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Lipids in Health and Disease logoLink to Lipids in Health and Disease
. 2017 Nov 10;16:211. doi: 10.1186/s12944-017-0602-7

Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of different parts and formulations of bitter gourd (Momordica Charantia)

Mahwish 1, Farhan Saeed 1, Muhammad Sajid Arshad 1,✉, Mahr un Nisa 1, Muhammad Tahir Nadeem 1, Muhammad Umair Arshad 1
PMCID: PMC5681810  PMID: 29126447

Abstract

Background

Cardiovascular diseases and diabetes are responsible for large number of deaths throughout the globe. Bitter gourd has the potential to become a component of the diet or a dietary supplement for diabetic and pre-diabetic patients owing to the presence of insulin like molecules. Recent investigations have suggested that bitter gourd extracts may ameliorate high fat diet induced obesity and hyperlipidemia in animal models. Moreover, its supplements in food result in lowering weight gain and visceral fat mass.

Methods

The current study was designed to investigate the nutraceutical potential of skin, flesh and whole fruit of bitter gourd cultivars against hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia. For the purpose, various bitter gourd cultivars were procured from local market. Bio-evaluation studies were carried out on biochemical parameters using rodent experiment model.

Results

From results, it was revealed that maximum reduction in blood glucose skin 1.06%, flesh 2.65%, whole fruit 4.29%, total cholesterol skin 6.60%, flesh 6.04%, whole fruit 6.70%, low density lipoprotein skin 5.55%, flesh 6.81%, whole fruit 6.60%, and triglycerides skin 0.04%, flesh 3.38%, whole fruit 2.02%, were observed. Moreover, insulin skin 2.14%, flesh 3.52%, whole fruit 2.73%, production was slightly enhanced with improved levels of high density lipoprotein in whole fruit of bitter gourd.

Conclusion

Overwhelmingly, it may be inferred here that bitter gourd holds the potential to significantly improve diabetic conditions and associated late complications with no ill effects on body organs.

Keywords: Functional foods, Bitter gourd, Nutraceutical, Hyperglycemia, Hyperlipidemia

Background

Incidence of chronic diseases is a rising apprehension globally with ever escalating reported cases of physiological syndromes. Besides, continued oxidative stress and oxidative damage lead to chronic inflammation and other physiological abnormalities [1]. Among these chronic diseases, diabetes and cardiovascular (CVD) are responsible for large number of deaths in the world [2]. Diabetes mellitus is an emerging global health perspective that is prevalent in more than 285 million people worldwide. It has been anticipated that diabetes affected people will be around 439 million by 2030. Furthermore, it has been projected that about 75% of the affected people will be from developing countries [3]. As far as the hyperlipidemia is concerned, it is lipid metabolism disorder and major risk factor for the development of cardiovascular aberration. It is prevalent among 7% of the adult population with an estimated 25 million people affected [4, 5].

Diabetes mellitus treatment often results in some late complex abnormalities including nephropathy, neuropathy and retinopathy etc. Due to adverse responses and rely upon low cost therapeutic ways, about 30% of diabetic patients use alternative therapeutic ways [6]. Various plant based remedial strategies are being utilized worldwide to cope with the chronic diseases and infections as preventive and curative measure. According to the statistics of WHO plant based medicines are being used by nearly 80% of the people for their primary healthcare worldwide. This analeptic potential of plant based medication is ratified to an array of valued phytochemicals present predominantly in their waste products. Among these, bitter gourd and its various components and formulations can be used due to their sugar lowering effects via biochemical, pharmacological and physiological modes [7, 8].

Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) is a climbing perennial, tendril-bearing vine belongs to family cucurbitaceae. In the past, it was frequently used as antidote for diabetes, stomach pain, wounds, tumors, malaria, rheumatism, colic, inflammation, measles and fevers [9, 10]. Owing to the presence of insulin like molecules, bitter gourd has the potential to become a component of the diet or a dietary supplement for diabetic and pre-diabetic patients [11]. Recently, many researchers evaluated the role of bitter gourd in lowering blood glucose level [12, 13], cholesterol [13, 14] and visceral fat mass [15].

Recent researches also suggested that bitter gourd extracts may ameliorate high fat diet induced obesity and hyperlipidemia in animal models. Bitter gourd supplements in food result in lowering weight gain and visceral fat mass. This might be due to increase in the level of oxidation of fatty acid and ultimately reduction in weight and peritoneal fat deposition [15]. Most of these studies have been conducted with fruit pulps only. Very little information is available to compare the different parts and formulations of the plant in parallel experiments.

The present study was planned with the objectives to determine hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effect of bitter gourd on normal, hyperglycemic and hyperlipidemic rats and to identify the part of the plant where the hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic principle is concentrated. Moreover, assessment of different formulations was also undertaken to find the suitable dose under these conditions.

Methods

Procurement of raw material

Fruits of bitter gourd were procured from Vegetable Research Section, Ayub Agriculture Research Institute, Faisalabad. These fruits were washed thoroughly under running tap water to remove adhered dirt, dust and other foreign debris.

Biological assay

To evaluate the hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic properties of skin, flesh and whole fruit powder of bitter gourd, an efficacy trial was planned. For the purpose, male Sprague Dawley rats were procured from the national institute of health, Islamabad. Initially, the rats were acclimatized by feeding basal diet for 1 week period. The environmental conditions were controlled throughout the trial like temperature (23 ± 2 °C) and relative humidity (55 ± 5%) along with 12 h light-dark period. At the initiation of study, some rats were dissected to establish the baseline trend. During efficacy trial, three types of studies were conducted independently by involving normal, hyperglycemic and hyperlipidemic. In Study I, rats were fed on normal diet whereas in study II and study III, high sucrose and high fat diets were administrated, respectively. In the animal modeling, seven groups of rats were formed in three different studies assigning 10 rats in each group. During the entire trial, bitter gourd formulations based feed was given to the respective groups.

Feed plans for experimental rats

For control group, experimental diet was prepared by using corn oil (10%), corn starch (66%), protein (10%), cellulose (10%), mineral (3%) and vitamin mixture (1%). In experimental groups, bitter gourd was added in the aforementioned diet (Table 1).

Table 1.

Diet plan used in the studies

Study I (Normal diet) Study II (High sucrose diet) Study III (High cholesterol diet)
Groups 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Diet D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6
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D0: Control

D1: Diet containing bitter gourd skin powder 150 mg / kg of body weight

D2: Diet containing bitter gourd skin powder 300 mg / kg of body weight

D3: Diet containing bitter gourd flesh powder 150 mg / kg of body weight

D4: Diet containing bitter gourd flesh powder 300 mg / kg of body weight

D5: Diet containing bitter gourd whole fruit powder 150 mg / kg of body weight

D6: Diet containing bitter gourd whole fruit powder 300 mg / kg of body weight

Feed and water intake

The gross feed intake of each group was calculated every day, excluding the spilled diet throughout the study period. The net water intake was also recorded on daily basis by measuring the difference in graduated bottles.

Body weight gain

The gain in body weight for each group of rats was monitored on weekly basis to estimate any suppressing effect of bitter gourd formulations.

Hypoglycemic perspectives

In each group, at respective intervals (4th and 8th week) glucose concentration was estimated by GOD-PAP method as described by Katz et al. [16], whereas, insulin level was estimated by following the instructions of Ahn et al. [17].

Serum lipid profile

Serum cholesterol level was determined using CHOD–PAP method [18], low density lipoproteins (LDL) by following the procedure of according to the guidelines of Kim et al. [18], high density lipoprotein (HDL) by HDL Cholesterol Precipitant method [19] and triglycerides level by liquid triglycerides (GPO–PAP) method as described by Kim et al. [18].

Liver functioning tests

For liver soundness, alanine transferase (ALT), aspartate transferase (AST) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were estimated [20]. The ALT and AST levels were measured by dinitrophenylhydrazene (DNPH) through Sigma Kits 58–50 and 59–50, respectively whereas; Alkaline Phosphatase-DGKC was used for ALP assessment.

Kidney functioning tests

The serum samples were analyzed for urea by GLDH-method, whilst creatinine by Jaffe procedure via commercial kits to evaluate the kidney functioning [21, 22].

Weight of body organ

After the trial period, the mice were dissected and body organs like heart, lungs, kidney, liver pancreas and spleen were collected and weighed.

Statistical analysis

The generated data was being applied by completely randomized design (CRD) and further subjected to statistical analysis using Statistical Package (Microsoft Excel 2010 and Statistix 8.1). Analysis of variance technique (ANOVA) was used to determine the level of significance [23].

Results

Feed and water intake

Neither feeding with different parts of bitter gourd fruit nor the variations in concentration of bitter gourd in diet influenced food intake during the experimental period. However, this trait affected significantly with time intervals (weeks) in all studies (Fig. 1). The non-substantial effect of addition of bitter gourd in diet on feed intake is in harmony with the findings of Klomann et al. [24]. The different parts and variation in amount of bitter gourd in diet imparted significant effect on water intake in all the studies. The maximum water intake was observed in control group than other groups fed with diet containing bitter gourd (Fig. 2). Shetty et al. [25] reported that water intake increase in diabetic group but the supplementation of bitter gourd in diet significantly decreases the consumption of water. The excessive water intake is a characteristic sign of diabetes. Parmar et al. [26] found that there was an increase in intake of water in diabetic rats as compared to rats of control groups.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Feed intake (g/rat/day) in different studies with different diets

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Water intake (mL/rat/day) in different studies with different diets

Body weight

Body weight affected substantially with diets containing different parts and concentrations with the passage of time (Fig. 3). It was noted that weight is reduced slightly by giving bitter gourd in rats fed with normal diet while in sucrose and cholesterol fed rats, weight is increased considerably in experimental groups in comparison to their respective control groups. Shetty et al. [25] also found a marginal increase in body weight of diabetic rats fed with diet containing bitter gourd. Similar findings by Hossain et al. [27] also strengthen the current results that body weight of diabetic groups treated with bitter gourd was higher than the untreated diabetic group.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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Body weight gain (g/rat/day) in different studies with different diets

Effect on studied blood parameters

The results of various blood parameters depicted encouraging effect of utilization of bitter gourd in study I, study II and study III (Table 2, 3 and 4).

Table 2.

Effects of bitter gourd on blood parameters in comparison to control in normal rats (Study I)

Control diet (D0) Skin Flesh Whole fruit
150 mg/kg (D1) 300 mg/kg (D2) 150 mg/kg (D3) 300 mg/kg (D4) 150 mg/kg (D5) 300 mg/kg (D6)
Glucose (mg/dL) 0 day 88.23 ± 1.14abc 89.67 ± 2.18ab 88.97 ± 3.29abc 90.97 ± 2.17a 89.03 ± 1.85abc 89.17 ± 2.40abc 89.93 ± 2.49ab
28 day 89.90 ± 2.55ab 88.73 ± 1.27abc 88.03 ± 1.36abc 89.63 ± 2.85ab 88.10 ± 1.97abc 88.00 ± 4.23abc 87.80 ± 2.08abc
56 day 90.37 ± 1.22a 88.60 ± 2.25abc 88.03 ± 0.51abc 87.47 ± 1.21abc 86.73 ± 1.86bc 86.73 ± 1.65bc 86.07 ± 1.23c
Insulin (μIU/mL) 0 day 9.67 ± 0.32abc 9.37 ± 0.21abcde 9.53 ± 0.25abcde 9.57 ± 0.23abcde 9.70 ± 0.35ab 9.30 ± 0.10abcde 9.60 ± 0.36abcd
28 day 9.17 ± 0.06bcde 9.17 ± 0.61bcde 9.20 ± 0.56bcde 9.50 ± 0.10abcde 9.30 ± 0.40abcde 9.00 ± 0.36e 9.37 ± 0.31abcde
56 day 9.03 ± 0.31de 9.10 ± 0.36cde 9.33 ± 0.32abcde 9.07 ± 0.35de 9.37 ± 0.15abcde 9.13 ± 0.25bcde 9.87 ± 0.76a
Cholesterol (mg/dL) 0 day 78.63 ± 1.95bcd 79.70 ± 1.42bc 79.53 ± 1.88bc 79.60 ± 3.24bc 78.47 ± 1.48bcd 80.27 ± 0.95b 79.60 ± 2.34bc
28 day 84.13 ± 0.67a 78.13 ± 0.70bcd 76.37 ± 0.87defg 77.27 ± 1.96cdef 75.17 ± 1.98efg 78.37 ± 2.12bcd 75.93 ± 1.70defg
56 day 85.83 ± 0.35a 77.13 ± 1.19cdef 74.60 ± 0.98fg 75.17 ± 2.22efg 74.00 ± 0.95g 75.90 ± 2.56defg 74.67 ± 1.58fg
LDL (mg/dL) 0 day 29.87 ± 2.06ab 29.93 ± 2.28ab 29.63 ± 3.14ab 28.63 ± 1.21ab 29.80 ± 2.09ab 31.03 ± 2.56a 29.07 ± 2.15ab
28 day 29.97 ± 2.39ab 29.50 ± 2.46ab 29.77 ± 1.40ab 29.33 ± 1.79ab 28.60 ± 1.47ab 27.60 ± 1.15bc 27.27 ± 1.30bc
56 day 29.10 ± 1.51ab 29.00 ± 1.81ab 28.07 ± 3.07ab 28.77 ± 2.06ab 27.90 ± 1.92abc 27.97 ± 1.72ab 27.93 ± 1.55abc
HDL (mg/dL) 0 day 33.83 ± 1.80g 34.07 ± 0.71fg 35.23 ± 2.32efg 34.77 ± 1.71efg 35.03 ± 1.64efg 33.43 ± 1.17g 34.20 ± 1.93efg
28 day 37.30 ± 2.29def 37.53 ± 1.27cde 39.07 ± 2.05bcd 40.87 ± 1.56abc 41.73 ± 1.75ab 40.53 ± 2.18abcd 41.13 ± 2.04ab
56 day 38.80 ± 3.17bcd 40.23 ± 1.65abcd 41.90 ± 2.76ab 41.23 ± 2.90ab 42.63 ± 1.55a 42.73 ± 1.57a 42.77 ± 2.70a
Triglycerides (mg/dL) 0 day 68.43 ± 0.71 67.77 ± 2.29 67.60 ± 0.89 67.80 ± 2.00 68.37 ± 1.65 67.87 ± 1.19 67.37 ± 1.50
28 day 68.20 ± 1.40 67.37 ± 1.43 66.60 ± 1.07 67.53 ± 0.87 67.50 ± 2.12 67.43 ± 3.31 67.03 ± 3.25
56 day 68.33 ± 3.26 68.10 ± 1.37 67.63 ± 1.59 67.23 ± 1.71 66.13 ± 2.64 66.73 ± 2.84 66.03 ± 3.16
ALP (IU/L) 0 day 165.20 ± 3.73 165.77 ± 6.55 164.47 ± 3.84 164.57 ± 7.40 164.83 ± 3.45 164.83 ± 2.60 163.77 ± 7.40
28 day 163.83 ± 2.76 162.73 ± 1.94 161.67 ± 2.31 163.10 ± 6.58 162.30 ± 1.61 163.27 ± 3.48 162.10 ± 2.76
56 day 164.87 ± 3.35 163.17 ± 4.43 163.33 ± 2.08 163.47 ± 3.09 162.10 ± 2.31 163.13 ± 4.44 162. 43 ± 1.46
ALT (IU/L) 0 day 42.53 ± 1.90ab 42.90 ± 1.35a 41.37 ± 0.93abcde 42.00 ± 1.15abcd 42.07 ± 1.23abc 42.93 ± 2.38a 42.60 ± 1.21ab
28 day 42.90 ± 1.37a 41.47 ± 0.49abcde 41.40 ± 0.87abcde 41.37 ± 0.93abcde 41.40 ± 2.18abcde 40.87 ± 0.85abcde 39.83 ± 0.81cde
56 day 42.70 ± 2.23ab 41.37 ± 0.99abcde 41.27 ± 0.91abcde 40.20 ± 1.06bcde 39.87 ± 0.38cde 39.60 ± 2.16de 39.37 ± 2.40e
AST (IU/L) 0 day 136.63 ± 2.87abc 137.40 ± 0.89abc 137.57 ± 1.70ab 136.37 ± 2.08abc 136.30 ± 1.35abc 136.30 ± 2.38abc 135.77 ± 1.42abc
28 day 136.40 ± 2.26abc 135.43 ± 1.89abc 135.37 ± 0.85abc 135.20 ± 1.54abc 135.17 ± 0.40bc 135.20 ± 1.00abc 135.13 ± 1.07bc
56 day 137.67 ± 1.20a 136.40 ± 0.56abc 135.13 ± 1.24bc 135.10 ± 1.54bc 135.08 ± 1.03c 135.10 ± 1.13bc 135.07 ± 1.95c
Serum creatinine (mg/dL) 0 day 0.70 ± 0.02 0.72 ± 0.02 0.70 ± 0.02 0.71 ± 0.02 0.70 ± 0.03 0.72 ± 0.02 0.71 ± 0.02
28 day 0.73 ± 0.05 0.71 ± 0.02 0.70 ± 0.03 0.70 ± 0.02 0.71 ± 0.02 0.70 ± 0.04 0.69 ± 0.02
56 day 0.74 ± 0.03 0.69 ± 0.01 0.69 ± 0.01 0.69 ± 0.02 0.68 ± 0.03 0.69 ± 0.01 0.69 ± 0.01
Serum urea (mg/dL) 0 day 26.47 ± 0.60abc 27.33 ± 1.00ab 27.63 ± 0.81a 26.10 ± 0.62bcd 26.57 ± 0.57abc 26.53 ± 0.87abc 27.53 ± 0.49a
28 day 27.50 ± 1.06a 25.71 ± 0.45cde 25.71 ± 0.45cdef 24.94 ± 0.87defg 24.44 ± 0.55efg 25.04 ± 0.22defg 24.21 ± 0.86fghi
56 day 27.57 ± 1.12a 24.67 ± 1.45efg 23.04 ± 0.82i 24.08 ± 0.78ghi 24.04 ± 0.70ghi 23.24 ± 0.41hi 23.00 ± 0.38i
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Values are Mean ± SD of 3 independent determinations; different letters in a row represent significant differences (p < 0.05)

Table 3.

Effects of bitter gourd on blood parameters in comparison to control in hyperglycemic rats (Study II)

Control diet (D0) Skin Flesh Whole fruit
150 mg/kg (D1) 300 mg/kg (D2) 150 mg/kg (D3) 300 mg/kg (D4) 150 mg/kg (D5) 300 mg/kg (D6)
Glucose (mg/dL) 0 day 88.17 ± 0.99i 88.80 ± 1.61i 89.00 ± 3.00i 89.10 ± 1.41i 88.03 ± 0.91i 89.83 ± 2.27i 90.40 ± 1.93i
28 day 113.80 ± 2.03c 102.00 ± 2.26def 100.33 ± 1.93efg 98.13 ± 1.91fgh 97.00 ± 1.35gh 97.50 ± 1.57gh 94.47 ± 3.70h
56 day 142.93 ± 2.70a 117.83 ± 3.07b 112.23 ± 2.46c 110.80 ± 3.36c 104.53 ± 4.23d 103.57 ± 3.00de 97.70 ± 2.17gh
Insulin (μIU/mL) 0 day 9.40 ± 0.26g 9.47 ± 0.23g 9.60 ± 0.36g 9.63 ± 0.25g 9.83 ± 0.51g 9.23 ± 0.12g 9.50 ± 0.10g
28 day 10.80 ± 0.46f 13.83 ± 0.76d 14.00 ± 0.44cd 13.90 ± 0.72d 14.50 ± 0.10bcd 14.40 ± 0.17bcd 14.97 ± 0.35ab
56 day 12.23 ± 0.74e 14.77 ± 0.81abc 14.93 ± 0.75ab 14.80 ± 0.79abc 15.13 ± 0.49ab 15.10 ± 0.30ab 15.33 ± 0.25a
Cholesterol (mg/dL) 0 day 79.50 ± 1.13e 79.55 ± 0.92e 80.45 ± 1.77e 79.75 ± 0.64e 79.65 ± 0.78e 78.00 ± 1.84e 79.80 ± 2.12e
28 day 98.27 ± 1.12c 91.87 ± 1.34d 90.50 ± 1.44d 90.40 ± 2.98d 89.87 ± 1.00d 90.63 ± 2.45d 90.20 ± 3.38d
56 day 129.07 ± 1.25a 103.07 ± 1.83b 100.80 ± 1.30bc 99.50 ± 1.13bc 97.97 ± 1.77c 98.37 ± 1.52c 98.00 ± 3.22c
LDL (mg/dL) 0 day 29.53 ± 3.23hi 28.87 ± 1.37hi 29.30 ± 2.57hi 28.17 ± 1.45i 28.93 ± 2.66hi 28.70 ± 1.55hi 28.07 ± 1.46i
28 day 38.93 ± 1.55f 33.63 ± 1.45g 32.10 ± 2.11gh 31.80 ± 1.95gh 29.77 ± 2.49hi 31.40 ± 3.02ghi 29.17 ± 1.85hi
56 day 63.85 ± 2.47a 55.80 ± 1.87b 51.07 ± 1.77c 49.67 ± 2.40cd 46.33 ± 2.80de 49.57 ± 1.55cd 45.63 ± 2.51e
HDL (mg/dL) 0 day 34.93 ± 2.37de 35.20 ± 1.55de 34.90 ± 2.23de 35.10 ± 2.66de 34.50 ± 1.57de 34.77 ± 0.99de 33.53 ± 0.93e
28 day 35.93 ± 2.27de 37.23 ± 0.95d 41.73 ± 2.24c 41.60 ± 1.51c 41.73 ± 1.75c 40.87 ± 1.99c 42.00 ± 1.90c
56 day 35.97 ± 2.25de 42.23 ± 1.19c 43.23 ± 1.17bc 42.90 ± 1.61bc 43.30 ± 0.98ab 45.63 ± 2.80ab 47.43 ± 1.12a
Triglycerides (mg/dL) 0 day 67.43 ± 0.76g 68.30 ± 1.21g 68.40 ± 2.11g 68.03 ± 2.31g 68.13 ± 1.98g 68.93 ± 1.32g 67.53 ± 0.78g
28 day 81.43 ± 2.70de 78.37 ± 1.56ef 77.37 ± 2.43f 77.33 ± 1.53f 76.53 ± 2.15f 77.30 ± 1.70f 76.30 ± 2.80f
56 day 92.87 ± 3.80a 87.00 ± 2.66b 85.43 ± 1.01bc 85.53 ± 1.60bc 85.10 ± 1.64bc 84.90 ± 2.76bc 82.37 ± 2.44cd
ALP (IU/L) 0 day 165.33 ± 4.52e 164.10 ± 5.85e 164.90 ± 1.51e 164.53 ± 2.01e 165.63 ± 4.87e 164.20 ± 3.28e 164.73 ± 3.54e
28 day 193.43 ± 2.54b 189.80 ± 6.12bcd 187.47 ± 4.66bcd 185.63 ± 4.57cd 184.33 ± 2.06d 184.50 ± 3.68d 184.33 ± 5.66d
56 day 203.40 ± 2.46a 193.67 ± 3.91b 193.60 ± 3.05b 191.53 ± 3.51bc 191.20 ± 2.65bc 191.47 ± 4.28bc 187.83 ± 1.89bcd
ALT (IU/L) 0 day 42.63 ± 0.90bcd 42.20 ± 1.31bcd 42.83 ± 1.75bcd 41.17 ± 1.08d 42.17 ± 0.90bcd 42.00 ± 2.39cd 41.03 ± 2.18d
28 day 44.23 ± 1.88bc 42.47 ± 0.93bcd 42.23 ± 1.70bcd 42.13 ± 1.10bcd 41.30 ± 0.87d 41.93 ± 0.47cd 41.83 ± 2.76cd
56 day 49.37 ± 0.70a 44.57 ± 0.83b 43.93 ± 1.56bc 43.87 ± 1.63bc 43.30 ± 1.11bcd 43.37 ± 1.16bcd 43.20 ± 1.42bcd
AST (IU/L) 0 day 135.27 ± 2.55g 136.90 ± 0.44g 136.97 ± 1.67g 136.70 ± 1.00g 137.10 ± 0.62g 136.13 ± 0.67g 136.43 ± 0.93g
28 day 146.67 ± 2.29b 142.57 ± 1.96cdef 142.37 ± 2.06ef 142.50 ± 1.64def 142.27 ± 0.90ef 142.07 ± 1.12f 141.90 ± 0.85f
56 day 151.93 ± 2.10a 145.40 ± 1.35b 145.13 ± 1.24b 145.20 ± 1.54b 144.83 ± 1.42bcd 145.00 ± 1.41bc 144.60 ± 1.31bcde
Serum creatinine (mg/dL) 0 day 0.74 ± 0.04de 0.74 ± 0.05de 0.73 ± 0.01e 0.72 ± 0.02e 0.74 ± 0.01de 0.73 ± 0.03e 0.73 ± 0.02e
28 day 0.91 ± 0.03a 0.87 ± 0.02b 0.86 ± 0.02b 0.86 ± 0.02b 0.85 ± 0.01b 0.85 ± 0.01b 0.84 ± 0.01b
56 day 0.91 ± 0.03a 0.80 ± 0.02c 0.79 ± 0.03c 0.79 ± 0.03c 0.78 ± 0.02c 0.78 ± 0.02c 0.77 ± 0.01cd
Serum urea (mg/dL) 0 day 27.21 ± 1.03bcd 27.31 ± 0.75bcd 27.90 ± 2.11bcd 27.20 ± 0.40bcd 27.80 ± 1.49bcd 25.90 ± 1.44d 27.57 ± 1.01bcd
28 day 30.90 ± 1.56a 28.67 ± 0.87b 28.30 ± 1.40bc 27.60 ± 1.93bcd 27.43 ± 1.10bcd 26.93 ± 0.81bcd 26.67 ± 1.03bcd
56 day 32.48 ± 1.13a 27.75 ± 0.90bcd 27.47 ± 1.14bcd 27.17 ± 2.05bcd 27.10 ± 1.51bcd 26.73 ± 1.15bcd 26.21 ± 1.58cd
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Values are Mean ± SD of 3 independent determinations; different letters in a row represent significant differences (p < 0.05)

Table 4.

Effects of bitter gourd on blood parameters in comparison to control in hyperlipidemic rats (Study III)

Control diet (D0) Skin Flesh Whole fruit
150 mg/kg (D1) 300 mg/kg (D2) 150 mg/kg (D3) 300 mg/kg (D4) 150 mg/kg (D5) 300 mg/kg (D6)
Glucose (mg/dL) 0 day 87.50 ± 0.80h 87.97 ± 0.67h 88.63 ± 1.38h 89.50 ± 1.57h 88.80 ± 1.31h 88.50 ± 2.08h 87.83 ± 2.00h
28 day 98.43 ± 1.21bcde 96.77 ± 1.25def 96.40 ± 1.23def 96.10 ± 2.13defg 95.40 ± 2.39fg 95.70 ± 1.84efg 94.63 ± 1.72fg
56 day 106.33 ± 2.52a 100.33 ± 1.53b 99.87 ± 1.86bc 98.57 ± 1.03bcd 97.30 ± 2.56cdef 95.27 ± 1.99fg 93.50 ± 0.60g
Insulin (μIU/mL) 0 day 9.53 ± 0.15h 9.57 ± 0.12h 9.66 ± 0.23h 9.36 ± 0.27h 9.68 ± 0.91h 9.86 ± 0.19h 9.57 ± 0.74h
28 day 10.67 ± 0.75g 10.87 ± 0.74g 11.07 ± 0.67fg 10.77 ± 0.46g 11.27 ± 0.32efg 11.20 ± 0.46efg 11.83 ± 0.64cdef
56 day 11.37 ± 0.96defg 12.00 ± 0.62cde 12.93 ± 0.38ab 12.17 ± 0.32bcd 12.97 ± 0.67ab 12.57 ± 0.47abc 13.10 ± 0.20a
Cholesterol (mg/dL) 0 day 80.77 ± 3.15h 80.47 ± 3.72h 79.90 ± 2.01h 79.47 ± 3.07h 80.47 ± 2.34h 79.53 ± 3.43h 78.67 ± 3.06h
28 day 128.00 ± 4.36bc 114.87 ± 3.82ef 109.33 ± 2.42g 110.67 ± 1.31fg 107.40 ± 2.26g 107.33 ± 1.53g 109.33 ± 4.86g
56 day 160.67 ± 4.16a 129.33 ± 2.52b 125.30 ± 3.08bc 123.37 ± 3.28cd 116.70 ± 2.54e 124.70 ± 2.86bc 118.83 ± 1.91de
LDL (mg/dL) 0 day 29.73 ± 3.87i 28.63 ± 1.08i 29.03 ± 2.75i 28.67 ± 2.15i 27.90 ± 0.89i 28.30 ± 2.10i 28.73 ± 1.50i
28 day 49.40 ± 1.35f 40.57 ± 1.63g 40.17 ± 1.27g 39.57 ± 1.53 gh 39.00 ± 0.26gh 37.37 ± 2.30gh 36.13 ± 1.63h
56 day 74.33 ± 3.31a 63.20 ± 3.51b 60.23 ± 3.40bc 57.00 ± 1.28cd 54.67 ± 2.40de 54.57 ± 1.55de 53.20 ± 2.54e
HDL (mg/dL) 0 day 34.57 ± 2.12h 34.27 ± 1.06h 34.83 ± 2.80h 32.23 ± 1.68h 34.30 ± 1.45h 34.83 ± 1.75h 33.40 ± 1.35h
28 day 35.93 ± 1.46gh 39.13 ± 1.24fg 42.40 ± 3.20ef 43.07 ± 3.82def 43.33 ± 2.69de 45.73 ± 2.74bcde 47.70 ± 1.31abc
56 day 35.97 ± 1.72gh 44.90 ± 2.41cde 47.03 ± 2.85bcd 46.00 ± 2.69bcde 49.30 ± 1.97ab 49.20 ± 4.68ab 51.63 ± 4.07a
Triglycerides (mg/dL) 0 day 67.70 ± 2.12e 68.27 ± 1.06e 67.63 ± 2.80e 68.80 ± 1.68e 69.17 ± 1.45e 68.70 ± 1.75e 67.37 ± 1.35e
28 day 96.67 ± 4.09c 81.67 ± 2.18d 80.10 ± 2.46d 81.03 ± 3.10d 79.43 ± 1.63d 78.57 ± 3.19d 77.03 ± 2.75d
56 day 124.67 ± 3.06a 103.57 ± 3.37b 99.70 ± 1.25bc 99.27 ± 4.34bc 99.23 ± 5.19bc 98.67 ± 2.34c 98.23 ± 4.47c
ALP (IU/L) 0 day 163.93 ± 3.04f 162.27 ± 4.73f 165.07 ± 3.21f 164.93 ± 4.46f 165.37 ± 3.75f 163.87 ± 3.21f 164.40 ± 1.66f
28 day 196.13 ± 1.70b 190.37 ± 5.93bcde 187.53 ± 5.15de 186.43 ± 3.57de 187.00 ± 3.65de 186.17 ± 2.27de 185.00 ± 3.60e
56 day 210.43 ± 4.04a 194.67 ± 2.28bc 194.57 ± 3.44bc 192.03 ± 4.24bcd 191.53 ± 3.21bcd 191.30 ± 4.55bcd 189.03 ± 3.48cde
ALT (IU/L) 0 day 42.27 ± 1.25fg 42.37 ± 0.80fg 41.17 ± 0.40g 42.03 ± 1.46fg 41.20 ± 1.49g 42.00 ± 1.55fg 41.43 ± 1.33g
28 day 47.80 ± 1.23bc 43.40 ± 0.56efg 43.30 ± 1.92efg 43.40 ± 0.82efg 43.03 ± 1.26fg 43.27 ± 1.04fg 43.07 ± 1.00fg
56 day 53.77 ± 1.76a 48.77 ± 1.50b 47.27 ± 0.91bc 46.50 ± 3.18bcd 45.87 ± 1.53cde 44.57 ± 3.10def 44.17 ± 1.70def
AST (IU/L) 0 day 136.03 ± 1.22e 137.00 ± 0.78e 136.63 ± 0.76e 136.47 ± 0.93e 136.43 ± 0.85e 137.23 ± 0.55e 135.73 ± 1.11e
28 day 156.00 ± 1.73c 148.07 ± 0.71d 147.70 ± 2.02d 148.07 ± 1.12d 147.27 ± 1.10d 147.47 ± 1.52d 147.83 ± 1.05d
56 day 172.67 ± 2.11a 162.07 ± 1.99b 161.67 ± 1.46b 161.87 ± 2.03b 161.50 ± 1.47b 161.13 ± 1.79b 161.53 ± 1.70b
Serum creatinine (mg/dL) 0 day 0.73 ± 0.02f 0.75 ± 0.02f 0.74 ± 0.01f 0.73 ± 0.02f 0.75 ± 0.01f 0.72 ± 0.02f 0.73 ± 0.02f
28 day 0.98 ± 0.98b 0.91 ± 0.91c 0.89 ± 0.89c 0.91 ± 0.91c 0.89 ± 0.89c 0.89 ± 0.89c 0.88 ± 0.88cd
56 day 1.17 ± 0.05a 0.84 ± 0.03de 0.83 ± 0.04e 0.84 ± 0.02de 0.82 ± 0.02e 0.82 ± 0.01e 0.81 ± 0.01e
Serum urea (mg/dL) 0 day 26.23 ± 0.29f 26.73 ± 0.84ef 27.07 ± 1.25ef 26.67 ± 0.68ef 27.16 ± 1.01ef 27.25 ± 0.27ef 28.05 ± 0.68e
28 day 35.07 ± 2.65b 32.83 ± 1.63cd 32.53 ± 0.83cd 32.43 ± 1.20cd 32.29 ± 0.52cd 31.57 ± 0.96d 31.40 ± 0.89d
56 day 37.47 ± 1.12a 34.00 ± 0.75bc 33.13 ± 0.29cd 33.07 ± 1.31cd 32.50 ± 0.52cd 33.00 ± 0.61cd 32.23 ± 1.15d
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Values are Mean ± SD of 3 independent determinations; different letters in a row represent significant differences (p < 0.05)

Glucose and insulin

The study intervals led to an enhancement in the glucose level of control groups. However, bitter gourd enriched diets substantially suppressed this trait with passage of time and the lowest glucose concentration was observed in groups of rats fed with 300 mg/kg body weight of whole fruit of bitter gourd in all the studies (Table 2, 3 and 4). Means concerning insulin were 9.03 ± 0.31, 9.10 ± 0.36, 9.33 ± 0.32, 9.07 ± 0.35, 9.37 ± 0.15, 9.13 ± 0.25 and 9.87 ± 0.76 μIU/mL in study I, 12.23 ± 0.74, 14.77 ± 0.81, 14.93 ± 0.75, 14.80 ± 0.79, 15.13 ± 0.49, 15.10 ± 0.30 and 15.33 ± 0.25 μIU/mL in study II, 11.37 ± 0.96, 12.00 ± 0.62, 12.93 ± 0.38, 12.17 ± 0.32, 12.97 ± 0.67, 12.57 ± 0.47 and 13.10 ± 0.20 μIU/mL in study III for D0, D1, D2, D3, D4, D5 and D6 respectively which clearly indicated that increase in amount of bitter gourd in diet has resulted in production of more insulin.

Cholesterol

Means concerning cholesterol revealed that the highest cholesterol (85.83 ± 0.35 mg/dL) was in D0 that reduced to 77.13 ± 1.19 (D1), 75.90 ± 2.56 mg/dL (D5), 75.17 ± 2.22 mg/dL (D3), 74.67 ± 1.58 mg/dL (D6), 74.60 ± 0.98 mg/dL (D2), 74.00 ± 0.95 mg/dL (D4) in study I. The study interval of 0, 28, 56 day explicated an obvious decrease in cholesterol level from commencement till termination of this study in groups fed with diet containing bitter gourd powder. The cholesterol in diabetic control group D0 (Study II) was 129.07 ± 1.25 mg/dL that substantially reduced to 103.07 ± 1.83, 100.80 ± 1.30, 99.50 ± 1.13, 97.97 ± 1.77, 98.37 ± 1.52 and 98.00 ± 3.22 mg/dL in D1, D2, D3, D4, D5 and D6 respectively. In Hypercholesterolemic rats (Study III), enormous increase in cholesterol was observed in control group D0 (160.67 ± 4.16 mg/dL) while experimental groups fed with bitter gourd showed reduction in the level of cholesterol as 129.33 ± 2.52, 125.30 ± 3.08, 123.37 ± 3.28, 116.70 ± 2.54, 124.70 ± 2.86 and 118.83 ± 1.91 mg/dL in D1, D2, D3, D4, D5 and D6, respectively. The study interval of 0, 28, 56 day explicated an obvious decrease in cholesterol level from commencement till termination of the study in groups fed with diet containing bitter gourd powder.

LDL

LDL level was varied insignificantly from initiation to termination of trial (0, 28th & 56th day) in study I. In this study, maximum LDL level was observed in D0 as 29.10 ± 1.51 mg/dL that substantially reduced in D1 (29.00 ± 1.81 mg/dL) trailed by D3 (28.77 ± 2.06 mg/dL), D2 (28.07 ± 3.072 mg/dL), D5 (27.97 ± 1.72 mg/dL), D6 (27.93 ± 1.55 mg/dL) and D4 (27.90 ± 1.92 mg/dL). In study II, the recorded values showed a diminishing trend in LDL level with values of 55.80 ± 1.87, 51.07 ± 1.77, 49.67 ± 2.40, 46.33 ± 2.80, 49.57 ± 1.55, 45.63 ± 2.51 mg/dL in D1, D2, D3, D4, D5 and D6, respectively compared to control group D0 (63.85 ± 2.47 mg/dL). Similarly, the highest value of LDL was in control group (74.33 ± 3.31 mg/dL) followed by D1 (63.20 ± 3.51 mg/dL), D2 (60.23 ± 3.40 mg/dL), D3 (57.00 ± 1.28 mg/dL), D4 (54.67 ± 2.40 mg/dL), D5 (54.57 ± 1.55 mg/dL) and D6 (53.20 ± 2.54 mg/dL) indicated that bitter gourd powder in diet is helpful in lowering LDL level. The low density lipoproteins are the major carrier for cholesterol in blood [28]. Bitter gourd has the ability to reduce this ‘bad cholesterol’ from the blood. Temitope et al. [29] orally administered aqueous extract of bitter gourd at dose of 80, 100, 120, 140 mg/kg body weight for 14 days. Significant decline in LDL in experimental groups were observed compared to rats fed with normal diet.

HDL

HDL values increased after consumption of bitter gourd in diet. The study interval influenced significantly on the increase in HDL level and the highest increase was observed in D6 in all the studies. The higher amount of HDL in blood is considered valuable because it is found good for health and mostly designated as ‘good cholesterol’. The decline in HDL concentration in blood leads to wide ranging cardiovascular complications. Bitter gourd in diet is helpful in increasing the level of HDL in blood. Bano et al. [30] revealed that increased the serum HDL level rise up to 45% by administering aqueous extract of bitter gourd for 5 weeks. Temitope et al. [29] examined different doses of bitter gourd to analyze HDL level in blood and found diets containing 100 mg/kg and 140 mg/kg body weight as suitable dietary approaches and resulted in marked increase in the HDL level than the rest of the treatments.

Triglycerides

The values for triglycerides rise gradually in control group while reduction was observed by supplementation of bitter gourd in diet. Consistent with current results, Jayasooria et al. [31] determined the effect of bitter gourd on lipid metabolism and found significant reduction of 39.2 and 40.5% in hepatic triglycerides in cholesterol rich and cholesterol free diets, respectively. The present results also supported by the findings of Bano et al. [30] determined 20% decline in serum triglyceride level due to dietary intake of bitter gourd in diabetic rats. Hossain et al. [27] observed significant elevation in triglycerides level (47.02%) in diabetic control rat groups. However, bitter gourd at the rate of 250, 500, 750 mg reduced the triglyceride level to 30.30%, 33.84 and 37.43%, respectively. The findings indicated a decline of triglycerides in a dose dependent manner. They observed effect of diet containing bitter gourd on triglyceride level during study period of 90 days. They obtained blood samples at every 15 days interval and observed continuous reduction in triglycerides compared to control group. Recently,

Liver function test

The reduction in ALP, ALT and AST level was recorded after feeding of diet containing bitter gourd compared to control groups. Serum creatinine and urea concentration was also remained in normal ranges due to feeding of bitter gourd in diet. The current data is comparable to the earlier investigations of Hossain et al. [27] confirmed a reduction in serum ALP, ALT and AST of rats treated with bitter gourd extract. In another study noted that bitter gourd is helpful in reducing the amount of ALT and AST. Moreover, Sathishsekar and Subramamian [32] also reported hepato-protective role of bitter gourd. The present data was comparable with the findings of Nagy et al. [33] showing decline in serum creatinine and urea level after bitter gourd administration.

Effect on different organs

Means for weight of different organs (Table 5) depicted non-significant impact of diet on various organs except for kidney and liver weight that were found higher in diabetic control rat as compared to rats fed with bitter gourd supplemented food. Liver weight was also noted slightly higher in control groups of hypercholesterolemic rats. Platel et al. [34] confirms the current results showed bitter gourd had no adverse effect on major organs of the body. A considerable elevation in kidney weight of diabetic rats might be due to hyperplasia and hypertrophy of tubular and mesangial cells of the kidney [35]. Treating the diabetic rats with bitter gourd caused a decrease in the weight of kidney and liver up to normal ranges.

Table 5.

Means for organ weight in different studies

Organs Studies Group of rats fed with different diets
D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6
Heart Study I 0.95 ± 0.03 0.93 ± 0.02 0.93 ± 0.02 0.92 ± 0.02 0.91 ± 0.03 0.92 ± 0.02 0.90 ± 0.03
Study II 0.95 ± 0.02 0.94 ± 0.01 0.93 ± 0.02 0.93 ± 0.01 0.92 ± 0.01 0.93 ± 0.03 0.92 ± 0.02
Study III 0.95 ± 0.03 0.95 ± 0.01 0.93 ± 0.01 0.94 ± 0.02 0.93 ± 0.01 0.93 ± 0.03 0.93 ± 0.03
Lung Study I 1.59 ± 0.06 1.60 ± 0.06 1.62 ± 0.09 1.57 ± 0.11 1.56 ± 0.07 1.60 ± 0.11 1.60 ± 0.02
Study II 1.59 ± 0.03 1.62 ± 0.05 1.62 ± 0.04 1.58 ± 0.09 1.63 ± 0.03 1.58 ± 0.09 1.59 ± 0.06
Study III 1.61 ± 0.08 1.63 ± 0.04 1.62 ± 0.07 1.60 ± 0.08 1.65 ± 0.04 1.61 ± 0.06 1.61 ± 0.03
kidney Study I 1.94 ± 0.02 1.90 ± 0.03 1.88 ± 0.03 1.89 ± 0.07 1.87 ± 0.05 1.89 ± 0.07 1.88 ± 0.04
Study II 2.01 ± 0.07 1.91 ± 0.04 1.87 ± 0.04 1.90 ± 0.06 1.88 ± 0.04 1.89 ± 0.03 1.87 ± 0.05
Study III 1.96 ± 0.04 1.91 ± 0.04 1.89 ± 0.05 1.90 ± 0.06 1.88 ± 0.03 1.90 ± 0.03 1.90 ± 0.06
Liver Study I 6.72 ± 0.27 6.60 ± 0.10 6.55 ± 0.22 6.59 ± 0.23 6.51 ± 0.20 6.56 ± 0.12 6.53 ± 0.19
Study II 7.23 ± 0.37 6.69 ± 0.24 6.66 ± 0.12 6.69 ± 0.10 6.60 ± 0.14 6.63 ± 0.17 6.59 ± 0.24
Study III 7.58 ± 0.21 7.04 ± 0.20 6.85 ± 0.16 6.96 ± 0.17 6.84 ± 0.09 6.93 ± 0.26 6.77 ± 0.07
Pancreas Study I 2.02 ± 0.11 2.03 ± 0.20 2.05 ± 0.11 2.02 ± 0.03 2.02 ± 0.13 2.04 ± 0.06 2.03 ± 0.07
Study II 1.87 ± 0.06 2.01 ± 0.09 2.01 ± 0.07 2.03 ± 0.04 2.04 ± 0.10 2.04 ± 0.05 2.05 ± 0.07
Study III 1.95 ± 0.11 2.04 ± 0.10 2.02 ± 0.03 2.04 ± 0.04 2.01 ± 0.13 2.03 ± 0.04 2.02 ± 0.03
Spleen Study I 0.49 ± 0.04 0.51 ± 0.06 0.49 ± 0.02 0.49 ± 0.01 0.48 ± 0.03 0.49 ± 0.05 0.48 ± 0.03
Study II 0.41 ± 0.04 0.51 ± 0.04 0.50 ± 0.04 0.50 ± 0.05 0.49 ± 0.04 0.50 ± 0.01 0.48 ± 0.03
Study III 0.48 ± 0.03 0.51 ± 0.05 0.51 ± 0.02 0.51 ± 0.06 0.50 ± 0.03 0.49 ± 0.05 0.49 ± 0.02
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Discussions

The findings of Jafri et al. [36] are in harmony with the current study, they reported substantial decrease in glucose of hyperglycemic rats after consuming bitter gourd powder. Singh and Gupta [37] also confirmed antihyperglycemic property of this plant in diabetic condition in both animals as well as in humans. Virdi et al. [38] also observed antihyperglycemic property of bitter gourd. In another study, Jayasooriya et al. [31] observed effects of bitter gourd powder in cholesterol free and cholesterol enriched diets fed rats and noted that there was a continuous decline in glucose level in groups of rat fed with cholesterol free diet while no significant influence was noted in rats fed with cholesterol enriched diets. Clouatre et al. [39] revealed reduction in blood glucose level by giving bitter gourd extracts at 50 mg/kg of body weight in normal rats.

The results for insulin in current study are in accordance with Mohammady et al. [40] noted significant increase in insulin in diabetic rats treated with bitter gourd as compared to diabetic control group. Similarly, Fernandes et al. [41] observed positive effect of bitter gourd extract on serum insulin level. The increase in insulin level in the diabetic rats after giving diet supplemented with bitter gourd might be due to recovery of beta cells of Langerhans [37, 41]. Other studies indicated that addition of bitter gourd in diet enhance the number of beta cells [40]. However, researchers reported that bitter gourd did not involve in restoring of these cells rather it enhance the activity of beta cells.

The current investigation has shown bitter gourd effectiveness against cholesterol synthesis which is in accordance with the work of Jayasooria et al. [31] who used freeze-dried powder of bitter gourd to note its effect on lipid parameters in rats fed with diet supplemented with and without cholesterol. They observed 32.0 and 22.4% decline in total cholesterol level in the absence and presence of dietary cholesterol, respectively. Abas et al. [42] revealed that total cholesterol was significant increase in diabetic rats compared to control. Consumption of bitter gourd for 28 days showed significant reduction in cholesterol compared to diabetic control group. In an experiment on Wistar rats, decrease in cholesterol was noticed after consuming bitter gourd fruit extract [41]. Similarly, Bano et al. [30] observed significant reduction (21%) in cholesterol after oral administration of aqueous extract of bitter gourd for a period of 5 weeks. Later, in an antidiabetic study by Wehash et al. (2012) on male Sprague-Dawley rats indicated lipid lowering effect of bitter gourd. Hossain et al. (2012) investigated antihyperglycemic and antihyperlipidemic effect of aqueous extract of bitter gourd at daily dose of 250, 500 and 750 mg/kg body weight. They observed 12.88, 14.44 and 17.21% reduction in serum cholesterol, respectively.

Wehash et al. [43] observed significant reduction in LDL level from 141.51 to 31.18 mg/dL in diabetic group fed with control diet and bitter gourd supplemented diet, respectively.another researcher noted increase in LDL in STZ induced diabetic control and decline in all the experimental groups at the end of 28 day study period. Similarly, Chaturvedi et al. [44] also found reduction in amount of low density lipoproteins in blood by administering bitter gourd extracts. The lowering of LDL by consuming bitter gourd in diet might be due to secretion of Apolipoprotein-B by the liver.

Conclusions

It is evident from the present research findings that conspicuous from the contemporary endeavor that among various parts of bitter gourd, whole fruit part in a dose of 300 mg/kg body weight found to be suitable in lowering blood glucose level, increasing serum insulin level, reduction in cholesterol, increase in HDL and minimize the amount of low density lipoprotein and triglycerides. Moreover, level of ALP, ALT, AST, serum creatinine and urea reduced to normal ranges by consumption of bitter gourd. Being veracious and concise, it is executed that bitter gourd be endowed with vivid approaching to improve the effect of oxidative stress, thus stopping the chain reactions implicated in the onset of chronic diseases. The outcomes of current project found bitter gourd most effective against obesity and chronic aberrations such as hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia. It is vigorously suggested to devise diet based modules to use bitter gourd against lifestyle related disorders.

Acknowledgements

The authors are highly obliged to the research facilities of the Institute of Home and Food Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad (GCUF) and IT Department, Higher Education Commission (HEC, Islamabad) for access to journals, books and valuable database.

Funding

The authors are grateful to Higher Education Commission (HEC), Government of Pakistan for their financial support to carry out the present research.

Availability of data and materials

The dataset supporting the conclusions of this article is included within the article.

Authors’ contributions

The contribution of each author for this manuscript was as follows; M & FS designed the experimental plan of this study as well as conducted the analysis. M and FS and MSA drafted the manuscript. MN, MTN helped to improve the manuscript and especially MUA provided help in reviewing the paper. It is also confirmed that all the authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not Applicable

Consent for publication

Not Applicable

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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Contributor Information

Mahwish, Email: mahwishft@yahoo.com.

Farhan Saeed, Email: f.saeed@gcuf.edu.pk.

Muhammad Sajid Arshad, Phone: +92-333-8802239, Email: sajid_ft@yahoo.com, Email: msajidarshad@gcuf.edu.pk.

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Muhammad Tahir Nadeem, Email: tahir_nadeemm@yahoo.com.

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