ACUTE POSTERIOR MULTIFOCAL PLACOID PIGMENT EPITHELIOPATHY FOLLOWING INFLUENZA VACCINATION

Abstract

Purpose: To report a case of acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy (APMPPE), following influenza vaccination.

Case report:An 18-year-old female patient developed a painless significant bilateral decrease of vision, moderate photophobia, metamorphopsia and intermittent headaches two weeks after having a seasonal anti-flu immunization. Clinical evaluation and ancillary testing pointed toward the diagnosis of APMPPE. The case evolved favorable after oral prednisone 0.5 mg/kg/day gradually decreased for over 4 weeks. A total recovery of visual function and no recurrences were noticed at 1, 3 and 5 years follow-up.

Conclusions:Previous case reports already suggested a possible relationship between various immunizations and APMPPE onset. This case is the first one reported in our country. Epidemiological studies are required to link APMPPE occurrence and vaccination.

Background

Described by Gass in 1968 [1], acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy (APMPPE) is a rare condition affecting young adults around 20-30 years of age. It has a self-limiting course, usually involves both eyes unequally, and the inflammation is involving choriocapillaris, the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and the outer retina [2].

At onset, there is a sudden painless loss of vision in one or both eyes, accompanied by metamorphopsia, photopsias and paracentral scotomas [3]. In case of significant macular involvement, visual loss is consistent. Photophobia and headaches may accompany the visual function loss [4].

Fundus examination reveals flat or slightly elevated multiple yellow-white inflammatory lesions (“placoid” lesions), commonly less than one disc diameter mainly in the posterior pole [2].

Fluorescein angiography shows in active stage a typical aspect of early hypofluorescence and late hyperfluorescence in the region of the lesions. When lesions heal, the secondary RPE atrophy is inducing a window defect [5].

Spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) shows reflectance changes and structural alterations of the RPE and ellipsoid zone with impairment of the photoreceptor layer. The choriocapillaris changes are not specific [6]. Degenerative changes in the photoreceptor layer have been described as a consequence of the lesion healing process [7].

APMPPE cases generally evolve with spontaneous resolution in 2-6 weeks and have a good visual prognosis [8]. Persisting RPE atrophy can be noticed both clinically and by fundus autofluorescence (FAF). SD-OCT reveals secondary alterations in the photoreceptor layer and RPE [9].

Case report

An 18-year-old female patient was referred for a second opinion with a painless significant bilateral decrease of vision, with a short delay between the eyes, since one week. Other symptoms included moderate photophobia, metamorphopsia and intermittent headaches. The medical history was unremarkable except for sporadic episodes of drug and food allergies. The patient also described moderate flu-like prodrome, two weeks before, soon after having a seasonal anti-flu immunization. Physical examination was within normal limits and the patient no longer had fever or malaise.

Best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) was 0.2 in the right eye (RE) and 0.16 in the left eye (LE). Intraocular pressure was normal and no refraction error was determined on refractometry. The pupillary reflexes were normal in both eyes. The color vision evaluation pointed toward a discrete red-green deficiency.

External and slit lamp examination of the anterior segment of both eyes was unremarkable, except for a slight ciliary injection of the conjunctiva (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.

Anterior segment examination: normal aspect OU

The fundus examination revealed a clear vitreous, not detached posteriorly, a normal optic disc and normal retinal vessels. There were numerous yellow-white placoid lesions in the macula and in the mid periphery, slightly prominent and circumscribed, located in the deep layers of the retina, better observed with a red-free filter (Fig. 2). The retinal periphery was normal.

Fig. 2.

Color and red-free fundus photography OU during first visit

The patient did not consent for the fluorescein angiography evaluation because of her multiple food and drug allergies. Multiple paracentral scotomas were revealed on visual field evaluation. Spectral domain optical coherence tomography (B-scan and topography) confirmed the discrete retinal thickening at the site of the lesions with dome-shaped elevations of the ellipsoid zone band, hyper-reflective alterations at the level of photoreceptor layer and RPE. The inner retinal layers were normal. No subretinal fluid was detected (Fig. 3).

Ancillary testing included laboratory and imagistic evaluation, compulsory for the diagnosis of comorbidities and differential diagnosis. The complete blood count, the erythrocyte sedimentation rate, rheumatoid factor, antinuclear antibodies, anti-toxoplasma antibodies, angiotensin-converting enzyme, purified protein derivative tuberculin skin test, immunity assessment, anti-cytomegalovirus antibodies, anticardiolipin antibodies, Lyme disease antibodies and chest X-ray were all in normal limits. Neurological examination including cerebral computed angiotomography for the intermittent headaches was also unremarkable.

Fig. 3.

SD-OCT in OU during first visit: macular map and B-scan with typical modifications

Due to significant macular involvement and vision loss, oral prednisone 0.5 mg/kg/day was administered and decreased gradually for over 4 weeks. The condition evolved favorably under treatment with gradual remission of symptomatology and recovery of visual function.

Clinical evaluation at 1 year, 3 years and 5 years after the acute episode confirmed the remission of retinal lesions, the absence of recurrences and the restoration of visual field, color vision and visual acuity (BCVA RE=1, BCVA LE=0.9 after 1 year, and BCVA RE=1.3, BCVA LE=1 after 3 and 5 years). On B-scan, the dome-shaped elevations of the ellipsoid zone significantly flattened at 1 year and totally disappeared at 3 and 5 years follow-up. Minimal residual RPE irregularity was persisting (Fig. 4,5). Despite obvious atrophic changes in the RPE corresponding to the initial lesions, the macular topography showed no abnormality (Fig. 6).

Fig. 4.

Fundus photography and macular B-scan OU after 1 year

Fig. 5.

Fundus photography and macular B-scan OU after 3 years

Fig. 6.

Macular map OU after 5 years of observation

Discussion

White dot syndromes, including APMPPE, are rarely seen in current clinical practice, with an estimated incidence of 0.45 per 100.000 inhabitants [10]. APMPPE has a higher predilection for Caucasians (80%), mostly between 16 to 40 years of age, without a predilection for one of the sexes. Statistically, APMPPE is more frequent associated with autoimmune diseases, half of the patients having psoriasis in their medical history [10]. Recent studies have pointed a higher association with HLA-B7 and HLA-DR2, suggesting a genetic predisposition in this disease [11].

The pathogenesis of APMPPE remains largely unknown. A delayed type hypersensibility associated vasculitis, which affects the choroidal terminal lobules and systemic vasculature, is incriminated [12]. This obstructive vasculitis located at the level of the choroidal terminal lobules can induce irreversible ischemic changes in the outer layers of the macula. This pathogenic theory is supported by the association of APMPPE with other vasculitis (cerebral angiitis, thyroiditis, nephropathies, and erythema nodosum) [13].

The possible relationship between APMPPE and other vasculitis, Lyme disease [14], adenoviral disease, mumps [15], sarcoidosis, pulmonary tuberculosis [16], or other rheumatologic conditions [10], raised the need for specific investigations in order to elucidate the diagnosis, to identify associated pathological conditions and to lead towards appropriate therapy management. Moreover, Darugar et al. published a case of sarcoidosis with APMPPE as initial manifestation [17].

There is documented information in literature that APMPPE can be triggered by vaccination against B hepatitis [18], meningococcal type C [19], human influenza [20], swine flu [21] or varicella [22]. In these cases, there is an obvious implication of activated T lymphocytes and type IV hypersensitivity. Recurrences are at least theoretically related to hypersensitivity towards various pathogens [2].

Approximately one third of the patients have mild or moderate flulike symptoms that precede with a few days the onset of visual impairment [2,5,13]. The fever, malaise and gastrointestinal symptoms may delay the diagnosis of APMPPE [13].

APMPPE is mainly diagnosed on clinical findings and evolution, there has been no specific laboratory testing so far. Active lesions show early hypofluorescence followed by late hyperfluorescence on fluorescein angiography. Healed lesions generate a window defect. Indocyanine green angiography has more accuracy than fluorescein angiography in revealing choroidal defects in the early stages corresponding to choroidal lobules nonperfusion. RPE lesions slowly become autofluorescent in the remission phase. High-resolution OCT aspect in early stages shows dome-shaped elevations of the ellipsoid zone band. Hyperreflectance above RPE could be explained by ischemic edema or accumulation of inflammatory cells. Subretinal fluid accumulation is uncommon. With remission, the dome-shaped lesions flatten, the outer layers partially recover and the RPE shows residual irregularities [7].

Differential diagnosis of APMPPE mainly concerns white dot syndromes [2], toxoplasmosis, neuroretinitis [23], syphilitic chorioretinitis [24] and Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease [25].

Several ocular complications can interfere in the long-term prognosis. The most severe ones are the secondary choroidal neovascularization [26], the appearance and persistence of subretinal macular fluid [15] and central vein occlusion [27]. Rarely, retinal vasculitis, papilitis [16], and cystoid macular edema [28] have also been described. Recurrences have been cited in up to 50% of the cases [29].

The concomitant central nervous system impairment due to granulomatosis [8] or other vasculitis can lead to neurological disorders with significant impact on morbidity. The patient may develop headaches, paresthesias, paresis, meningoencephalitis, cavernous sinus thrombosis or cerebral infarcts [4,30]. Cases with important cerebral ischemic complications, mainly of men, have already been published [31-33]. El Sanhouri et al. recently published the case of a patient with APMPPE, Chron’s disease and important headaches in which rapid prednisone taper led to death through multiple cortical infarcts in a short period of time [34]. In such severe cases high-dose intravenous steroid therapy is indicated, and an immunosuppressive drug may be associated [4,35].

APMPPE is generally considered to have a good prognosis and does not require any treatment due to spontaneous remission. Although there is no evidence that systemic corticosteroid therapy influences final visual acuity, corticosteroid administration is recommended when the macula is significantly involved or/ and when systemic comorbidities are associated. Fiore et al. made an analysis of the evolution of visual acuity in APMPPE patients and concluded that visual prognosis is not as good as studies initially reported. In the case of foveal involvement, there is a probability of less than 40% to recover a visual acuity higher than 20/ 25, while eyes without foveal damage have a chance of almost 90% of obtaining a higher visual acuity than 20/ 25 [35].

The case we have presented has an onset strongly correlated with anti-influenza vaccination. Based on the authors’ knowledge, this case is the first one reported in our country. The favorable evolution under treatment with fully and stable recovery 5 years later might confirm the good prognosis in such rare pathology. Still, a long-term follow-up is required. Also, prospective epidemiological studies are required to link APMPPE occurrence and vaccination