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Published in final edited form as: Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2017 Apr 17;23(4):570–575. doi: 10.1037/cdp0000159

Brief Report: Discrimination, Daily Stress and Sleep, and Mexican-Origin Adolescents’ Internalizing Symptoms

Katharine H Zeiders 1
PMCID: PMC5747298  NIHMSID: NIHMS862604  PMID: 28414494

Abstract

Objectives

Using diary and longitudinal data, the current study examined the relations between Mexican-origin youths’ ethnic discrimination, daily sleep and stress processes, and internalizing symptoms.

Methods

Adolescents (N = 113; 49.6% female, Mage = 15.73 years) participated in an initial in-home interview and reported on ethnic discrimination and internalizing symptoms. They then completed a 3-day diary study and reported on their daily stress and sleep behaviors (i.e., sleep quality, sleep duration). Adolescents’ internalizing symptoms were re-assessed two years after the initial assessment.

Results

Discrimination related to greater daily stress and lower sleep quality. Daily stress was, in turn, marginally related to concurrent internalizing symptoms, but not longitudinal changes in symptoms. Sleep duration was unrelated to discrimination experiences and concurrent and long-term internalizing symptoms.

Conclusion

Discrimination disrupts daily processes that include overall stress levels and sleep quality. Daily stress processes may help explain the link between discrimination and Mexican-origin adolescents’ concurrent internalizing symptoms. Research examining daily processes provides insight into psychological and behavioral implications of discrimination experiences of adolescents.

Keywords: Mexican-origin adolescents, discrimination, daily stress, sleep, internalizing symptoms

Ethnic-racial discrimination remains a salient stressor for ethnic-racial minority youth in the U.S (Umaña-Taylor, 2016). Discrimination experiences have been consistently linked to youths’ internalizing symptoms, that include anxiety and depressive symptoms (Priest et al., 2013). Less examined, however, are the stress process mechanisms underlying the association between discrimination and well-being. Guided by theories of stress process and discrimination research, the current study examined how discrimination experiences related to levels of daily stress and daily sleep behaviors and, in turn, adolescents’ internalizing symptoms. The relations were examined among Mexican-origin youth, one of the largest and fastest growing ethnic groups in the U.S. (U.S. Census, 2010). Understanding the ways that discrimination experiences relate to daily functioning and, in turn, youths’ mental health, provides insight into the mediating mechanisms that may underlie the detrimental effects of discrimination.

Models of stress processes posit that environmental stressors, including discrimination, predict individuals’ symptoms of psychopathology (Grant et al., 2015). Underlying this relation are putative psychological processes that include appraisal of daily stress (Bolger & Zuckerman, 1995; Ong, Fuller-Rowell, & Burrow, 2009; Pearlin, Schieman, Fazio & Meersman, 2005). That is, youth who are exposed to high levels of discrimination may be more inclined to have higher levels of daily stress, which in turn, via physiological pathways, places them at greater risk for exhibiting internalizing symptoms (i.e., depressive, anxiety and social phobia symptoms). A related theoretical idea is stress proliferation, which refers to the ability for primary stressors to lead to subsequent stressors and/or impact the perceptions and stress appraisals of subsequent stressors (Pearlin, 1989; Pearlin et al., 2005). For instance, experiences of discrimination may set in motion additional stressors (e.g., poor academic performance, relationships strains), and/or may make day-to-day stressors more evident in individuals’ lives. In a longitudinal examination of Latino high school students, discrimination experiences in 9th grade predicted perceived stress in 10th grade and, in turn, greater depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking in 11th grade (Lorenzo-Blanco & Unger, 2015). Related, in a cross-sectional study of African American college students, chronic discrimination predicted greater psychological distress and daily experiences of discrimination (Ong, Fuller-Rowell, & Burrow, 2009). Together, theory and empirical evidence suggests that discrimination may lead to additional stressors and/or differences in appraisal of stressors.

In addition to psychological costs, discrimination experiences are theorized to impact individuals’ health-related behaviors, including sleep patterns (Pascoe & Richman, 2009). Specifically, discrimination may contribute to unhealthful sleep patterns because it activates rumination processes and vigilance against threat which, in turn, impede falling and staying asleep (Huynh & Gillen-O’Neel, 2013; Slopen et al., 2015). Poor sleep quality and fewer hours of sleep have been linked to greater internalizing symptoms and clinical depression (Baglioni et al., 2011). Findings among adults suggest that discrimination is linked to fewer hours of sleep, lower sleep efficiency, and greater fatigue (Beatty et al., 2011; Thomas, Bardell, Anocoli-Israel, & Dimsdale, 2006). Limited research among adolescents suggests a similar link; discrimination experiences relate to greater sleep variability (Author citation) and poorer sleep quality (Huynh & Gillen-O’Neel, 2013). These studies, however, have not simultaneously considered daily stress in their associations. Thus we know little about how discrimination disrupts multiple aspects of daily functioning.

Guided by stress process models and theories of discrimination, the current study examined the links between Mexican-origin youths’ reports of discrimination, daily stress and sleep behaviors, and internalizing symptoms. I hypothesized that adolescents who experienced greater discrimination would report greater daily stress, lower sleep quality, and fewer hours of sleep. These daily processes (i.e., stress, sleep quality, and sleep duration) would, in turn, predict greater concurrent internalizing symptoms and symptoms two years later. Understanding the ways in which discrimination impacts daily functioning for adolescents is critical to furthering our knowledge of processes underlying the detrimental effects of discrimination, but also important when thinking about intervention efforts that may focus on supporting the daily well-being of adolescents.

Method

Data for the current study came from a larger longitudinal study of 749 Mexican-origin families (Roosa, Liu, Torres, Gonzales, Knight, & Saenz, 2008). A subsample of these families (N = 113) participated in a daily diary study examining daily experiences of stress, diurnal cortisol, and sleep during Wave 3 of the larger longitudinal study (Author citation). To be eligible to participate, families must have been interviewed by the larger project between February, 2010 and December, 2010. The selected families were contacted to schedule the in-home interview and asked if their adolescents were interested in participating in a three-day diary study. All study procedures were approved by the University’s Institutional Review Board and informed consent/assent procedures were followed. In the home, bilingual interviewers obtained informed consent from mother and/or father and assent from the adolescent and briefed adolescents on the daily diary protocol. Adolescents were asked to start the daily diary study the next day (if interviewed Sunday through Tuesday) or to start the following Monday to ensure that diary reports came from three consecutive weekdays. Adolescents filled out a diary booklet each day and were also called each evening to report on additional behaviors. Adolescents and their families were then re-interviewed two years later (Wave 4 of the longitudinal study). Adolescents were paid $55 and $65 for the W3 and W4 in-home interviews, respectively, and $15 for the completion of the W3 daily diary protocol.

Of the 131 families approached to participate in the daily diary study, 113 adolescents (86.3%) agreed to be part of the study1. Adolescents (49.6% female) were, on average, 15.73 years old (SD = .42) at W3 and 17.77 years old (SD = .45) at W4. Most adolescents were born in the U.S. (85.8%). Family income ranged from $5000 to $95,000+ with a median range of $30,001 to $35,000. A majority of adolescents (98.2%) completed the W3 in-home interview and diary surveys in English. On average, adolescents began the daily diary protocol 3.65 days after their W3 in-home interviews. All adolescents reported on W3 discrimination; however, 29 adolescents did not complete questionnaire data on sleep behaviors. Missing data analyses revealed no differences on W3 variables (i.e., discrimination, internalizing symptoms) and demographics (gender, nativity, family income) between those who had complete data (n = 84) and those who did not (n =29).

Measures

Ethnic discrimination

Adolescents’ perceptions of discrimination were assessed during the W3 in-home interview (before the adolescents completed the daily diary protocol) using the 17-item Brief Perceived Ethnic Discrimination Questionnaire-Community Version (Brief PEDQ-CV; Brondolo et al., 2005). Adolescents indicated whether items (e.g., “Have others ignored you or not paid attention to you because you are Mexican or Mexican-American?” “Have others hinted that you are dishonest or can’t be trusted because you are Mexican or Mexican-American?”) happened to them in the past 12 months using a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (Almost never or never) to 5 (Almost always or always). The scale demonstrated good reliability (α = .93).

Daily stress, sleep quality, and sleep duration

Adolescents reported on their daily stress levels, sleep quality, and hours of sleep using a questionnaire booklet across the three-day diary protocol. For daily stress levels, adolescents rated the question “Overall, how stressful was your day?’ on 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all stressful) to 4 (very stressful). Adolescents also reported on the time they got in bed and out of bed each night; sleep duration was calculated using these time. Adolescents reported on their overall sleep quality (i.e., “Overall, how well did you sleep last night?”) on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (very poorly) to 5 (very well). Each of the items used in the current study to capture daily stress (Naliboff et al., 2004), sleep quality (Hale, Hill, Burdette, 2010), and sleep duration (Telzer, Goldenberg, Fuligni, Lieberman, & Gálvan, 2015) have been used in prior published studies.

Internalizing Symptoms

The computerized version of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC; Shaffer, Fisher, & Lucas, 2000) was used to assess adolescents’ internalizing symptoms (anxiety, major depression, and social phobia symptoms) at W3 and W4. Mothers and adolescents reported on adolescents’ own symptoms; reports were aggregated using standard scoring algorithms to maximize criterion validity and reduce shared method variance (Shaffer et al., 2004).

Covariates

We accounted for adolescent gender (self-reported) and family income using mothers’ reports of family income in the past year. We also controlled for adolescents’ acculturation levels, assessed by the acculturation subscale of the Mexican American Cultural Values Scale (Knight et al., 2010, 14 items, α = .81).

Results

Structural equation modeling in Mplus 7.2 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998 – 2010) was used to examine the relations between discrimination, daily behaviors, and adolescents’ internalizing symptoms. Daily stress, sleep quality, and sleep duration were specified as latent constructs with each daily report (Day 1, Day 2, and Day 3) as indicators. W3 daily behaviors (stress, sleep quality, and hours of sleep) were regressed on W3 discrimination; W3 internalizing symptoms were regressed on W3 daily behaviors and W3 discrimination; and W4 internalizing symptoms were regressed on W3 internalizing symptoms, W3 daily behaviors and W3 discrimination. Daily stress, sleep quality, and hours of sleep were allowed to correlate. Family income, adolescent acculturation, and adolescent gender were included as controls on all endogenous variables. Multiple fit indices (chi-squared test, CFI, RMSEA, and SRMR) were used to assess model fit; good (acceptable) model fit is reflected by a non-significant chi-square test, CFI greater than .95 (.90), RMSEA less than .05 (.08), and SRMR less than .05 (.08; Hu & Bentler, 1999). Missing data were accounted for using full information maximum likelihood (FIML; Enders, 2010). FIML utilizes the expectation and maximization (EM) algorithm to obtain parameter estimates and standard errors, accounting for missing data patterns in the analyses.

Table 1 presents sample descriptive information and bivariate correlations. Although the mean for discrimination was relatively low, a majority of adolescents (59.3%) endorsed at least one discrimination item in the past year. The structural equation model testing the hypothesized paths demonstrated good fit, χ2 (64) = 78.20, p = .11, CFI = .96, RMSEA = .04. Findings suggested that perceived discrimination at W3 predicted W3 daily stress levels and W3 sleep quality, but did not predict W3 daily sleep duration. Daily stress levels were marginally significant in predicting W3 internalizing symptoms, but did not predict W4 internalizing symptoms. Daily sleep quality and duration did not predict concurrent internalizing symptoms (W3) or W4 symptoms. W3 internalizing symptoms predicted W4 internalizing symptoms.

Table 1.

Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations among Study Variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1. Perceived discrimination W3 --
2. Daily stress (D1) .24* --
3. Daily stress (D2) .18† .51*** --
4. Daily stress (D3) .18† .61*** .57*** --
5. Daily sleep quality (D1) .06 −.13 −.26* −.02 --
6. Daily sleep quality (D2) −.09 −.14 −.23† −.03 .69*** --
7. Daily sleep quality (D3) .11 −.08 −.20† .02 .57*** .61*** --
8. Daily sleep duration (D1) −.08 −.27* −.36** −.32** .21† .15 .06 --
9. Daily sleep duration (D2) −.17 −.40*** −.33** −.35** .19 .06 .08 .35** --
10. Daily sleep duration (D3) −.17 −.21† −.22† −.44*** .02 .11 .07 .33** .49*** --
11. Internalizing symptoms (W3) .18† .35*** .37*** .36*** −.08 .00 −.05 −.24* −.28* −.22* --
12. Internalizing symptoms (W4) .03 .45*** .27** .25* −.04 .00 .06 −.12 −.17 −.12 .66*** --
13. Family income (W3) −.02 .03 .01 −.01 −.29** −.25* −.21† .03 −.17 −.13 −.05 −.06 --
14. Adolescent gender −.02 .11 .19† .14 −.01 .18 .22† −.20† −.10 −.01 .23* .17 −.23 --
Mean 1.21 1.85 1.81 1.90 8.10 8.17 8.43 3.89 2.85 4.13 12.33 10.11 8.38 .50
Standard deviation .35 .88 .83 .96 1.62 1.51 1.64 .81 .98 1.04 8.69 7.71 5.50 .50
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Note. W3 = Wave 3; D1 = Day 1; D2 = Day 2; D3 = Day 3; W4 = Wave 4; Adolescent gender coded (0 = male, 1 = female).

†

p < .10,

*

p < .05,

**

p < .01,

***

p < .001.

Discussion

Discrimination remains a consistent correlate and predictor of internalizing symptoms among U.S. ethnic minority youth (Priest et al., 2013; Umana-Taylor, 2015); yet, we know little about the underlying stress process mechanisms that explain the links between ethnic-racial discrimination and individuals’ well-being. Prior theoretical and empirical work suggests that discrimination may disrupt daily psychological and behavioral processes, and these disruptions may help explain the pathways by which discrimination leads to psychopathology (Grant et al., 2014; Pascoe & Richman, 2009; Ong, et al., 2009). However, very few studies have explored these explanations using both diary and longitudinal data (across an extended period of time). In a sample of Mexican-origin adolescents, the current study examined how discrimination related to daily stress, sleep quality, and sleep duration, and how these daily processes related to concurrent and long-term internalizing symptoms. Findings suggested that discrimination experienced in the past 12 months predicted youths’ daily stress levels and sleep quality; daily stress was, in turn, related to concurrent internalizing symptoms (marginally significant), but not long-term symptoms. Discrimination was not related to sleep duration. The findings provide information about the ways in which discrimination may influence adolescents’ daily lives. By understanding these processes, we can explore factors that may disrupt the link between discrimination and daily behaviors and focus on supporting adolescents through their day-to-day lives.

Discrimination experiences predicted Mexican-origin adolescents’ daily stress and sleep quality in the hypothesized way; adolescents who reported greater discrimination in the past 12 months, also reported feeling higher levels of daily stress and lower sleep quality. The findings are in line with theoretical and empirical evidence suggesting stressors, that include discrimination, may make individuals more likely to experience other stress in their lives (Lorenzo-Blanco & Unger, 2015; Ong et al., 2009) and may disrupt sleep behaviors (Slopen et al., 2015). From a stress proliferation perspective, discrimination may set in motion additional stressors for adolescents (Pearlin et al, 2005); an experience of mistreatment may result in experiencing additional stressors (e.g., not concentrating at school, increased conflict with peers).

As for discrimination and sleep duration, no relation emerged. Prior empirical work, primarily with adults, has suggested a link between discrimination and hours of sleep (Thomas et al., 2006; Slopen et al., 2015). However, the limited research among adolescents and young adults has suggested a more nuanced relation that may be dependent upon individual characteristics and forms of discrimination. For instance, among Mexican-origin young adults, cultural orientation moderated the relation between discrimination and sleep duration; only individuals who were highly acculturated reported a negative relation between discrimination and hours of sleep (Author citation). Related, among Latino and Asian-American adolescents, when the authors differentiated between subtle and overt forms of discrimination, it was only subtle forms of discrimination that related to fewer hours of sleep (Huynh & Gillen-O’Neal, 2013). The current study controlled for adolescent acculturation; however, given the small sample size, moderation analyses by cultural orientations were not possible. Further, subtle forms of discrimination were not assessed.

An additional explanation for the lack of relations between discrimination and sleep duration is the reliance on self-reports of sleep duration (based on adolescents’ wake time and bedtime). Previous research suggests that, when comparing to objective indicators of sleep, individuals tend to overestimate their hours of sleep (Lauderdale, Knutson, Yan, Liu, & Rathouz, 2008). Further, sleep duration (based on self-reports of wake time and bed time) does not take into account factors that include night awakenings.

As for linkages from daily behaviors to concurrent and longitudinal changes in internalizing symptoms, findings suggested that only daily stress related to concurrent symptoms, and it was only marginally significant. Daily behaviors did not predict longitudinal changes in internalizing symptoms. It could be that individual characteristics play a role in the process. For instance, adolescent gender may moderate the paths linking discrimination to daily behaviors and internalizing symptoms, as previous research suggests that adolescent males may be more prone to the negative effects of discrimination (Alfaro, Umaña-Taylor, Gonzales-Backen, Bamaca, & Zeiders, 2009; Author citation). Future research should explore the role of gender in these relations, while also considering other physiological processes that may underlie both discrimination and youths’ internalizing symptoms (e.g., cortisol reactivity).

In sum, the findings provide empirical evidence linking discrimination experiences to daily experiences, and concurrent internalizing symptoms. The study utilized interview and diary methods, and relied upon both parent and adolescent reports of internalizing symptoms. Despite the strengths, there are limitations worth noting. First, the study relied upon self-report of sleep behaviors and assessed limited aspects of sleep. Although the diary approach of assessing sleep behaviors across a number of days is a strength (as compared to a single day of measurement; Libman, Fichten, Bailes, & Amsel, 2000), a more accurate assessment of sleep would be to rely on objective measures (e.g., actigraphy) across a greater number of days and examine other indices of sleep including night awakenings and sleep efficiency. Additional limitations include the small sample, reliance of a single item for daily stress, and the limited constructs in the current study. This could have impacted the ability to find statistically significant paths, and limited the ability to conduct moderation analyses. Future research with a larger sample examining discrimination and daily processes, while also taking into account other important constructs (e.g., rumination processes and vigilance against threat) and a more comprehensive examination of daily stress among Mexican-origin youth is needed. Finally, the study focused on more overt discrimination and experiences in the past year; however, research has demonstrated that subtle experiences of discrimination (e.g., micoraggressions) may be particularly stressful (Huynh, 2012; Huynh & Gillen-O’Neel, 2013) and that daily experiences of discrimination relate to fluctuations in daily behaviors (Torres & Ong, 2010). Future research examining a range of both overt and subtle experiences, and more chronic and daily experiences of discrimination, could help to uncover the ways in which discrimination types and duration may differentially relate to adolescents’ daily behaviors.

In summary, the current study provides a look into the daily processes impacted by discrimination using diary and longitudinal data. Understanding the daily processes that link the associations between discrimination and mental health provides information about the short- and long-term effects of discrimination, and may inform preventative efforts by identifying malleable daily factors that may precede mental health problems.

Figure 1.

Figure 1

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Structural equation model linking Mexican-origin youths’ (N = 113) experiences of ethnic discrimination (W3) to daily tress, sleep quality, sleep hours (W3), and internalizing symptoms (W3 andW4). Standardized coefficients and standard errors (in parentheses) are presented. Model fit: χ2 (64) = 78.20, p = .11, CFI = .96, RMSEA = .04. Adolescent gender, adolescent acculturation, and family income included as covariates on daily stress, sleep quality, sleep duration and W3 and W4 internalizing symptoms. W3 = Wave 3, W4 = Wave 4; D1 = Day 1, D2 = Day 2, D3 = Day 3. † p < .10, * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

Acknowledgments

Work on this paper was supported, in part, by NIMH grants R01-MH68920, Arizona State University’s School of Social and Family Dynamics’ Cowden Fellowship and Graduate Dissertation Award. I gratefully acknowledge the La Familia project investigators, Mark Roosa, Nancy Gonzales, George Knight, Rebecca White, and Jen-yen Tien, participating families, interviewers, and other project staff for their contributions to this project. A special thanks to Rebecca White for reading drafts of the manuscript.

Footnotes

1

A comparison of families who participated (n = 113) and those who did not participate (n = 18) revealed no differences on adolescent, mother and father nativity, adolescent gender, and W3 maternal income.

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