Table 5.
Association Between Neighborhood Cohesion, Disorder, and Self-Reported Health Outcome Variables
| Outcome: Self-reported health (OHS range: 1–4, QoL range: 1–4) | Model A | Model B | Model C | Model D | Model E |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | |
| Neighborhood Cohesion | |||||
| Outcome: OHS—Very good and good | |||||
| Continuous | |||||
| Age | 0.98 (0.98, 0.99)*** | 0.98 (0.98, 0.99)** | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)*** | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)*** | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)*** |
| Female | 0.84 (0.73, 0.97)* | 0.83 (0.71, 0.97)* | 0.82 (0.70, 0.97)* | 0.84 (0.71, 0.99)* | 0.84 (0.71, 0.99)* |
| Education | 1.00 (0.99, 1.02) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.02) | 1.01 (0.99, 1.03) | 1.01 (0.99, 1.03) | |
| Income | 1.20 (1.12, 1.28)*** | 1.20 (1.12, 1.28)*** | 1.16 (1.08, 1.25)*** | 1.17 (1.08, 1.25)*** | |
| Married | 0.98 (0.81, 1.18) | 0.99 (0.81, 1.19) | 0.99 (0.81, 1.20) | ||
| Living arrangement | 0.99 (0.95, 1.04) | 0.99 (0.95, 1.04) | 1.00 (0.95, 1.04) | ||
| Children | 1.04 (0.98, 1.10) | 1.04 (0.98, 1.10) | 1.04 (0.98, 1.10) | ||
| Years in community | 1.02 (1.01, 1.03)*** | 1.02 (1.01, 1.03)*** | |||
| Years in United States | 0.99 (0.98, 1.00) | 0.99 (0.98, 1.00) | |||
| Born in China | 0.68 (0.51, 0.89)* | 0.68 (0.50, 0.91)** | |||
| Cantonese/Toisanese | 1.25 (0.98, 1.58) | 1.22 (0.94, 1.59) | |||
| Chinatown | 1.04 (0.71, 1.53) | ||||
| Community cohesion | 1.57 (0.74, 3.35) | 1.59 (0.69, 3.67) | 1.61 (0.71, 3.64) | 1.89 (0.89, 4.00) | 1.83 (0.66, 5.08) |
| Cohesion | 1.06 (0.96,1.16) | 1.05 (0.95, 1.16) | 1.04 (0.94, 1.15) | 1.05 (0.95, 1.16) | 1.05 (0.95, 1.16) |
| Tertiles (Reference group: low cohesion) | |||||
| Age | 0.98 (0.98, 0.99)*** | 0.98 (0.98, 0.99)** | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)*** | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)*** | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)** |
| Female | 0.84 (0.72, 0.97)* | 0.83 (0.72, 0.97)* | 0.82 (0.70, 0.97)* | 0.84 (0.71, 0.99)* | 0.84 (0.71, 0.99)*** |
| Education | 1.00 (0.98, 1.02) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.02) | 1.01 (0.99, 1.03) | 1.02 (1.00, 1.04) | |
| Income | 1.19 (1.11, 1.28)*** | 1.19 (1.11, 1.28)*** | 1.16 (1.08, 1.25)*** | 1.16 (1.08, 1.25)*** | |
| Married | 0.98 (0.81, 1.18) | 0.99 (0.81, 1.19) | 0.99 (0.81, 1.19) | ||
| Living arrangement | 0.99 (0.95, 1.04) | 0.99 (0.95, 1.04) | 0.99 (0.98, 1.04) | ||
| Children | 1.04 (0.98, 1.10) | 1.04 (0.98, 1.10) | 1.04 (0.98, 1.10) | ||
| Years in community | 1.02 (1.01, 1.03)*** | 1.02 (1.01 1.03)*** | |||
| Years in United States | 0.99 (0.98, 1.00) | 0.99 (0.98, 1.00) | |||
| Born in China | 0.68 (0.51, 0.92)** | 0.68 (0.51, 0.91)* | |||
| Cantonese/Toisanese | 1.23 (0.97, 1.56) | 1.21 (0.93, 1.57) | |||
| Chinatown | 1.04 (0.72, 1.51) | ||||
| Community cohesion | 1.66 (0.80, 3.45) | 1.67 (0.74, 3.76) | 1.68 (0.76, 3.71) | 1.96 (0.92, 4.14) | 1.89 (0.69, 5.20) |
| Cohesion—Medium | 1.21 (1.01, 1.45)* | 1.17 (0.98, 1.40) | 1.17 (0.97, 1.40) | 1.15 (0.96, 1.38) | 1.15 (0.95, 1.38) |
| Cohesion—High | 1.09 (0.91, 1.31) | 1.07 (0.89, 1.28) | 1.06 (0.88, 1.28) | 1.06 (0.88, 1.28) | 1.06 (0.88, 1.28) |
| Outcome: QoL—Very good and good | |||||
| Continuous | |||||
| Age | 1.02 (1.01, 1.02)** | 1.02 (1.01, 1.03)*** | 1.02 (1.00, 1.03)** | 1.01 (1.00, 1.03)* | 1.01 (1.00, 1.03)* |
| Female | 1.27 (1.09, 1.47)** | 1.29 (1.11, 1.51)** | 1.27 (1.08, 1.50)** | 1.26 (1.07, 1.48)** | 1.25 (1.07, 1.48)** |
| Education | 1.01 (1.00, 1.03) | 1.02 (1.01, 1.04)* | 1.02 (1.00, 1.04)* | 1.02 (1.00, 1.04)* | |
| Income | 1.15 (1.07, 1.23)*** | 1.16 (1.08, 1.25)*** | 1.14 (1.06, 1.23)*** | 1.14 (1.06, 1.23)*** | |
| Married | 0.89 (0.74, 1.08) | 0.90 (0.74 (1.08) | 0.90 (0.74, 1.08) | ||
| Living arrangement | 1.06 (1.02, 1.11)** | 1.06 (1.02, 1.11)** | 1.06 (1.02, 1.11)** | ||
| Children | 1.06 (1.00, 1.12)* | 1.06 (1.01, 1.13)* | 1.06 (1.01, 1.13)* | ||
| Years in community | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | |||
| Years in United States | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | |||
| Born in China | 0.75 (0.56, 1.02) | 0.76 (0.56, 1.03) | |||
| Cantonese/Toisanese | 0.88 (0.68, 1.13) | 0.90 (0.70, 1.17) | |||
| Chinatown | 0.76 (0.43, 1.35) | ||||
| Community cohesion | 3.31 (0.76, 14.37) | 2.99 (0.75, 11.87) | 3.25 (0.89, 11.86) | 2.85 (0.82, 9.89) | 3.18 (0.91, 11.78) |
| Cohesion | 1.23 (1.12, 1.36)*** | 1.23 (1.10, 1.34)*** | 1.24 (1.12, 1.37)*** | 1.25 (1.13, 1.38)*** | 1.25 (1.13, 1.39)*** |
| Tertiles (Reference group: low cohesion) | |||||
| Age | 1.02 (1.01, 1.02)** | 1.02 (1.01, 1.03)*** | 1.02 (1.00, 1.03)** | 1.01 (1.00, 1.03)* | 1.01 (1.00, 1.03)* |
| Female | 1.26 (1.09, 1.46)** | 1.29 (1.11, 1.50)** | 1.27 (1.08, 1.49)** | 1.25 (1.07, 1.48)** | 1.25 (1.06, 1.47)** |
| Education | 1.01 (1.00, 1.03) | 1.02 (1.01, 1.04)** | 1.02 (1.00, 1.04)* | 1.02 (1.00, 1.04)* | |
| Income | 1.15 (1.07, 1.23)*** | 1.16 (1.08, 1.24)*** | 1.14 (1.06, 1.23)*** | 1.14 (1.06, 1.23)*** | |
| Married | 0.89 (0.74, 1.07) | 0.89 (0.74, 1.08) | 0.89 (0.74 (1.08) | ||
| Living arrangement | 1.06 (1.01, 1.11)** | 1.06 (1.02, 1.11)** | 1.06 (1.02, 1.11)** | ||
| Children | 1.06 (1.00, 1.12)* | 1.06 (1.01, 1.13)* | 1.06 (1.01, 1.13)* | ||
| Years in community | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | |||
| Years in United States | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | |||
| Born in China | 0.76 (0.56, 1.03) | 0.77 (0.57, 1.04) | |||
| Cantonese/Toisanese | 0.87 (0.67, 1.12) | 0.89 (0.69, 1.15) | |||
| Chinatown | 0.75 (0.41, 1.40) | ||||
| Community cohesion | 3.57 (0.77, 16.49) | 3.20 (0.77, 13.38) | 3.48 (0.90, 13.43) | 3.02 (0.83, 10.99) | 3.48 (0.91, 13.34) |
| Cohesion—Medium | 1.48 (1.24, 1.77)*** | 1.44 (1.20, 1.72)*** | 1.47 (1.22, 1.76)*** | 1.48 (1.23, 1.77)*** | 1.48 (1.23, 1.78)*** |
| Cohesion—High | 1.51 (1.26, 1.81)*** | 1.45 (1.21, 1.74)*** | 1.51 (1.26, 1.83)*** | 1.53 (1.27, 1.84)*** | 1.53 (1.27, 1.85)*** |
| Neighborhood Disorder | |||||
| Outcome: OHS—Very good and good | |||||
| Continuous | |||||
| Age | 0.98 (0.87, 0.99)*** | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)*** | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)*** | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)*** | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)*** |
| Female | 0.83 (0.72, 0.96)* | 0.83 (0.71, 0.97)* | 0.82 (0.70, 0.97)* | 0.84 (0.71, 0.98)* | 0.84 (0.71, 0.98)* |
| Education | 1.01 (0.99, 1.02) | 1.01 (0.99, 1.03) | 1.02 (1.00, 1.04) | 1.02 (1.00, 1.04) | |
| Income | 1.19 (1.12, 1.28)*** | 1.19 (1.11, 2.8)*** | 1.16 (1.08, 1.25)*** | 1.16 (1.08, 1.25)*** | |
| Married | 0.99 (0.82, 1.20) | 1.00 (0.83, 1.21) | 1.00 (0.83, 1.21) | ||
| Living arrangement | 0.99 (0.95, 1.03) | 0.99 (0.95, 1.03) | 0.99 (0.95, 1.03) | ||
| Children | 1.04 (0.99, 1.10) | 1.05 (0.99, 1.11) | 1.05 (0.99, 1.011) | ||
| Years in community | 1.02 (1.01, 1.03)*** | 1.02 (1.01, 1.03)*** | |||
| Years in United States | 0.99 (0.98, 1.00) | 0.99 (0.98,1.00) | |||
| Born in China | 0.66 (0.49, 0.89)** | 0.66 (0.49, 0.89)** | |||
| Cantonese/Toisanese | 1.29 (1.00, 1.68) | 1.29 (1.00, 1.68) | |||
| Chinatown | 1.28 (0.68, 2.44) | ||||
| Community disorder | 0.98 (0.83, 1.16) | 0.99 (0.82, 1.19) | 0.99 (0.82, 1.19) | 0.94 (0.77, 1.14) | 0.90 (0.72, 1.14) |
| Disorder | 0.98 (0.96, 1.00)* | 0.98 (0.96, 0.99)* | 0.98 (0.96, 1.00)* | 0.97 (0.95, 0.99)** | 0.97 (0.95, 0.99)** |
| Tertiles (Reference group: low disorder) | |||||
| Age | 0.98 (0.98, 0.99)*** | 0.98 (0.98, 0.99)*** | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)*** | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)*** | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)*** |
| Female | 0.84 (0.72, 0.97)* | 0.83 (0.72, 0.97)* | 0.83 (0.70, 0.97)* | 0.84 (0.71, 0.99)* | 0.84 (0.71, 0.99)* |
| Education | 1.00 (0.99, 1.02) | 1.01 (0.99, 1.03) | 1.02 (1.00, 1.04) | 1.02 (1.00, 1.04) | |
| Income | 1.19 (1.11, 1.27)*** | 1.19 (1.11, 1.27)*** | 1.16 (1.08, 1.24)*** | 1.16 (1.08, 1.24)*** | |
| Married | 1.00 (0.83, 1.20) | 1.00 (0.83, 1.21) | 1.00 (0.83, 1.21) | ||
| Living arrangement | 0.99 (0.95, 1.03) | 0.99 (0.94, 1.03) | 0.99 (0.95, 1.03) | ||
| Children | 1.04 (0.99, 1.10) | 1.05 (0.99, 1.11) | 1.05 (0.99, 1.11) | ||
| Years in community | 1.02 (1.01, 1.03)*** | 1.02 (1.01, 1.03)*** | |||
| Years in United States | 0.99 (0.98, 1.00) | 0.99 (0.98, 1.00) | |||
| Born in China | 0.66 (0.49, 0.89)** | 0.66 (0.49, 0.89)** | |||
| Cantonese/Toisanese | 1.27 (0.98, 1.65) | 1.27 (0.98, 1.64) | |||
| Chinatown | 1.29 (0.69, 2.41) | ||||
| Community disorder | 0.97 (0.92, 1.15) | 0.98 (0.81, 1.18) | 0.97 (0.81, 1.17) | 0.93 (0.77, 1.13) | 0.90 (0.71, 1.13) |
| Disorder—Medium | 0.88 (0.73, 1.06 | 0.87 (0.72, 1.04) | 0.87 (0.72, 1.04) | 0.86, 0.71, 1.03) | 0.85 (0.71, 1.03) |
| Disorder—High | 0.93 (0.78, 1.12) | 0.91 (0.76, 1.10) | 0.91 (0.76, 1.10) | 0.88 (0.73, 1.06) | 0.88 (0.73, 1.06) |
| Outcome: QoL—Very good and good | |||||
| Continuous | |||||
| Age | 1.01 (1.01, 1.02)** | 1.02 (1.01, 1.02)*** | 1.01 (1.00, 1.02)* | 1.01 (1.00, 1.02)* | 1.01 (1.00, 1.02)* |
| Female | 1.30 (1.12, 1.50)*** | 1.32 (1.14, 1.54)*** | 1.30 (1.11, 1.53)** | 1.30 (1.10, 1.52)** | 1.30 (1.10, 1.52)** |
| Education | 1.02 (1.00, 1.03) | 1.03 (1.01, 1.04)** | 1.03 (1.01, 1.05)** | 1.03 (1.01, 1.05)** | |
| Income | 1.16 (1.08, 1.24)*** | 1.16 (1.08, 1.25)*** | 1.15 (1.07, 1.24)*** | 1.15 (1.07, 1.24)*** | |
| Married | 0.91 (0.75, 1.09) | 0.91 (0.75, 1.09) | 0.91 (0.75, 1.09) | ||
| Living arrangement | 1.04 (1.00, 1.08) | 1.04 (1.00, 1.09) | 1.04 (1.00, 1.09) | ||
| Children | 1.07 (1.01, 1.13)* | 1.07 (1.01, 1.13)* | 1.07 (1.01, 1.13)* | ||
| Years in community | 1.00 (0.99, 1..01) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | |||
| Years in United States | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | |||
| Born in China | 0.75 (0.56, 1.02) | 0.75 (0.56, 1.01) | |||
| Cantonese/Toisanese | 0.98 (0.76, 0.98) | 0.98 (0.76, 1.27) | |||
| Chinatown | 1.13 (0.62, 2.09) | ||||
| Community disorder | 0.81 (0.71, 0.91)** | 0.83 (0.72, 0.96)* | 0.83 (0.72, 0.96)* | 0.84 (0.71, 0.98)* | 0.82 (0.66, 1.03) |
| Disorder | 0.97 (0.95, 0.98)*** | 0.96 (0.95, 0.98)*** | 0.96 (0.95, 0.98)*** | 0.96 (0.95, 0.98)*** | 0.96 (0.95, 0.98)*** |
| Tertiles (Reference group: low disorder) | |||||
| Age | 1.01 (1.01, 1.02)** | 1.02 (1.01, 1.02)*** | 1.01 (1.00, 1.02)* | 1.01 (1.00, 1.02)* | 1.01 (1.00, 1.02)* |
| Female | 1.30 (1.13, 1.50)*** | 1.32 (1.14, 1.54)*** | 1.30 (1.11, 1.53)** | 1.30 (1.10, 1.52)** | 1.30 (1.10, 1.52)*** |
| Education | 1.02 (1.00, 1.03) | 1.02 (1.01, 1.04)** | 1.03 (1.01, 1.05)* | 1.03 (1.01, 1.05)** | |
| Income | 1.16 (1.08, 1.24)*** | 1.16 (1.08, 1.25)*** | 1.15 (1.07, 1.24)** | 1.15 (1.07, 1.24)*** | |
| Married | 0.91 (0.75, 1.09) | 0.91 (0.75, 1.09) | 0.90 (0.75, 1.09) | ||
| Living arrangement | 1.04 (0.99, 1.08) | 1.04 (1.00, 1.08) | 1.04 (1.00, 1.09) | ||
| Children | 1.07 (1.01, 1.13)* | 1.07 (1.02, 1.13)* | 1.07 (1.01, 1.13)* | ||
| Years in community | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | |||
| Years in United States | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | |||
| Born in China | 0.75 (0.56, 1.02) | 0.75 (0.56, 1.01) | |||
| Cantonese/Toisanese | 0.97 (0.75, 1.25) | 0.97 (0.75, 1.25) | |||
| Chinatown | 1.14 (0.63, 2.06) | ||||
| Community disorder | 0.80 (0.72, 0.90)** | 0.83 (0.73, 0.95)* | 0.83 (0.72, 0.96)* | 0.84 (0.72, 0.98)* | 0.82 (0.66, 1.02) |
| Disorder—Medium | 0.80 (0.67, 0.96)* | 0.79 (0.66, 0.94)** | 0.79 (0.66, 0.95)* | 0.79 (0.66, 0.95)* | 0.79 (0.66, 0.95)* |
| Disorder—High | 0.75 (0.63, 0.90)** | 0.73 (0.61, 0.88)*** | 0.73 (0.61, 0.88)*** | 0.73 (0.61, 0.88)*** | 0.73 (0.61, 0.88)*** |
Notes. CI = confidence interval; OHS = overall health status; OR = odds ratio; QOL = quality of life.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.