Table 1.

Betaine content in different samples of cereals and pseudocereals.

Cereals and Pseudocereals	Betaine	References
	(µg/g Dry Weight)
Wheat (Triticum aestivum)
raw grain	1150–1320	[18]
	490–574	[23]
bran	5047–5383	[23]
	2717	[21]
	2300–7200	[3]
aleurone	4538–6242	[11]
germ	3414	[11]
wholegrain flour	792	[11]
	730 *	[24]
	604	[19]
	540	[23]
refined flour	718 *	[25]
	700 *	[24]
	415–593	[21,23]
	398	[11]
	180 *	[4]
	141.2	[19]
flour (not specified by origin)	270–1110	[2]
Wheat Emmer (T. dicoccum)
raw grain	830–940	[18]
refined flour	195 *	[4]
Wheat Einkorn (T. monococcum)
refined flour	367.3 *	[4]
Durum wheat (T. durum)
semolina	1227	[23]
	483	[21]
	683	[11]
refined flour	253–303	[23]
	310	[21]
wholegrain flour	713	[11]
	245 *	[4]
Spelt wheat (T. aestivum ssp. spelta)
raw grain	973–2723	[23]
	565–714	[21]
wholegrain flour	1296–1442	[23]
	1370–1430	[18]
refined flour	978	[11]
	522–593	[23]
	410	[21]
Kamut wheat, Khorasan (T. turgidum ssp. turanicum)
raw grains	1100	[24]
Triticale (xTriticosecale)
raw grain	986–1030	[23]
Rye
raw grain	2213	[23]
	1530–1760	[18]
	444	[21]
bran	1651	[19]
refined flour	310 *	[4]
wholegrain flour	1500 *	[24]
	1182	[23]
	986	[21]
Barley
raw grain	460	[18]
raw grain from naked var.	980	[18]
wholegrain flour	776–1023	[23]
	779	[21]
refined flour	250 *	[4]
flour from naked var	424	[21]
	574	[23]
pearled grain	274	[21]
Oats
raw grain	280	[18]
	388	[21]
raw grain from naked var.	440	[18]
wholegrain flour	310 *	[24]
flour	404–688	[23]
	53 *	[4]
bran	200 *	[24]
	190	[11]
Maize
raw grain	107–304	[23]
	175	[21]
wholegrain meal	120 *	[24]
degermed meal	4 *	[24]
semolina	3–22	[11]
refined corn grits	37	[11]
flour, enriched	20 *	[24]
refined flour	2.1 *	[4]
bran	184	[21]
	104	[23]
	46 *	[24]
flakes	103–120	[23]
	7–9	[11]
	n.d.	[21]
starch	n.d.	[21]
popped	19	[11]
	n.d.	[21]
Rice
grain	1–5	[11]
	n.d.	[21]
refined flour	8.4 *	[4]
expanded	n.d.	[21]
starch	n.d.	[21]
Amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus)
raw grain	7420	[23]
	680 *	[24]
	646	[11]
expanded grain	669	[23]
	607	[21]
flour	895–1225	[23]
	871	[21]
Proso millet
sample type not specified	95–112	[11]
dehulled grain	281	[23]
refined flour	1320 *	[4]
Buckwheat
wholegrain flour	108	[23]
	7–20	[11]
refined flour	n.d.	[21]
groats, roasted	10 *	[4]
	26 *	[24]
Sorghum
refined flour	425 *	[4]
Quinoa
grains	6300 *	[24]
	3042–4428	[11]
	610.8 *	[4]

n.d. not detected; * result expressed on wet weight.