Skip to main content
PMC home page
Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine logoLink to Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine
. 2017 May-Jun;7(3):206–213.

Therapeutic efficacy of rose oil: A comprehensive review of clinical evidence

Safieh Mohebitabar 1, Mahboobeh Shirazi 2, Sodabeh Bioos 1, Roja Rahimi 3, Farhad Malekshahi 4, Fatemeh Nejatbakhsh 1,*
PMCID: PMC5511972  PMID: 28748167

Abstract

Objective:

Rose oil is obtained from the petals of difference Rosa species especially Rosa centifolia L. and Rosa damascena Mill. Various pharmacological properties have been attributed to rose oil. The aim of the present study was to review the rose oil therapeutic effects which had been clinically evaluated in trial studies.

Materials and Methods:

Google scholar, PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Scopus were searched for human studies which have evaluated the therapeutic effects of rose oil and published in English language until August 2015.

Results:

Thirteen clinical trials (772 participants) were included in this review. Rose oil was administered via inhalation or used topically. Most of the studies (five trials) evaluated the analgesic effect of rose oil. Five studies evaluated the physiological relaxation effect of rose oil. Anti-depressant, psychological relaxation, improving sexual dysfunction, and anti-anxiety effects were the other clinical properties reported for rose oil.

Conclusion:

Numerous studies on the pharmacological properties of rose oil have been done in animals, but studies in humans are few. In this study, it was observed that rose oil had physiological and psychological relaxation, analgesic and anti-anxiety effects. To obtain conclusive results on the efficacy and safety of rose oil, further clinical trials with larger sample size and better designation are required.

Key Words: Rosa damascene, Rose oil, Comprehensive review, Human studies, Clinical trial

Introduction

Rosa species commonly known as rose (Family Rosaceae) are among the most popular and widely used medicinal plants all over the world. They are originated from the Middle East but are cultivated all over the world (Krussman, 1981 ▶). Rose oil is the essential oil extracted from the petals of Rosa species especially R. damascena and R. centifolia. Some historical evidence shows that rose oil is originated from Greece (Zargari, 1992 ▶). Currently, the main producing countries of this essential oil are Bulgaria, Turkey, and Morocco. This oil is semisolid, pale, yellow, and very expensive (Baydar, 2005 ▶).

The most important components of rose oil are terpenes, glycosides, flavonoids, and anthocyanins (Almasirad et al., 2007 ▶; Knapp et al., 1998 ▶; Schiber et al., 2005 ▶). In a study carried out on the essential oil of R. damascena in Kashan region of Iran, 95 components were reported and the most abundant ones were β-citronellol (14.5-47.5%), nonadecane (10.5-40.5%), geraniol (5.5-18%) (Loghmani-Khouzaniet al., 2007 ▶).

In Persian Medicine , rose oil has been alleged to have anti-inflammatory, anti-infective and wound healing activities and has been used for relieving headache, hemorrhoids, inflammatory conditions of gastrointestinal tract, and muscular pain (Agili Shirazi, 2008 ▶; Ibn Sina, 2005 ▶).

Pharmacological activities of rose oil have been evaluated by several in vitro and in vivo studies (Maleev et al., 1972 ▶; Boskabady et al., 2006 ▶). Some studies have demonstrated its effects on the central nervous system (CNS) including hypnotic, anti-convulsant, anti-depressant, anti-anxiety, analgesic activities as well as alleviation of morphine withdrawal signs (Abbasi Maleki et al., 2013 ▶; De Almeida et al., 2004 ▶; Naziroglu et al., 2013 ▶; Ramezani et al., 2008 ▶; Umezu et al., 2002 ▶ ; Boskabady et al., 2011 ▶). Rose oil has revealed wide spectrum of antibacterial and antifungal properties against some pathogens including Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, P. fluorescens, Penicillium notatum, Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans (Eris and Ulusoy 2013 ▶; Gochev et al., 2008 ▶; Shohayeb et al., 2014 ▶; Ulusoy et al., 2009 ▶; Uniyal et al., 2013 ▶; Zu et al., 2010 ▶). Rose oil also enhanced ileum contractions and gastrointestinal motility in rats (Sadraei et al., 2013 ▶). Inhalation of rose oil showed protective effects against damages caused by exposure to formaldehyde in male reproductive system (Köse et al., 2012 ▶).

The aim of the present study is to comprehensively review the effects of rose oil in human studies.

Methods

A literature review was performed until August 2015. We searched Pubmed, the Cochrane Library, Google scholar, and Scopus for studies evaluating the effects of rose oil in human subjects. Only, The the papers written in English were considered. The reference list from retrieved articles and review articles has been also searched. We did a Boolean search using the term “or” / “and” to explore (search by subject heading) and map (search by keyword) the MeSH headings. The search terms were: “rosa” or “rose” or “rose oil” and “volatile oil” or "essential oil" and "clinical" or "human". This search excluded case reports, comments, editorials, and letters using the Boolean operator “not” (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Open in a new tab

The structure of the literature review

Results

The electronic search yielded 28 items. Papers without full text, articles that were not written in English and articles that had been investigated other species of Rosa were excluded. Thirteen clinical trials (772 participants) were included. The included studies evaluated rose oil via different approaches. Rose oil has been administered as aromatherapy or topically in these studies. It has been demonstrated that essential oils can be absorbed into the body via the skin or the olfactory system (Dye,1997 ▶; Tisserand,1996 ▶). Many studies found that olfactory stimulation by essential oils could produce instant changes in physiological parameters including muscle tension, blood pressure (BP), pulse rate, skin temperature, skin blood flow, electrodermal activity, and brain activity (Diego et al., 1998 ▶; Field et al., 2005 ▶; Lorig and Schwartz, 1988 ▶; Tisserand, 1996 ▶; Van Toller et al., 1993 ▶). Table 1 shows a summary of these studies.

Table1.

Therapeutic effect of Rosa damascena oil in human stadies

Author
(year) 		Material Sample Method Subject research Outcomes
Hur et al., 2007 Mixed essential oils of rose ,lavender,
rose geranium 		Women between 45 and 54 years of age Aroma-massage therapy Blood pressure
Lipid metabolism		 ↓SBP and ↓DBP in the aroma massage therapy group (SBP: p <0.05; DBP: p <0.05).
No significant differences in lipid metabolism between two groups HDL (p <0.01) and TG (p< 0.05).
Fukui et al., 2007 R. damascena oil (0.03 ml) Healthy college students Aroma therapy Endocrine system ↓Levels of cortisol in males and females. ↓Testosterone in the female subjects.
Kim et al., 2011 Mixed essential oils of Rosa centifolia,
Rosa damascena, Salvia sclarea Pelargonium graveolens, Zingiber officinale (at the concentration of 3%.)		 Female nurses Aroma-massage therapy Menstrual pain ↓ Menstrual pain (p < 0.001).
↓ Level of anxiety (P = 0.001).
Farnia et al., 2015 R. damascena oil (contained 17 mg Citronellol) Male suffering from MDD and SSRI-I SD Aromatherapy Sexual dysfunction ↓Sexual dysfunction (p<0.05).
Farnia et al., 2015 R. damascena oil (contained 17 mg Citronellol) Female suffering from MDD and SSRI-I SD Aromatherapy Sexual dysfunction ↓Sexual dysfunction (p<0.05).
Ayan et al., 2013 R. damascena oil (maintained at a 2% concentration) patients with renal colic Aromatherapy Pain ↓ Pain intensity 10 and 30 minutes after treatment. (p = 0.002, p = 0.000).
Marzouk et al., 2013 Essential oils: rose, cinnamon, clove, and lavender (diluted in sweet almond oil at a final concentration of 5%) Nursing students Aromatherapy Menstrual pain ↓The level (p= 0.007) and duration (p= 0.007) of menstrual pain and the amount of menstrual bleeding.
Sadeghi et al., 2015 R. damascena oil (4% diluted in almond oil) Female nurses Aroma-massage therapy Menstrual pain ↓Pain severity (p = 0.000).
Haze et al., 2002 R. damascena oil Healthy females Aromatherapy Sympathetic activity ↓30% in adrenaline concentration (P = 0.01) and ↓ 40% in relative sympathetic activity (P= 0.01).
Igarashi et al., 2014 R. damascena oil (0.2 L) was injected to a 24-L odor bag Female university students Aromatherapy Evaluations of relaxation ↑‘‘comfortable’’, ‘‘relaxed’’ and ‘‘natural’’ feelings
↓The mean oxy-Hb concentration in the right prefrontal cortex (p<0.05).
Marofi et al., 2015 R. damascena oil Children hospitalized for surgery Aromatherapy Postoperative pain ↓Pain intensity in each time point of 3, 6, 9, and 12 h after arrival to the ward (p < 0.05).
Kheirkhah et al., 2014 R. damascena oil Nulliparous women Aromatherapy Anxiety ↓Anxiety score in transitional and active phase (p<0.001).
Hongratanaworakit, 2008 R. damascena oil
(1 ml of a 20% (w/w) solution of rose oil in sweet almond oil) 		Healthy volunteers Massage therapy with rose oil Autonomic parameters and emotional responses ↓SBP, BR, BOS (p<0.03).
No significant effects on DBP and on PR (p>0.05).
↓Alertness, ↑calmness, ↑ relaxation (p=0.03 for all).
No significant effects on attentiveness, mood and vigor (p>0.05 for all).
Open in a new tab

BP: Blood Pressure, SBP: Systolic Blood Pressure, DBP: Diastolic Blood Pressure, HDL: high density Lipid, TG: Triglyceride, MDD: Major Depressive Disorder, SSRIs: Selective Serotonin-Reuptake Inhibitors, SSRI-I SD: SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction, VAS: Visual Analogue Scale, MAP: Mean Arterial Pressure, BPM: Beats Per Minute, PR: Pulse Rate, BOS: Blood Oxygen Saturation, BR: Breathing Rate, ST: Skin Temperature

Studies focusing on anti-depressant effect

Farnia et al. (2015a) ▶ showed that R. damascena oil improves the symptoms of depression and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors-induced sexual dysfunction (SSRI-ISD) in 60 male patients who were suffering from major depressive disorder (MDD) and were being treated with SSRIs. In another similar study on 50 female patients suffered from depression and SSRI-ISD, sexual desire, sexual orgasms and sexual satisfaction increased, and pain decreased by rose oil inhalation. The effect of rose oil in improvement of sexual function in male patients was more than that in female patients (Farnia et al., 2015b ▶). Some mechanisms have been also suggested for anti-depressant activity of rose oil including antagonistic effect on the stimulation of the post-synaptic 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 receptors as well as antagonistic effect on the cortico-limbic 5-HT receptors, which may also affect sexual behavior and could be responsible for increasing sexual desire, ejaculation, and orgasm. Moreover, rose oil increased the release of dopamine and norepinephrine in the substantia nigra, and inhibited nitric oxide synthase (Farnia et al., 2015b ▶)

Studies focusing on analgesic effect

In addition to conventional therapy, inhalation of the fragrance of rose essential oil by eighty patients with renal colic in the emergency room, effectively reduced renal colic pain (Ayan et al., 2013 ▶).

It was found that massage with rose oil reduces the severity of primary dysmenorrhea compared to massage therapy alone in 75 students (Sadeghi AvalShahr et al., 2015 ▶). Rose oil in combination with other essential oils also showed beneficial effects in reducing menstrual pain and bleeding (Marzouk et al., 2013 ▶; Kim et al., 2011 ▶).

A double-blind placebo controlled clinical trial compared the effects of rose oil inhalation with inhalation of almond oil. The results demonstrated reduction in postoperative pain in 32 3-6-year-old children without any significant side effects (Marofi et al., 2015 ▶). The possible mechanisms for reducing pain by rose oil inhalation are stimulating the olfactory system, increasing parasympathetic activity, releasing neurotransmitters such as enkephalin and endorphin as well as reducing sympathetic activity and the release of cortisol and noradrenalin (Ikei et al., 2014 ▶; Lee et al., 2011 ▶; Park et al., 2007 ▶; Tsunetsugu et al., 2007 ▶).

Other effects

Igarashi et al. (2014) ▶ showed that olfactory stimulation by rose oil induces physiological and psychological relaxation effects. In this study, the participants were exposed to air impregnated with rose oil for 90 seconds. Control subjects were in the same situation but inhaled only air that was not impregnated with rose oil. The results showed that inhalation of rose oil significantly decreases oxy-hemoglobin concentration and activity in the right prefrontal cortex and increases comfortable feeling conditions.

Haze et al. (2002) ▶ found that inhalation of rose oil decreases relative sympathetic activity as measured by heart rate variability and low frequency amplitude of systolic blood pressure in healthy adult females.

According to the Fukui et al. (2007) ▶ study rose oil inhalation decreased salivary cortisol and testosterone levels in healthy participants. Kheirkhah et al. (2014) ▶ investigated the efficacy of R. damascena oil in anxiety in the first stage of labor and showed reduction of anxiety in the active phase. Moreover, Hur et al. (2005) ▶ reported that aromatherapy with rose oil could reduce plasma epinephrine and norepinephrine, but does not have significant effect in mother's anxiety. In animal studies, two phytochemicals including sytrinol and 2-phenylethyl alcohol have been shown to be responsible for anxiolytic activity of rose oil (Burns et al., 2000 ▶; Senol et al., 2013 ▶).

Hongratanaworakit (2009) ▶ showed that topical application of rose oil significantly decreases blood oxygen saturation, breathing rate, and systolic blood pressure in forty healthy subjects. In this study, olfactory stimulation by inhalation was prevented.

Hur et al. (2007) ▶ in a study on 58 women showed that aromatherapy massage produces significant differences between pre and post-treatment levels of systolic blood pressure.

Conclusion

Different therapeutic properties of rose oil have been investigated in human studies and the most important of them are analgesic and anti-depressant activities. No side effects have been reported from rose oil in investigated human studies. According to Persian Medicine, some other pharmacological activities including anti-inflammatory and anti-hemorrhoidal properties have been attributed to this oil; however, no clinical trial has been focused on these activities yet. So, it is suggested to design clinical studies to evaluate these pharmacological activities. Furthermore, more research with higher populations are recommended to investigate the efficacy and safety of treatment with rose oil.

Conflict of interest

There is no conflict of interests

References

  1. Abbasi Maleki N, Abbasi Maleki S, Bekhradi R. Suppressive effects of rosa damascena essential oil on naloxone- precipitated morphine withdrawal signs in male mice. Iran J Pharm Res. 2013;12:357–361. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Agili Shirazi MH. makhzan al advieh. Tehran: Sahbae tehran; 2008. pp. 782–784. [Google Scholar]
  3. Almasirad A, Amanzadeh Y, Taheri A, Iranshahi M. Composition of a historical rose oil sample ) Rosa damascena Mill, Rosaceae) J Essent Oil Res. 2007;19:110–112. [Google Scholar]
  4. Ayan M, Tas U, Sogut E, Suren M, Gurbuzler L, Koyuncu F. Investigating the effect of aromatherapy in patients with renal colic. J Altern Complement Med. 2013;19:329–333. doi: 10.1089/acm.2011.0941. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Baydar H, Baydar NG. The effects of harvest date, fermentation duration and Tween 20 treatment on essential oil content and composition of industrial oil rose (Rosa damascena Mill) Ind Crop Prod. 2005;21:251–255. [Google Scholar]
  6. Boskabady MH, Kiani S, Rakhshandah H. Relaxant effects of Rosa damascena on guinea pig tracheal chains and its possible mechanism(s) J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;106:377–382. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2006.01.013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Boskabady MH, Shafei MN, Saberi Z, Amini S. Pharmacological effects of Rosa damascena. Iran J Basic Med Sci. 2011;14:295–307. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Burns EE, Blamey C, Ersser SJ, Barnetson L, Lloyd AJ. An investigation into the use of aromatherapy in intrapartum midwifery practice. J Altern Complement Med. 2000;6:141–147. doi: 10.1089/acm.2000.6.141. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. De Almeida RN, Motta SC, De Brito Faturi C, Catallani B, Leite JR. Anxiolytic-like effects of rose oil inhalation on the elevated plus-maze test in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav . 2004;77:361–364. doi: 10.1016/j.pbb.2003.11.004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Diego MA, Jones NA, Field T, Hernandez-Reif M, Schanberg S, Kuhn C, Galamaga M, McAdam V, Galamaga R. Aromatherapy positively affects mood, EEG patterns of alertness and math computations. Int J Neurosci. 1998;96:217–224. doi: 10.3109/00207459808986469. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Dye J. Aromatherapy for Women and Childbirth. UK Caniel Company: Saffron Walden; 1997. 216 pp. [Google Scholar]
  12. Eris R, Ulusoy S. Rose, Clove, Chamomile Essential Oils and Pine Turpentine Inhibit Quorum Sensing in Chromobacterium violaceum and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Essent Oil Bear Pl. 2013;16:126–135. [Google Scholar]
  13. Farnia V, Shirzadifar M, Shakeri J, Rezaei M, Bajoghli H, Holsboer-Trachsler E, et al. Rosa damascena oil improves SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction in male patients suffering from major depressive disorders: results from a double-blind, randomized, and placebo-controlled clinical trial. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2015a;11:625–635. doi: 10.2147/NDT.S78696. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Farnia V, Hojatitabar S, Shakeri J, Rezaei M, Yazdchi K, Bajoghli H, Holsboer-Trachsler E, Brand S. Adjuvant Rosa Damascena has a Small Effect on SSRI-induced Sexual Dysfunction in Female Patients Suffering from MDD. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2015b;48:156–163. doi: 10.1055/s-0035-1554712. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Field T, Diego M, Hernandez-Reif M, Cisneros W, Feijo L, Vera Y, Gil K, Grina D, Claire He Q. Lavender fragrance cleansing gel effects on relaxation. Int J Neurosci. 2005;115:207–222. doi: 10.1080/00207450590519175. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Fukui H, Komaki R, Okui M, Toyoshima K, Kuda K. The effects of odor on cortisol and testosterone in healthy adults. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2007;28:433–437. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Gochev V, Wlcek K, Buchbauer G, Stoyanova A, Dobreva A, Schmidt E, Jirovetz L. Comparative evaluation of antimicrobial activity and composition of rose oils from various geographic origins, in particular Bulgarian rose oil. Nat Prod Commun. 2008;3:1063–1068. [Google Scholar]
  18. Haze S, Sakai K, Gozu Y. Effects of fragrance inhalation on sympathetic activity in normal adults. Jpn J Pharmacol. 2002;90:247–253. doi: 10.1254/jjp.90.247. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Hongratanaworakit T. Relaxing effect of rose oil on humans. Nat Prod Commun. 2009;4:291–296. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Hur MH, Cheong N, Yun H, Lee M, Song Y. Effects of delivery nursing care using essential oils on delivery stress response, anxiety during labor, and postpartum status anxiety. Taehan Kanho Hakhoe chi. 2005;35:1277–1284. doi: 10.4040/jkan.2005.35.7.1277. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Hur MH, Oh H, Lee MS, Kim C, Choi AN, Shin GR. Effects of aromatherapy massage on blood pressure and lipid profile in Korean climacteric women. Int J Neurosci. 2007;117:1281–1287. doi: 10.1080/00207450600936650. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Ibn Sina H. Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb. In: IS a-D., editor. vol 2. Lebanon: Alamy Le- Al-Matbooat institute; 2005. pp. 417–418. [Google Scholar]
  23. Igarashi M, Ikei H, Song C, Miyazaki Y. Effects of olfactory stimulation with rose and orange oil on prefrontal cortex activity. Complement Ther Med. 2014;22:1027–1031. doi: 10.1016/j.ctim.2014.09.003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Ikei H, Komatsu M, Song C, Himoro E, Miyazaki Y. The physiological and psychological relaxing effects of viewing rose flowers in office workers. J Physiol Anthropol. 2014;33:6–11. doi: 10.1186/1880-6805-33-6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Kheirkhah M, Setayesh Vali Pour N, Nisani L, Haghani H. Comparing the effects of aromatherapy with rose oils and warm foot bath on anxiety in the first stage of labor in nulliparous women. Iran Red Cres MedJ. 2014;16:e14455. doi: 10.5812/ircmj.14455. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Kim Y-J, Lee MS, Yang YS, Hur M-H. Self-aromatherapy massage of the abdomen for the reduction of menstrual pain and anxiety during menstruation in nurses: a placebo-controlled clinical trial. Eur J Integr Med. 2011;3:e165–e168. [Google Scholar]
  27. Knapp H, Straubinger M, Fornari S, Oka N, Watanabe N, Winterhalter P. (S)-3,7-Dimethyl-5-octene-1,7-diol and Related Oxygenated Monoterpenoids from Petals of Rosa damascena Mill. J Agric Food Chem. 1998;46:1966–1970. [Google Scholar]
  28. Köse E, Sarsilmaz M, Taş U, Kavakli A, Türk G, Özlem Dabak D, Sapmaz H, Ögetürk M. Rose oil inhalation protects against formaldehyde-induced testicular damage in rats. Andrologia. 2012;44:342–348. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0272.2011.01187.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Krussman G. The Complete Book of Roses. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press; 1981. [Google Scholar]
  30. Lee J, Park BJ, Tsunetsugu Y, Ohira T, Kagawa T, Miyazaki Y. Effect of forest bathing on physiological and psychological responses in young Japanese male subjects. Public health. 2011;125:93–100. doi: 10.1016/j.puhe.2010.09.005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Loghmani-Khouzani H, Sabzi-Fini O, Safari J. Essential oil composition of Rosa damascena Mill cultivated in central Iran. Scientia Iranica. 2007;14:316–319. [Google Scholar]
  32. Lorig TS, Schwartz GE. Brain and odor: I Alteration of human EEG by odor administration. Psychobiology. 1988;16:281–284. [Google Scholar]
  33. Maleev A, Neshtev G, Stoianov S, Sheikov N. The ulcer protective and antiinflamatory effect of Bulgarian rose oil. Eksp Med Morfol. 1972;11:55–60. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Marofi M, Sirousfard M, Moeini M, Ghanadi A. Evaluation of the effect of aromatherapy with Rosa damascena Mill on postoperative pain intensity in hospitalized children in selected hospitals affiliated to Isfahan University of Medical Sciences in 2013: A randomized clinical trial. Iran J Nurs Midwifery Res. 2015;20:247–254. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Marzouk TMF, El-Nemer AMR, Baraka HN. The effect of aromatherapy abdominal massage on alleviating menstrual pain in nursing students: A prospective randomized cross-over study. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2013 doi: 10.1155/2013/742421. Article ID 742421, 6 pages. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Naziroglu M, Kozlu S, Yorgancigil E, Uguz AC, Karakus K. Rose oil (from Rosa x damascena Mill) vapor attenuates depression-induced oxidative toxicity in rat brain. J Nat Med. 2013;67:152–158. doi: 10.1007/s11418-012-0666-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Park BJ, Tsunetsugu Y, Kasetani T, Hirano H, Kagawa T, Sato M, et al. Physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the atmosphere of the forest)--using salivary cortisol and cerebral activity as indicators. J Physiol Anthropol. 2007;26:123–128. doi: 10.2114/jpa2.26.123. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Ramezani R, Moghimi A, Rakhshandeh H, Ejtehadi H, Kheirabadi M. The effect of Rosa damascena essential oil on the amygdala electrical kindling seizures in rat. Pak J Biol Sci. 2008;11:746–751. doi: 10.3923/pjbs.2008.746.751. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Sadeghi Aval Shahr H, Saadat M, Kheirkhah M, Saadat E. The effect of self-aromatherapy massage of the abdomen on the primary dysmenorrhoea. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2015;35:382–385. doi: 10.3109/01443615.2014.958449. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Sadraei H, Asghari G, Emami S. Inhibitory effect of Rosadamascena Mill flower essential oil, geraniol and citronellol on rat ileum contraction. Res Pharm Sci. 2013;8:17–23. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Schiber A, Mihalev K, Berardini N, Mollov P, Carle R. Flavonol glycosides from distilled petals of Rosa amascene Mill. Z Naturforsch C. 2005;60:379–384. doi: 10.1515/znc-2005-5-602. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Senol FS, Orhan IE, Kurkcuoglu M, Khan MTH, Altintas A, Sener B, et al. A mechanistic investigation on anticholinesterase and antioxidant effects of rose (Rosa damascena Mill) Food Res Int. 2013;53:502–509. [Google Scholar]
  43. Shohayeb M, Abdel-Hameed ESS, Bazaid SA, Maghrabi I. Antibacterial and antifungal activity of Rosa damascena MILL essential oil, different extracts of rose petals, Global J. of Pharmacol . 2014;8:1–7. [Google Scholar]
  44. Tisserand. Aromatherapy for Women, A Practical Guide toEssential Oils for Health and Beauty. Rochester, Vermont Vt, USA: Healing Arts Press; 1996. 176 pp. [Google Scholar]
  45. Tsunetsugu Y, Park BJ, Ishii H, Hirano H, Kagawa T, Miyazaki Y. Physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the atmosphere of the forest) in an old-growth broadleaf forest in Yamagata Prefecture, Japan. J Physiol Anthropol. 2007;26:135–142. doi: 10.2114/jpa2.26.135. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Ulusoy S, Boşgelmez-Tinaz G, Seçilmiş-Canbay H. Tocopherol, carotene, phenolic contents and antibacterial properties of rose essential oil, hydrosol and absolute. Curr Microbiol. 2009;59:554–558. doi: 10.1007/s00284-009-9475-y. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Umezu T, Ito H, Nagano K, Yamakoshi M, Oouchi H, Sakaniwa M, Morita M. Anticonflict effects of rose oil and identification of its active constituents. Life Sci. 2002;72:91–102. doi: 10.1016/s0024-3205(02)02197-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Uniyal V, Saxena S, Bhatt RP. Screening of some essential oils against Trichosporon species. J Environ Biol. 2013;34:17–22. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Van Toller S, Behan J, Howells P, et al. An analysis of spontaneous human cortical EEG activity to odours. Chem Senses. 1993;18:1–16. [Google Scholar]
  50. Zargari A. Medicinal plants. 5th ed. Tehran: Tehran University Press; 1992. pp. 280–284. [Google Scholar]
  51. Zu Y, Yu H, Liang L, Fu Y, Efferth T, Liu X, Wu N. Activities of ten essential oils towards Propionibacterium acnes and PC-3, A-549 and MCF-7 cancer cells. Molecules. 2010;15:3200–3210. doi: 10.3390/molecules15053200. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine are provided here courtesy of Mashhad University of Medical Sciences

RESOURCES