Skip to main content
PMC home page
Journal of Arthropod-Borne Diseases logoLink to Journal of Arthropod-Borne Diseases
. 2017 Sep 8;11(3):363–370.

Insect Fauna of Human Cadavers in Tehran District

Fahimeh Talebzadeh 1, Masoud Ghadipasha 2, Jaber Gharedaghi 2, Naser Yeksan 2, Kamran Akbarzadeh 1,*, Mohammad Ali Oshaghi 1,*
PMCID: PMC5758632  PMID: 29322053

Abstract

Background:

Entomological data can provide valuable information for crime scene investigations especially in post-mortem interval (PMI) estimation. This study performed to determine insect fauna of human corpses in Tehran district.

Methods:

Insect specimens were collected from 12 human cadavers during spring and summer 2014 and were identified using morphological characteristics.

Results:

Four fly species including two blowflies Chrysomya albiceps and Lucilia sericata (Calliphoridae), one flesh fly Sarcophaga argyrostoma (Sarcophagidae), and one phorid fly Megaselia scalaris (Phoridae) and a beetle Dermestes maculatus (Dermestidae) was observed on the human cadavers. Chrysomya albiceps was the most dominant species on the corpses temporally and spatially.

Conclusion:

Chrysomya albiceps was the most dominant insect species on human cadavers in the area study spatio-temporally. The data make C. albiceps as a valuable entomological indicator for PMI estimation in Tehran and other parts of the country. However, further biological and ecological data such as its behavior, life tables, and consistent developmental time should be investigated when establishing a PMI in the region.

Keywords: Forensic entomology, Blow fly, Post-mortem interval, Chrysomya albiceps, Iran

Introduction

Various insects and arthropods attract to the specific decomposition stage of human or animal carcass while majority of them colonize for only a limited time (1). Forensic entomology families of the order Diptera have the greatest importance because of their exclusive behavior in early arriving and making abundant larvae on human cadavers (2, 3).

Members of the family Calliphoridae are the first group of insects that attack a corpse within minutes after death (3, 4). Additionally, members of the family Sarcophagidae often colonize in corpse around the world especially in tropical and subtropical countries (3). Thus, they are also very useful in crime scene investigations especially in post mortem interval (PMI) estimation (3). PMI calculations are used for various goals including criminal items, trace of transport of the corpse after death, correlation defiant with crimes by the DNA analysis of slain tissues in the midgut content of larvae, pharmacology, kid, and olds afflicting (5).

Determination of corpse arthropod fauna is one of the basic and inevitable information for estimating of PMI (6). In addition to arthropod fauna, the replacement (succession) of arthropods on corpse can provide important data for PMI estimation in some cases (7, 8). For PMI calculation from less than one week to so many years after death, fundamental information about insect succession plays an important role (9). Successional samples of arthropods on human cadavers are related to the geographic regions of the study areas (2, 10–12). Study on the particular arthropod fauna and stage in various decomposition phases and the relationship between them can be used for estimating the PMI ranges (8).

No recent information on arthropod and insect fauna and their spatio-temporal distribution was available for Tehran, Iran. The aim of the present study was to investigate the fauna of insect species attracted to human cadaver in Tehran district and to acquire knowledge of their temporal and spatial distribution in the region.

Materials and Methods

Tehran with 18909km2 and altitude of 1200 m above sea level, allocates about 2.1% of total area of the country. Tehran has a hot summer, cold winter and brief spring and autumn. This province locates among Mazandaran, Qum, Alborz and Semnan provinces from north, south, west, and east, respectively.

The sampling process was performed during seven months from the beginning of spring to mid autumn 2014.

All procedures were performed in accordance with the terms of the Iran Human (Scientific Procedures) Act Project License and were approved by the Tehran University of Medical Sciences Ethical Review Committee.

This process was done immediately after registering any human corpse in the Kahrizak Autopsy Hall of Tehran Legal Medicine Organization (KAH-TLMO). Among the human cadavers (25–50 per day) referred to the KAH-TLMO, the cases with any kind of arthropods on them were used for arthropod sampling. All of the collected specimens were put individually in labeled vials based on the collection time and sites of the body. The corpse characteristics were recorded including age, sex, location, cause of death, estimated PMI, latitude and longitude, and the arthropod developmental stage (Table 1). To estimate the PMI, medical or scientific evidence other than entomological data such as decomposing phase, body color, decaying of various organs were used to determine PMIs of the corpses. All the vials were transferred to the Medical Entomology Laboratory of School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences (SPH-TUMS) in a usual cold chain.

Table 1.

Details of the human cadavers and the arthropods found on them in Tehran, Iran in 2014

Case no Gender Age (yr) Location Location Cause of death PMI estimation (d) Development stage Species
1 Male 50 Outdoor Modares high-way Unknown 21–28 Larvae C. albiceps
L. sericata
2 Male 68 Indoor Africa st. Heart failure 7–10 Larvae S. argyrostoma
3 Male 53 Indoor Dinmohammadi St. Unknown 14–21 Larvae C. albiceps
Adult M. scalaris
4 Male 60 Indoor Sattar-khan st. Unknown 14–21 Larvae C. albiceps
5 Male 60 – 70 Outdoor Saeedi highway Unknown 30–60 Larvae C. albiceps
L. sericata
6 Male 86 Indoor Khorassan square Heart disease 4–7 Larvae C. albiceps
7 Male 42 Indoor Vali-asr st. Drug abuse 3–4 Larvae C. albiceps
Egg S. argyrostoma
8 Male 65 Indoor Dastvareh st Asphyxiation with co 3–5 Larvae C. albiceps
9 Female 29 Indoor Sarbaz st. Unknown 3–4 Larvae S. argyrostoma
10 Male 24 Outdoor Fasham lacvasan Hanging on tree 21–28 Pupae S. argyrostoma
11 Male 59 Outdoor Damavand road Unknown 90–180 Larvae D. maculatus
Adult
12* Male 35 Outdoor Not defined Drowned in the lake Not clear Larvae C. albiceps
Open in a new tab
*:

The dead body originated from Azerbaijan country.

All the collected specimens were washed with normal detergents and counted. Some of the live immature stages of the arthropod were reared to achieve their adult stage while some of them were killed in boiling water before preserving in 70% EtOH. The specimens were morphologically identified to species level using the known morphological keys (13–18). Main morphological characters used for identifications of the flies were setae on meron, general body color, hairs on greater ampulla, anterior spiracle color, color and hairs on calypters. Whenever it was necessary, the shape and appendages of male genitalia of the specimens were checked to confirm species identification, particularly for Sarcophagidae family. Some of the mature stages of collected arthropods on the corpses were preserved either in 70% EtOH or pinned and deposited in Medical Entomology and Zoology Museum of SPH-TUMS.

Results

Totally 12 human corpses with arthropod specimens were referred to the Kahrizak Autopsy Hall. Age distribution of the referred corpses was between 23 to 86 years old. Details of the collected human cadavers have been shown in Table 1. Medical or scientific evidence other than entomological data determined PMIs ranged from 3 days to six months for the corpses that could increase arthropod diversities on the cadavers (Table 1).

Various life stages of insects (egg, larvae, and adult) have been observed on the collected cadavers (Table 1). Overall, 4129 arthropod specimens belong to four fly and one beetle species have been collected and identified during the study. The flies comprised two Calliphoridae species of C. albiceps (Wiedemann 1819) and L. sericata (Meigen 1826), one Sarcophagidae species S. argyrostoma (Robineau-Desvoidy 1830), and one Phoridae species M. scalaris (Loew 1866). The beetle species was D. maculatus DeGeer 1774 (Coleoptera: Dermestidae).

Chrysomya albiceps was the dominant species sampled either in outdoor or in indoor adventured human cadavers whereas L. sericata and D. maculatus was related only to the outdoor places. Sarcophaga argyrostoma was related mostly to indoor places. Megaselia scalaris was the rarest species due to its merely one specimen in all of the study cases. In outdoor locations, the most representative species were C. albiceps (75%,) L. sericata (12%), S. argyrostoma (3%), and in indoor locations, C. albiceps (85%), and S. argyrostoma (15%). Megaselia scalaris (0.39%) and D. maculatus (7%) were collected in smaller numbers in the study area.

Discussion

In this study, five insect species were observed on human cadavers in Tehran district. Except for C. albiceps and L. sericata, the other three species including S. argyrostoma, D. maculatus, and M. scalaris are new report for arthropod fauna on human cadavers in Iran. Previous reports have shown presence of various species of blowflies and flesh flies (19–21) on human cadavers. In addition to Calliphoridae and Sarcophagidae, some species of Muscidae and Fanniidae were also involved in human or animal corpse decomposition in Tehran (21).

Chrysomya albiceps with 86.09% was the most common species on human cadaver in Tehran districts which is in agreement with the another result (19, 20) in Tehran. The abundance of this species on human corpses reported 58% (19) and 64% (20) which are a little less than that of reported in this study. Usually, C. albiceps is one of the most dominant species during hot and dry seasons in other geographical areas (22, 23). This species has been also found dominantly in Schoenly trap equipped with rabbit carcasses in north of Iran (24) and pig carrion in European urban habitats (25). This species has been reported repeatedly in other faunestic studies done with installed meet baited traps in Fars (26) and Tehran (27, 28) Province.

In the present study, S. argyrostoma was found as the second foremost species in indoor places. This species is very important in forensic entomology (29) and has been reported repeatedly on animal carcasses (30). This species shows different behaviors on human cadavers in various regions around the world. It has been mentioned mostly as indoor species in Switzerland (31) and Poland (29). Nevertheless, in Germany, this species has been considered as an exclusively outdoor species (32). In this study, this species has been found in one outdoor and three indoor discovered cadavers. At least one of these three indoor cadavers has died certainly at home. This species has also reported in faunestic investigations in the installed meat baited traps in Tehran (28), Fars Province (26) and in Persian Gulf islands (33) and in modified Schoenly trap with rabbit carcasses in north of Iran (24).

We found an individual specimen of M. scalaris of Phoridae in indoor location. In indoor places, Phoridae flies can move in rooms with locked doors and windows due to their comparatively small size, and lay their eggs earlier than Calliphoridae (34–36). This makes Phoridae flies a better forensic entomological indicator for estimation of PMI than Calliphoridae larvae in enclosed places and concealed environments (36, 37–39). This species might be the merely criminal entomological evidence accessible if the corpse is blocked or hidden in a habitation that is difficult for other larger insects to gain access (34). Moreover, some species of Phoridae family as well as M. scalaris have been mentioned as indicators for buried bodies named coffin fly (34, 40–42). Megaselia scalaris has small size and enables to find carrion buried within the ground being found in coffins. They can move through the smallest openings and are able to dig about six feet deep (half a meter in a four-day period) in order to reach buried carrion and lay eggs on carrion to provide nutrition for the emerged larvae (43). However, this species is classified as secondary forensic insect because they favor older rotting cadavers (34). Forensic entomological evidence comprising M. scalaris has been used in court as a tool to prove “time of neglect” or lack of care of elderly patients by caretaker (1). Moreover, phorid flies are active in cold season while most blowflies are inactive due to low temperature (42). In cases of myiasis, some phorid species such M. scalaris may infest living humans or animals (44, 45).

In the present study, the larvae of beetle D. maculatus have been observed on an exposed human cadaver in late decomposition stage. This species also has been reported on human cadavers in Germany (46, 47). Some adults of this species have been trapped in modified Schoenly traps equipped with rabbit carcasses in north of Iran (24). Dermestes maculatus is a cosmopolitan species with common name of leather beetle (3). Larvae of this species sometimes act as predator of fly larvae on dead bodies (48). Therefore, observing of this species may not be limited in late stages of decomposition (3). However, this species along with other beetles can be used in forensic investigations especially in late stages of decomposition (49).

Estimation of PMI is urgent and essential for solving the mysteries of death investigations (50). The importance of entomological evidence can be mentioned as well as autopsy (51). Majority of the PMI estimations in the 12 surveyed cadavers in Tehran were more than 3 days. However, lack of accurate PMI estimation was due to lack of entomological investigations in those crime scenes.

Conclusion

Determination of insect fauna is the first fundamental step for PMI estimation of any specific region. As next step, calculating degree-day requirements and life tables of the species especially C. albiceps is highly recommended for establishing forensic entomology. The characters of C. albiceps make this species as the best forensic insect candidate for PMI estimation in Tehran and other parts of Iran. Although preliminary studies on temperature requirement of C. albiceps has been done in Iran (27) but it warrants to be continued to determine exact life table, behavior, and consistent developmental time of this species alongside with other fly species in various environment situation before establishing PMI in the region.

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by Tehran University of Medical Sciences grant number 25702 as well as the Iranian Legal Medicine Organization, Tehran, Iran. The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

References

  • 1. Benecke M, Josephi E, Zweihoff R. (2004) Neglect of the elderly: Forensic entomology cases and considerations. Forensic Sci Int. 146 Suppl: S195–199. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 2. Watson EJ, Carlton CE. (2003) Spring succession of necrophilous insects on wild-life carcasses in Louisiana. J Med Entomol. 40: 338– 347. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3. Byrd JH, Castner JL. (2010) Forensic Entomology: The Utility of Arthropods in Byrd JH, Castner J. (Eds): Legal Investigations, 2nd Edition CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 1–681. [Google Scholar]
  • 4. Goff ML. (2000) A Fly for the Prosecution. How Insect Evidence Helps Solve Crimes. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. [Google Scholar]
  • 5. Amendt J, Krettek R, Zehner R. (2004) Forensic entomology. Naturwissenschaften. 91: 51– 65. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 6. Catts EP. (1990) Analyzing data In Entomology and Death: A Procedural Guide. In: Catts EP, Haskell NH. (Eds): Entomology and death: Forensic Entomology Associates. Joyce’s Print Shop, Inc; Clemson, SC, USA, pp. 124–137. [Google Scholar]
  • 7. Catts EP, Goff ML. (1992) Forensic entomology in criminal investigations. Annu Rev Entomol. 37: 253– 272. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 8. Wells JD, LaMotte LR. (2010) Chap 9. In: Byrd JH, Castner JL. (Eds) Forensic Entomology: The Utility of Arthropods in Legal Investigations. 2nd Edition CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 367–388. [Google Scholar]
  • 9. VanLaerhoven SL, Anderson GS. (1999) Insect succession on buried carrion in two biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia. J Forensic Sci. 44: 32– 43. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10. Payne JA. (1965) A summer carrion study of the baby pig Sus scrofa Linnaeus. Eco. 46( 5): 592– 602. [Google Scholar]
  • 11. Rodriguez WC, Bass WM. (1983) Insect activity and its relationships to decay rates of human cadavers in east Tennesse. J Forensic Sci. 28: 423– 432. [Google Scholar]
  • 12. Kyerematen RAK, Boateng BA, Haruna M, Eziah VY. (2006) Decomposition and insect succession pattern of exposed domestic pig (Sus scrofa L.) carrion. J Agric Biol Sci. 8( 11): 756– 765. [Google Scholar]
  • 13. Zumpt F. (1965) Myiasis in Man and Animals in the Old World, a textbook for physicians, veterinarians and zoologist. Butterwort, London. [Google Scholar]
  • 14. Verves Y. (1985) 64h. Sarcophaginae. In: Die Fliegen der palaearktischen Region (ed. Lindner E.). Lieferung 330, Band 11, Stuttgart, pp. 297–440. [Google Scholar]
  • 15. Whitworth T. (2010) Keys to the genera and species of blow flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) of the West Indies and description of a new species of Lucilia Robineau-Desvoidy. Zootaxa. 2663: 1– 35. [Google Scholar]
  • 16. Amendt J, Lee Goff M, Campobasso CP, Grassberger M. (2010) Current Concepts in Forensic Entomology. Springer, Dordrecht. [Google Scholar]
  • 17. Whitworth T. (2006) Keys to the genera nad species of blow flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) of America North of Mexico. Proc Entomol Soc Wash. 108( 3): 689– 725. [Google Scholar]
  • 18. Akbarzadeh K, Wallman JF, Sulakova H, Szpila K. (2015) Species identification of Middle Eastern blowflies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) of forensic importance. Parasitol Res. 114: 1463– 1472. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 19. Shams Sh. (1999) Studies of identification of insect species of the PMI in bodies forensic medicine centers of Tehran Province. [MSPH]. School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. [Google Scholar]
  • 20. Tirgari S, Zarrabi M. (2000) Application of medical entomology in forensic sciences. Sci J Forensic Med. 19: 62– 67. [Google Scholar]
  • 21. Khoobdel M, Jonaidi N, Seiedi Rashti MA. (2008) Blowfly and Flesh Fly (Diptera: Cyclorrhpha) Fauna in Tehran, Iran. J Entomol. 5( 3): 185– 192. [Google Scholar]
  • 22. Bonacci T, Brandmayr P, Greco S, Tersaruolo C, Vercillo V, Zetto Brandmayr T. (2010) A preliminary investigation of insect succession on carrion in Calabria (southern Italy). Terrestrial Arthropod Rev. 3: 97– 110. [Google Scholar]
  • 23. Martin-Vega D, Baz A. (2013) Sarcosaprophagous Diptera assemblages in natural habitats in central Spain: spatial and seasonal changes in composition. Med Vet Entomol. 27: 64– 76. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 24. Babapour R. (2015) Studies on arthropod-fauna on rabbit carcasses in urban, semi-urban and rural ecosystems in north of Iran. [MSPH thesis]. School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. [Google Scholar]
  • 25. Grassberger M, Frank C. (2004) Initial study of arthropod succession on pig carrion in central European urban habitat. J Med Entomol. 41( 3): 511– 523. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26. Akbarzadeh K, Rafinejad J, Nozari J, Rassi Y, Sedaghat MM, Hosseini M. (2012) A Modified Trap for Adult Sampling of Medically Important Flies (Insecta: Diptera). J Arthropod-Borne Dis. 6( 2): 119– 128. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 27. Shiravi AH, Mostafavi R, Akbarzadeh K, Oshaghi MA. (2011) Temperature Requirements of Some Common Forensically Important Blow and Flesh Flies (Diptera) under Laboratory Conditions. Iran J Arthropod Borne Dis. 5( 1): 54– 62. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 28. Mirzakhanlou AA. (2015) Studies on fauna of medically important flies inselected hospitals in Tehran City. [MSPH]. School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Science, Iran. [Google Scholar]
  • 29. Draber-mońko A, Malewski T, Pomorski J, łoś M, Ślipiński P. (2009) On the morphology and mitochondrial DNA bar-coding of the flesh fly Sarcophaga (liopygia) argyrostoma (Robineau-Desvoidy 1830) (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) –an important species in forensic entomology. Annu Zool Sci. (Warszawa). 59( 4): 465– 493. [Google Scholar]
  • 30. Arnolds MI, Romera E, Presa JJ, Luna A, Garcia MD. (2004) Studies on seasonal arthropod succession on carrion in the southeastern Iberian Peninsula. Int J Legal Med. 118: 197– 205. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 31. Wyss C. (1997) Forensic Entomology in Lausanne (Ch). Oistros.. A newsletter for Calliphoridae, Oestridae, Rhinophoridae and Sarcophagidae. 5: 2– 5. [Google Scholar]
  • 32. Benecke M. (1998) Six forensic entomology cases: Description and commentary. J Forensic Sci. 43: 797– 805. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 33. Khoobdel M, Akbarzadeh K, Jafari H, Mehrabi Tavana A, Izadi M, Mosavi Jazayeri A, Bahmani MM, Salari M, Akhoond M, Rahimi M, Esfahani A, Nobakht M, Rafienejad J. (2013) Diversity and Abundance of Medically-Important Flies in the Iranian Triple Islands; The Greater Tunb, Lesser Tunb and Abu-Musa. Iran J Mil Med. 14( 4): 327– 336. [Google Scholar]
  • 34. Greenberg B, Wells JD. (1998) Forensic use of Megaselia abdita and M. Scalaris (Phoridae: Diptera): Case studies, development rates, and egg structure. J Med Entomol. 35( 3): 205– 209. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35. Boehme P, Amendt J, Disney RHL, Zehner R. (2010) Molecular identification of carrion-breeding scuttle flies (Diptera: Phoridae) using COI barcodes. Int J Legal Med. 124: 577– 581. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 36. Reibe S, Madea B. (2010) Use of Megaselia scalaris (Diptera: Phoridae) for postmortem interval estimation indoors. Parasitol Res. 106: 637– 640. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 37. Campobasso CP, Disney RHL, Introna F. (2004) A case of Megaselia scalaris (Loew) (Diptera: Phoridae) breeding in a human corpse. Aggrawal’s Internet J Forensic Med Toxicol. 5: 3– 5. [Google Scholar]
  • 38. Thevan K, Disney RHL, Ahmda AH. (2010) First records of two species of oriental scuttle flies (Diptera: Phoridae) from forensic cases. Forensic Sci Int. 195: e5– e7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 39. Kumara TK, Disney RHL, Abu Hassan A, Flores M, Hwa TS, Mohamed Z, CheSalmah MR, Bhupinder S. (2012) Occurrence of oriental flies associated with indoor and outdoor human remains in the tropical climate of north Malaysia. J Vector Ecol. 37: 62– 68. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 40. Bourel B, Tournel G, Hedouin V, Gosset D. (2004) Entomofauna of buried bodies in northern France. Int J Legal Med. 118: 215– 220. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 41. Gaudry E, Dourel L, Chauvet B, Vincent B, Pasquerault T. (2007) Effect of burial on necrophagous insect activity. The 5th meeting of European Association of Forensic Entomology, 2007, Brussels, Belgium, pp. 15–82. [Google Scholar]
  • 42. Manlove JD, Disney RHL. (2008) The use of Megaselia abdita (Diptera: Phoridae) in forensic entomology. Forensic Sci Int. 175: 83– 84. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 43. Triplehorn CA, Johnson NF, Borror DJ. (2005) Borror and DeLong’s introduction to the study of insects. p. 727.
  • 44. Disney RHL. (2008) Natural history of the scuttle fly, Megaselia scalaris. Annu Rev Entomol. 53: 39– 60. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 45. Ghavami MB, Djalilvand A. (2015) First Record of Urogenital Myiasis Induced by Megaselia scalaris (Diptera: Phoridae) from Iran. J Arthropod Borne Dis. 9( 2): 274– 280. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 46. Schroeder H, Klotzbach H, Oesterhelweg L, Puschel K. (2002) Larder beetles (Coleoptera, Dermestidae) as an accelerating factor for decomposition of a human corpse. Forensic Sci Int. 127: 231– 36. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 47. Klotzbach H, Garbe V, Oesterhelweg L, Schroeder H. (2004) Temporal occurrence and development of Dermestid beetles (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) on human corpses in the domestic environment. The 4th meeting of European Association Forensic Entomology London, UK, p. 7. [Google Scholar]
  • 48. Braack LEO. (1981) Visitation patterns of principal species of the insect complex at carcasses in the Kruger National Park. Koedoe. 24: 33– 49. [Google Scholar]
  • 49. Kulshrestha P, Satpathy DK. (2001) Use of beetles in forensic Entomology. Forensic Sci Int. 120: 15– 17. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 50. Greenberg B, Kunich JC. (2002) Entomology and the law flies as forensic indicators . Cambridge University Press ; , Cambridge, United Kingdon : 2002 356 pp., ISBN 0-521-80915-0. [Google Scholar]
  • 51. Haskell NH, Lord WD, Byrd JH. (2001) Collection of entomological evidence during death investigations. In: Byrd JH, Castner JL. (Eds) Forensic entomology-the utility of arthropods in legal investigations. CRC Press, Boca Raton FL, pp. 81–120. [Google Scholar]

Articles from Journal of Arthropod-Borne Diseases are provided here courtesy of Tehran University of Medical Sciences

RESOURCES