Table 1.

Overview of different nanoparticle-based detection methods and their detection limits.

Method	Nanoparticle Use	Detected Antigen	Detection Method	Lower Limit of Detection	Substrates Tested	Ref.
Conventional methods	-	Anti-HBsAg	ELISA		Plasma, serum	[73]
	-	HBsAg	ELISA	0.5 IU/mL	Plasma, serum	[19]
	-	HBV DNA	PCR	2000 IU/mL	Plasma, serum	[74]
Gold nanoparticles	DNA-coated AuNP	HBsAg	Direct detection of SPR peak	0.1 IU/mL	Blood, serum, plasma	[26]
	DNA-coated AuNP	HBV DNA	Voltammetry	2 × 10−9 M	PCR product	[37]
	Anti-HBs and HAT-coated AuNP	HBsAg	FELISA	5 × 10−4 IU/mL	HBsAg in PBS
	Oligo-coated AuNP	DNA	Colorimetric, disposable paper strips	1 × 10−9 M	N.A.	[27]
	Oligo-coated AuNP	HBV DNA	Colorimetric, dark-field microscope	1 × 10−13 M	PCR product
		HBsAg	Electrochemical	0.343 pg/mL		[36]
	Gold Nanostructure	HBsAg	SERS	0.01 IU/mL	Serum	[46]
	Oligo-coated AuNP	HBV DNA	Electrochemical (impedance)	111 copies/mL	Serum	[35]
Magnetic nanoparticles	Immobilised, probe-conjungated NP	HBV DNA	Non-faradic impedance spectroscopy	50 pMol in 20 µL; 2.5 × 10−6 M	Plasma and serum	[63]
	Anti-HBsAg coated MNP	HBsAg	(cyclic) voltammetry	0.9 pg/mL	HBsAg in PBS	[60]
QDs	HBsAg-coated QDs	Anti-HBsAg	Lateral flow	2 pg/mL	Anti-HBsAg	[67]
Magnetite and gold nanoparticles	Immobilised gold NP, competition between target DNA and MNP	HBV DNA	RCT	3.1 (±0.1) × 10−13 M	Urine, plasma	[72]
	Anti-HBsAg coated MNP and AuNP aggregation	HBsAg	Anodic stripping voltammetry	87 pg/mL	HBsAg in PBS	[75]
AuNPs and QDs	Immobilised QD, competition between target DNA and AuNP	Simultaneous HBV DNA and HCV RNA	Colorimetric, ECL quenching	8.2 × 10−14 M (HBV) and 3.4 × 10−13 M (HCV)	Plasma	[76]

ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; HBeAg: hepatitis B virus e antigen; HBsAg: hepatitis B virus surface antigen; R_CT: interfacial charge transfer resistance; QDs: quantum Dots; HAT: human alpha-thrombin; HCV: hepatitis C virus; SPR: surface plasmon resonance; FELISA: fluorescence enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; SERS: surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy; ECL: electrochemiluminescence; PBS: phosphate-buffered saline; N.A.: non applicable.