6]. c EER for the pregnancy second trimester based on IOM 2009 guidelines [14]. d RDA based on IOM Food and Nutrition Board 2002/2005 guidelines [15]. 1,2,3 Values with the same superscript Arabic numeral do not represent a significance difference. Compared using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post-hoc test. “n” column represents the subject numbers corresponding to total GWG. * p < 0.05. RDA: recommended dietary allowance; WHO: World Health Organization; EER: estimated energy requirement; CI: confidence interval; IOM: Institute of Medicine.