Abstract
We investigated the effect of chronic medical conditions including obesity on self-reported disability and mobility in Mexican Americans aged 75 or over using data from the Hispanic Established Population for the Epidemiological Study of the Elderly (Hispanic EPESE) Wave 5 (2004–2005). Disability was assessed with a modified version of the Katz activities of daily living (ADL) scale and mobility was assessed with the Rosow Breslau scale of gross mobility function. The percentage of participants needing assistance with ADLs were as follows: 26.7% for transferring from a bed to chair, 26.6% for walking across a small room, 17.9% for dressing, 16.3% for using a toilet, 14.3% for grooming, and 8.2% for eating. Fifty percent reported limitation in the ability to walk ½ a mile and walking up and down stairs. Multivariate logistic regression analysis after controlling for all covariates showed that arthritis, diabetes, stroke, and obesity were significantly associated with any ADL limitation, walking up and down stairs, and walking 1/2 mile. Prevention of obesity and chronic medical conditions will help increase functional independence in this population.
Keywords: Chronic Medical Conditions, Obesity, ADL disability, Gross Mobility Function Aging, Older Mexican Americans
Introduction
The presence of chronic medical conditions has been associated in previous research with old age and with functional limitations and disability (1–16). Additionally, obesity has been associated with several prevalent chronic conditions in older people (17–20). Chronic medical conditions in older adults, including obesity, substantially increase the primary US public health burden because, for older adults, physical mobility limitations associated with chronic medical conditions including obesity increase the risk of morbidity and mortality as well as dependence on others (21–23).
Obesity has been associated in previous research with decreased lower body function and mobility (14–16). The association of chronic diseases including obesity with self-reported disability and functional disabilities among older Mexican Americans has not received as much attention in the literature (14, 23–24) as have similar conditions among the general population of older people (15, 25–26).
Older Mexican Americans are a rapidly growing segment of the U.S. population with high rates of disability (14, 27–28). The gap in research focused on this population is critical because obesity is associated with serious health consequences including the development of chronic medical conditions. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of chronic medical conditions including obesity on self-reported disability and functional limitations in older Mexican Americans age 75 and over using data from the Hispanic Established Population for the Epidemiological Study of the Elderly (Hispanic EPESE). We expected that chronic medical conditions including obesity would be associated with decreased mobility and increased disability, in line with the findings of previous research (16–20).
Population and Methods
This analysis replicated a previous analysis of the baseline data from the 1993–1994 Hispanic EPESE, at which point participants were age 65 and over (28). The present analysis used data from the 2004–2005 (Wave 5) Hispanic EPESE, which studied the same population, including many original participants, at age 75 and over. However, special attention was given to the association of obesity with ADL disability in the present study which was not examined in the previously conducted studies.
Study Population
Data from Hispanic EPESE Wave 5 were used in the analysis. The Hispanic EPESE, a longitudinal, population-based study of non-institutionalized Mexican Americans age 65 and over, has been conducted in five southwestern states (Arizona, California, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas) and began in 1993–1994. This sample, using area probability extraction procedures, was generalized to the approximately 500,000 older Mexican Americans living in these five southwestern states.
Wave 5 data was collected during 2004 and 2005. Of the original 3,050 participants interviewed at baseline (1993–1994), 1167 individuals aged 75 years and over were re-interviewed. A representative sample of 902 Mexican Americans from the same region also age 75 and over were added for a total of 2069 participants. Measures included chronic medical conditions, body mass index (BMI), activities of daily living (ADL), instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs), and socio-demographic information. In-home interviews were conducted in Spanish or English depending on the participant's preference. The study had received Human Subjects approval from the Institutional Review Board of the University of Texas Medical Branch.
Measures
Seven common prevalent chronic medical conditions were assessed: arthritis, cancer, diabetes, stroke, heart attack, hip fracture, and obesity. The latter was measured by using Body Mass Index (BMI) calculated from actual height and weight. Other conditions were based on self-report of a doctor's diagnosis.
Standard BMI is calculated by dividing weight in kilograms by height in meters squared (km/m2). However, a non-metric approximation can be calculated by dividing weight in pounds by height in inches squared and multiplying the result by 703 (29). For this research, BMI was calculated based on that formula using weights and heights from the data sample (29). Then, BMI was categorized into “underweight (less than 18.5),” “normal weight (18.5 – 25.0),” “overweight (25.0 – 30.0),” and “obese (more than 30)” based on the National Institutes of Health obesity standard (29). There were 426 cases with missing BMI, a lacuna which cannot be ignored because of its considerable size (20.6%). Thus, non-BMI cases were retained in the analysis by creating a BMI category for them.
Functional limitations were measured using a modified version of the Katz activities of daily living (ADL) scale (30) and the Rosow–Breslau scale of gross mobility function (31). The seven ADLs were walking across a small room, bathing, grooming, dressing, eating, transferring from a bed to chair, and using a toilet. Additionally, the two items used from the Rosow–Breslau scale of gross mobility function were walking up and down stairs and walking a 1/2 mile.
Statistical Analysis
The Statistical Analysis System (SAS: SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC) version 9.2 was used in this analysis. The confidence interval level for statistical significance is 95%. Seven ADLs, two items from the Rosow Breslau scales, and an “any ADL” measure were used as outcomes for multivariate logistic regression analysis as a function of seven chronic medical conditions including obesity, along with age and gender.
Results
Table 1 shows the sociodemographic characteristics of the sample of the 2004–2005 (Wave 5) Hispanic EPESE. Among the 2069 participants, the mean age was 81.9 (SD=5.15), 38.5% were men, and 61.5% women. Of these participants, 1158 or 56% were born in Mexico with the remainder born in the U. S. About 80% were interviewed in Spanish. Two-thirds of the men were married as compared to 27% of the women. Years of education (75% less than 7 years) and household income (73.7% less than $15,000 a year) for the sample were quite low. Finally, 34.4% of the women and 18.2% of the men reported living alone.
Table 1. Sociodemographic characteristics of 2004–2005 (Wave 5) Hispanic EPESE participants (N=2069).
| Men (N=797) | Women (N=1272) | Total (N=2068) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age | N (%) | N (%) | N (%) |
| < 80 | 312 (39.2) | 509 (40.0) | 821 (39.7) |
| ≥ 80 | 485 (60.8) | 763 (60.0) | 1248 (60.3) |
| Age (mean±SD) Year | 81.8 ± 4.8 | 82 ± 5.3 | 81.9 ± 5.15 |
| Country of Birth | |||
| US born | 436 (54.7) | 722 (56.8) | 1158 (56.0) |
| Foreign born | 361 (45.3) | 550 (43.2) | 911 (44.0) |
| Language of Interview | |||
| English | 147 (18.4) | 261 (20.5) | 408 (19.7) |
| Spanish | 650 (81.6) | 1011 (79.5) | 1661 (80.3) |
| Marital Status | |||
| Married | 532 (66.6) | 347 (27.3) | 879 (42.5) |
| Not Married | 265 (33.4) | 925 (72.7) | 1190 (57.5) |
| Years of Education | |||
| < 7 Years | 609 (67.0) | 943 (74.1) | 1552 (75.0) |
| ≥ 7 Years | 232 (33.0) | 329 (25.9) | 517 (25.0) |
| Years of Education (mean±SD) | 4.8 ± 4.1 | 5.0 ± 4.0 | 4.9 ± 4.0 |
| Household Income | |||
| < 15,000 | 470 (67.0) | 848 (78.2) | 1318 (73.7) |
| ≥ 15,000 | 232 (33.0) | 237 (21.8) | 469 (26.3) |
| Living Alone | |||
| Yes | 146 (18.3) | 437 (34.4) | 583 (28.2) |
| No | 651 (81.7) | 835 (65.6) | 1486 (71.8) |
Table 2 presents the prevalence of seven chronic medical conditions—arthritis, cancer, diabetes, stroke, heart attack, hip fracture, and obesity (BMI)—for the 2004–2005 Hispanic EPESE. Arthritis was the most prevalent condition (59.3%), followed by diabetes (33.3%), heart attack (16.6%), stroke (13.7%), hip fracture (7.5%), and cancer (7.2%). Approximately 24.9% of the sample were of normal weight (BMI of 18.5 to 25.0), while 30.9% were overweight (BMI of 25.0 to 30.0), and 22.3% were obese (BMI of >30.0). Approximately 20.6 % of the respondents were missing BMI values.
Table 2. Prevalence of chronic diseases and BMI of 2004–2005 (Wave 5) Hispanic EPESE participants (N=2069).
| N (%) | |
|---|---|
| Arthritis | 1225 (59.3) |
| Cancer | 149 (7.2) |
| Diabetes | 690 (33.3) |
| Stroke | 282 (13.7) |
| Heart Attack | 341 (16.6) |
| Hip Fracture | 155 (7.5) |
| BMI | |
| Under weight (<18.5) | 27 (1.3) |
| Normal weight(18.5 – 25) | 515 (24.9) |
| Overweight (25-30) | 630 (30.9) |
| Obese (≥ 30) | 461 (22.3) |
| Missing | 426 (20.5) |
Table 3 shows the percentage of 2004–2005 Hispanic EPESE study participants with specific functional limitations of ADL and of the two Rosow Breslau items, walking up and down stairs (49.9%) and walking 1/2 mile (49.6%). The percentage of participants needing assistance with ADLs were as follows: 26.7% for transferring from a bed to chair, 26.6% for walking across a small room, 17.9% for dressing, 16.3% for using a toilet, 14.3% for grooming, and 8.2% for eating.
Table 3. Percentage of 2004–2005 (Wave 5) Hispanic EPESE participants with specific functional limitations (N=2069).
| Needing help or unable to do (%) | |
|---|---|
| N (%) | |
| Walking across a small room | 552 (26.6) |
| Bathing | 520 (25.1) |
| Personal grooming | 294 (14.3) |
| Dressing | 370 (17.9) |
| Eating | 169 (8.2) |
| Transferring (bed to chair) | 552 (26.7) |
| Using toilet | 338 (16.3) |
| Walk up and down stairs | 1021 (49.9) |
| Walk 1/2 mile | 996 (49.6) |
Table 4 presents the results of the logistic regression analysis of functional limitation indicators by age, gender, and selected chronic medical conditions including obesity of the 2004–2005 Hispanic EPESE. Age was significantly associated with all functional limitation indicators, with odds ratios ranging from 1.05 (eating) to 1.12 (walking 1/2 a mile). Women reported more problems than men except with eating, transferring, and using the toilet. Arthritis and diabetes were significantly associated with most indicators. As expected (26), stroke had the greatest influence on functional limitations and was significantly associated with all indicators. Heart attack was scarcely significant for all indicators except going up and down stairs (OR=1.53, 95% CI =1.15- 2.05) and walking half a mile (OR=1.41, 95% CI =1.05- 1.90). Hip fracture was significantly associated with bathing (OR=1.59, 95% CI = 1.03- 2.45), dressing (OR=1.55, 95% CI= 1.00- 2.41), going up and down stairs (OR=2.76, 95% CI = 1.75- 4.35), and walking 1/2 a mile (OR=2.26, 95% CI=1.43- 3.58).
Table 4. Results of logistic regression analysis (odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) of functional limitation indicators by age, gender, selected chronic diseases, and obesity of 2004–2005 (Wave 5) Hispanic EPESE participants (N=2069).
| Walk across small a room |
Bathing | Personal grooming |
Dressing | Eating | Transferring | Using toilet | Any ADL limitation |
Stairs of 2nd floor |
Walk 1/2 mile |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age | 1.085 (1.061- 1.111) |
1.105 (1.079- 1.132) |
1.095 (1.068- 1.123) |
1.089 (1.062- 1.116) |
1.054 (1.023- 1.087) |
1.067 (1.043- 1.090) |
1.072 (1.045- 1.100) |
1.102 (1.078- 1.127) |
1.118 (1.093- 1.144) |
1.123 (1.097- 1.150) |
| Gender female | 1.442 (1.116 -1.865) |
1.839 (1.402- 2.412) |
1.511 (1.111- 2.055) |
1.425 (1.066- 1.904) |
1.025 (0.710- 1.478) |
1.264 (0.991- 1.613) |
1.254 (0.924- 1.702) |
1.563 (1.242- 1.968) |
1.928 (1.550- 2.398) |
1.939 (1.554- 2.420) |
| Arthritis | 1.632 (1.263- 2.108) |
1.618 (1.240- 2.112) |
1.211 (0.895- 1.637) |
1.629 (1.217- 2.180) |
1.241 (0.855- 1.802) |
1.833 (1.432- 2.346) |
1.424 (1.048- 1.934) |
2.033 (1.615- 2.559) |
1.974 (1.591- 2.448) |
2.368 (1.900- 2.951) |
| Cancer | 0.870 (0.548- 1.381) |
1.279 (0.807- 2.025) |
0.937 (0.551- 1.594) |
0.911 (0.548- 1.514) |
0.983 (0.523- 1.848) |
0.921 (0.592- 1.433) |
0.857 (0.501- 1.467) |
1.231 (0.815- 1.860) |
1.368 (0.912- 2.052) |
1.378 (0.909- 2.091) |
| Diabetes | 1.602 (1.246- 2.061) |
1.641 (1.262- 2.133) |
1.331 (0.986- 1.797) |
1.473 (1.109- 1.956) |
0.958 (0.658- 1.396) |
1.462 (1.148- 1.861) |
1.495 (1.107- 2.019) |
1.455 (1.157- 1.830) |
1.801 (1.440- 2.252) |
1.818 (1.447- 2.283) |
| Stroke | 2.214 (1.598- 3.068) |
1.760 (1.254- 2.468) |
2.341 (1.646- 3.330) |
2.350 (1.667- 3.311) |
2.953 (1.973- 4.421) |
1.492 (1.081- 2.060) |
2.264 (1.579- 3.248) |
1.662 (1.208- 2.287) |
1.794 (1.285- 2.503) |
2.118 (1.502- 2.985) |
| Heart Attack | 1.145 (0.837- 1.566) |
1.341 (0.974- 1.846) |
1.012 (0.703- 1.458) |
0.982 (0.693- 1.392) |
0.760 (0.479- 1.208) |
0.972 (0.714- 1.322) |
0.998 (0.690- 1.444) |
1.102 (0.823- 1.476) |
1.534 (1.146- 2.054) |
1.409 (1.048- 1.896) |
| Hip fracture | 1.498 (0.979- 2.294) |
1.585 (1.027- 2.447) |
1.196 (0.755- 1.894) |
1.553 (1.003- 2.405) |
1.039 (0.591- 1.825) |
0.795 (0.518- 1.222) |
1.187 (0.740- 1.905) |
1.442 (0.953- 2.183) |
2.762 (1.753- 4.353) |
2.260 (1.428- 3.576) |
| BMI normal | ||||||||||
| <18.5 | 0.409 (0.086- 1.955) |
1.610 (0.541- 4.792) |
1.445 (0.386- 5.413) |
2.414 (0.814- 7.158) |
0.827 (0.105- 6.529) |
0.721 (0.202- 2.572) |
0.928 (0.198- 4.346) |
1.040 (0.382- 2.832) |
2.024 (0.836- 4.901) |
2.068 (0.850- 5.034) |
| 25-30 | 0.955 (0.671- 1.360) |
1.123 (0.778- 1.621) |
1.110 (0.705- 1.747) |
0.990 (0.643- 1.525) |
0.746 (0.397- 1.404) |
1.056 (0.754- 1.478) |
0.751 (0.461- 1.221) |
1.244 (0.925- 1.673) |
1.242 (0.950- 1.622) |
1.442 (1.098- 1.893) |
| ≥ 30 | 1.503 (1.051- 2.151) |
1.280 (0.868- 1.886) |
0.979 (0.592- 1.617) |
1.145 (0.728- 1.800) |
0.949 (0.497- 1.814) |
1.364 (0.960- 1.937) |
1.026 (0.627- 1.678) |
1.720 (1.258- 2.351) |
1.549 (1.159- 2.071) |
2.013 (1.497- 2.706) |
| BMI not reported | 11.429 (8.137- 16.052) |
13.094 (9.190- 18.657) |
6.100 (4.100- 9.077) |
8.587 (5.895- 12.510) |
6.011 (3.663- 9.866) |
9.254 (6.662- 12.856) |
10.984 (7.411- 16.280) |
12.733 (9.059- 17.896) |
13.522 (9.146- 19.994) |
17.797 (11.754- 26.947) |
All numbers indicate odds ratios (95% confidence Interval)
Obesity (BMI > 30) was significantly associated with difficulty in walking across a small room (OR=1.50, 95% CI= 1.05- 2.15), any ADL limitation (OR=1.72, 95% CI= 1.26- 2.35), climbing stairs (OR=1.50, 95% CI=1.16- 2.07), and walking 1/2 a mile (OR=2.01, 95% CI=1.50- 2.71) as compared with normal BMI (BMI of 18.5 – 25.0). Missing BMI was significantly associated with all items, with odds ratios ranging from 6.10 (personal grooming) to 17.80 (walking 1/2 a mile).
Discussion
Arthritis, diabetes, stroke, heart attack, hip fracture, and obesity affected all self-reported functional limitations among Mexican Americans age 75 or older residing in the Southwestern United States. In harmony with previous research (27), these selected chronic diseases showed statistically significant relationships with several functional limitations, and each functional limitation was mutually exclusive including age and gender.
Generally, compared with the 1993–1994 Hispanic EPESE (age 65 and over) baseline analysis (28), the prevalence of chronic medical conditions and the percentage with specific functional limitations increased in the 2004–2005 sample (age 75 and over). However, selected chronic medical conditions were less likely to affect gross mobility function in the latter sample as compared to the former. In addition, this research finds that obesity, added in this analysis, is clearly associated with functional limitations and disability, especially with respect to transferring and walking. Although the impact of selected chronic diseases on gross mobility function is relatively smaller, severely obese people clearly have problems walking and transferring as compared to individuals with a normal BMI.
Compared to the previous analysis of date from the 1993–1994 Hispanic EPESE (28), stroke also had a more significant influence on all indicators for the sample studied here. This finding is still consistent with previous research (1, 4, 10). Arthritis (from 40.8% to 59.3%) and diabetes (from 22.2% to 33.3%) were more likely to explain much of the self-reported disability as compared with the 1993–1994 Hispanic EPESE analysis (28). Arthritis and diabetes were significantly associated with most disability indicators except personal grooming and eating. Arthritis was significant for “any ADL” limitation, going up and down stairs, and walking half a mile, while diabetes was significant for most indicators except bathing, personal grooming, eating, and using the toilet. Heart attack was less associated with gross mobility function as compared with the previous analysis due to the increased prevalence of heart attack (from 9.2% to 16.6%). Heart attack was only significant in going up and down stairs, and walking half a mile. Finally, obesity emerges as a possible explanation for self-rated disability in this analysis. Compared with normal BMI, obesity (BMI) is significantly associated with walking across a small room, any ADL limitation, climbing stairs, and walking 1/2 a mile.
This study is subject to some limitations. First, due to intrinsic limitations of the cross-sectional design, causation cannot be established. Therefore, this analysis concerns the association between selected chronic medical conditions, including obesity, and certain functional limitations. However, this analysis consistently points toward a significant influence of selected chronic diseases on functional limitations, supporting existing research. A longitudinal analysis could more precisely predict a causal relationship between selected chronic diseases and functional limitations. Second, missing information on BMI was high. Missing BMI was significantly associated with all functional limitations when compared to normal BMI. However, the missing BMI cases do not effectively explain the association between obesity and ADL disability.
In summary, using the 2004–2005 Hispanic EPESE data, and consistently with the baseline 1993–1994 Hispanic EPESE analysis, we found an association between major chronic medical conditions and functional limitations among Mexican Americans participants age 75 and over. However, compared with the baseline Hispanic EPESE analysis, selected chronic medical conditions are less likely to affect gross mobility function, although the prevalence of selected chronic medical conditions and the percentage with specific functional limitations increased between the two samples. Additionally, this study showed obesity to be significantly associated with decreased mobility, suggesting a need for future research pertaining to this topic.
Acknowledgments
We thank Kerstin Gerst Emerson, Holly Beard, and Majd AlGhatrif for their detailed and constructive comments. Please direct correspondence to Associate Professor Sanggon Nam, Department of Public Health Sciences, California Baptist University, USA.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Institute on Aging (R01 AG10939) and in part by the UTMB Claude D. Pepper Older Americans Independence Center NIH/NIA Grant # P30 AG024832 from the National Institute of Health and National Institute on Aging, US
Footnotes
Conflict of Interest Statement: None
References
- 1.Verbrugge LM, Lepkowski JM, Imanaka Y. Comorbidity and its impact on disability. Milbank Q. 1989;67:450–484. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 2.Verbrugge LM, Lepkowski JM, Konkol LL. Levels of disability among U.S. adults with arthritis. J Gerontol. 1991;46(2):S71–S83. doi: 10.1093/geronj/46.2.s71. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 3.Guccione AA, Felson DT, Anderson JJ. Defining arthritis and measuring functional status in elders: Methodological issues in the study of disease and physical disability. Am J Public Health. 1990;80(8):945–949. doi: 10.2105/ajph.80.8.945. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 4.Guccione AA, Felson DT, Anderson JJ, et al. The effects of specific medical conditions on the functional limitations of elders in the Framingham Study. Am J Public Health. 1994;84(3):351–358. doi: 10.2105/ajph.84.3.351. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 5.Fried LP, Ettionger WH, Lind B, et al. Physical disability in older adults: A physiological approach. J Clin Epidemiol. 1994;47(7):747–760. doi: 10.1016/0895-4356(94)90172-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 6.Satariano WA, Ragheb NE, Branch LG, Swanson GM. Difficulties in physical functioning reported by middle-aged and elderly women with breast cancer: A case control comparison. J Gerontol. 1990;45(1):M3–M11. doi: 10.1093/geronj/45.1.m3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 7.Kaplan GA. Epidemiologic observations on the compression of morbidity. J Aging Health. 1991;3(2):155–171. [Google Scholar]
- 8.Barrett-Connor E, Wingard DL. Heart disease risk factors as determinants of dependency and death in an older cohort. J Aging Health. 1991;3(2):247–261. [Google Scholar]
- 9.Jette AM, Pinsky JL, Branch LG, Wolf PA, Feinleib M. The Framingham Disability Study: Physical disability among community-dwelling survivors of stroke. J Clin Epidemiol. 1988;41(8):719–726. doi: 10.1016/0895-4356(88)90157-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 10.Pinsky JL, Branch LG, Jette AM, et al. The Framingham Disability Study: Relationship of disability to cardiovascular risk factors among persons free of diagnosed cardiovascular disease. Am J Epidemiol. 1985;122(4):644–656. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114144. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 11.Moritz DJ, Ostfeld AM, Blazer D, et al. The health burden of diabetes for the elderly in four communities. Public Health Rep. 1994;109(6):782–790. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 12.Nickel JT, Chirikos TN. Functional disability of elderly patients with long-term coronary heart disease: A sex-stratified analysis. J Gerontol. 1990;45(2):S60–S68. doi: 10.1093/geronj/45.2.s60. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 13.Magaziner J, Simonsick EM, Kashner TM, Hebel JR, Kenzora JE. Predictors of functional recovery one year following hospital discharge for hip fracture: A prospective study. J Gerontol. 1990;45(3):M101–M107. doi: 10.1093/geronj/45.3.m101. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 14.Al Snih S, Ottenbacher KJ, Markides KS, Kuo Y, Eschbach K, Goodwin JS. The effect of obesity on disability versus mortality in Older Americans. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167(8):774–780. doi: 10.1001/archinte.167.8.774. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 15.Guallar-Castillon P, Sagardui-Villamor J, Banegas JR, et al. Waist circumference as a predictor of disability among older adults. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2007;15(1):233–44. doi: 10.1038/oby.2007.532. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 16.Nam S, Kuo YF, Markides KS, Al Snih S. Waist circumference (WC), body mass index (BMI), and disability among older adults in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) Arch Geront Geriatr. 2012;55(2):e40–e47. doi: 10.1016/j.archger.2012.04.006. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 17.Bray GA. Medical consequences of obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;2004;89:2583–2589. doi: 10.1210/jc.2004-0535. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 18.Cossrow N, Falkner B. Race/ethnicity issues in obesity and obesity-related comorbidities. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89(6):2590–2594. doi: 10.1210/jc.2004-0339. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 19.Ferraro KF, Su YP, Gretebeck RJ, et al. Body mass index and disability in adulthood: A 20-year panel study. Am J Public Health. 2002;92(5):834–840. doi: 10.2105/ajph.92.5.834. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 20.Weil E, Wachterman M, McCarthy EP, et al. Obesity among adults with disabling conditions. JAMA. 2002;288(10):1265–1268. doi: 10.1001/jama.288.10.1265. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 21.Hellström Y, Hallberg IR. Perspectives of elderly people receiving home help on health, care and quality of life. Health Soc Care Community. 2001;9(2):61–71. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2524.2001.00282.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 22.Lennartsson C, Silverstein M. Does engagement with life enhance survival of elderly people in Sweden? The role of social and leisure activities. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2001;56(6):S335–S342. doi: 10.1093/geronb/56.6.s335. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 23.Nam S, Al Snih S, Markides K. Lower body function as a predictor of mortality over 13 years of follow up: Findings from Hispanic Established Population for the Epidemiological Study of the Elderly. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2016;16(12):1324–1331. doi: 10.1111/ggi.12650. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 24.Chen H, Bermudez OI, Tucker KL. Waist circumference and weight change are associated with disability among elderly Hispanics. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2002;57(1):M19–M25. doi: 10.1093/gerona/57.1.m19. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 25.Visser M, Harris TB, Langlois J, et al. Body fat and skeletal muscle mass in relation to physical disability in very old men and women of the Framingham Heart Study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 1998;53(3):M214–M221. doi: 10.1093/gerona/53a.3.m214. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 26.Banerman E, Miller MD, Daniels LA, et al. Anthropometric indices predict physical function and mobility in older Australians: the Australian Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Public Health Nutr. 2002;5(5):655–662. doi: 10.1079/PHN2002336. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 27.Nam S, Al Snih S, Markides KS. Sex, nativity, and disability in older Mexican Americans. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2015;63(12):2596–2600. doi: 10.1111/jgs.13827. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 28.Markides KS, Stroup-Benham CA, Goodwin JS, Perkowski LC, Lichtenstein M, Ray LA. The effect of medical conditions on the functional limitations of Mexican-American elderly. Ann Epidemiol. 1996;6(5):386–391. doi: 10.1016/s1047-2797(96)00061-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 29.National Heart, Lung, Blood Institute. Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of over- weight and obesity in adults: Evidence report (Rep No. 02-4084) 2002 [Google Scholar]
- 30.Branch LG, Katz S, Kniepmann K, Papsidero JA. A prospective study of functional status among community elders. Am J Public Health. 1984;74(3):266–268. doi: 10.2105/ajph.74.3.266. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 31.Shah BV, Barnwell BG, Bieler GS. SUDAAN User's Manual, Version 6.40. 2nd. Research Triangle Institute; Research Triangle Park, NC: 1996. [Google Scholar]