Abstract
The present study was aimed to explore the traditional knowledge of Irula tribal people who are practicing herbal medicine in Walayar valley, the Southern Western Ghats, India. A total number of 146 species of plants distributed in 122 genera belonging to 58 families were identified as commonly used ethnomedicinal plants by them. Interestingly, 26 new claims were also made in the present study. Through the data obtained from Irula tribal healers, the herbs were mostly used for medicine (40.4%) followed by trees (26.7%) and climbers (18.5%). In addition leaves were highly used for medicinal purposes, collected from 55 species (38%) followed by multiple parts from 18 species (12%). Acorus calamus is the species of higher use value (1.80) assessed to be prescribed most commonly for the treatment of cough. High informant consensus factor (1.0) obtained for insecticidal uses and cooling agent indicates that the usage of Canarium strictum and Melia dubia, and Mimosa pudica and Sesamum indicum respectively for that purposes had obtained high degree of agreement among the healers in using these species for the respective purposes. The most commonly used method of preparation was decoction (63%) followed by raw form (23%), paste (12%) and powder (2%). Therefore, it is suggested to take-up pharmacological and phytochemical studies to evaluate the species to confirm the traditional knowledge of Irulas on medicinal plants.
Keywords: Ethnobotanical surveys, Irula tribes, India
1. Introduction
Since few centuries, it is reported that about one fourth of the common drugs used worldwide are derived from plants (Ernst, 2005). Among the top 252 common formulations of the drugs, 219 are obtained from plants alone (Dobson, 1995). As the indigenous people are the more reliable source of information on medicinal plants (Iwu et al., 1999), for the past few decades, use of ethnobotanical information in medicinal plant research has gained great attention among the scientific community (Heinrich, 1999). Documentation of ethnobotanical species for further scientific validation and subsequent processing for commercialization in India are also getting importance in recent decades (Venkatasamy et al., 2010, Arunachalam and Parimelazhagan, 2011, Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2011, Senthilkumar et al., 2013, Pushpakarani and Natarajan, 2014). India, the megabiodiversity nation is not only endowed with a variety of flora and fauna but also has several ethnic communitiesv. By practicing and using the plants for thousands of years, the ethnic and aboriginal people have gained immense practical knowledge about the medicinal plants (Pullaiah et al., 2003).
Western Ghats, the biodiversity hotspot and medicinal plants emporium of India harbours about 3500 plant species of therapeutic importance, and many of them are still used by several tribal communities for their health care particularly for first aid remedies (Abraham, 1981; Nair and Jayakumar, 2003). Richness of medicinal plants in the Western Ghats parts of Coimbatore and Nilgiri districts of Tamil Nadu is high due to the existence of varied types of ecosystems in this landscape (Ramachandran, 2007). Irulas, Thodas, Malasars, Muduvas and Puliars are the major tribal communities in this part doing effective medical practice by using plants (Paulsamy, 2004). However, few reports on ethnobotanical information without much quantitative analysis are only available for this region (Umapriya et al., 2011, Rasingam, 2012). Assessment of information on medicinal plants provided by tribal healers is most required as it gives additional support to know the level of healing property of plants. Irulas, one of the 615 tribal communities of India are living in different topographic habitats (plains, mountains, valleys etc. in Tamil Nadu) and also in the Walayar valley and foothills of Siruvani hills of Southern Western Ghats (Edgar, 1909). Using plants for their day-today health problems is the common medical practice among them (Karthikeyani, 2003). Despite this ethnobotanical significance, no reports are available on medicinal plants used by the Irulas of Walayar valley. To address this lacuna, documentation and quantitative analysis were made in Walayar valley, among the Irula tribals to explore their traditional knowledge on plants for medicinal uses.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area and the tribal community
The study area, Walayar Valley, located in lower Western Ghats of Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu State and Palghat district, Kerala State and the Palghat gap of both States covers an area of ca.12500 ha (ca. 4200 ha in Tamil Nadu and 8300 ha in Kerala) between the altitude 370 and 450 m above msl. The geographical location of Walayar valley is 10° 77′ 0-3″ N and 76° 51′ 06-10″ E (Fig. 1). In this landscape, ca. 55% of the geographical area occupied by moist tropical semi-evergreen forest dominated by the tree species, Chloroxylon swietenia (Champion and Seth, 1968) is a protected forest for biodiversity conservation. The only inhabitant, Irula tribal community is permitted to do agriculture and collection of minor forest produce for their own use without posing any problem to species diversity. The Walayar river runs across the valley and its environ occupies ca. 2% of geographical area of this region. The agricultural land around the forests in this valley spreads over an area of ca. 40% of total geographical area. Annual rainfall ranges between 1500 and 2200 mm for the past 15 years.
Figure 1.
Location of study area, the Walayar valley.
The population of Irula tribals in Walayar valley is ca. 470, distributed in six hamlets each consists of 6–15 families. According to anthropological literature, Irula, one of the oldest tribal communities of India belongs to the Negrito race (migrated from Africa) which is one among the six ethnic groups that add to the racial mosaic of India (Von, 1982). Few elders in this community have the knowledge on medicinal uses of plants which are used mainly for first aid remedies like stomach problems, fever, headache, skin problems, etc.
2.2. Data collection
Six field visits were made in Walayar valley for getting ethnobotanical information during the period between October, 2013 and May, 2015 in all the six Irula habitations. Totally five ageold healers of in-depth knowledge on medicinal plants were identified for collecting information by interrogations. To determine the difference in knowledge among the Irula people, we cross checked the information collected with the other informants. The number of times, the healers repeated the same use of the plants was noted. For documenting the ethnobotanical information, field data sheet has been prepared and used. Local name of the plant, parts used for treatment, preparation methods, other plants used as ingredients, mode of administration etc., were collected for all medicinal plants used by Irulas. The plant species were identified with the help of keys provided in ‘The Flora of Presidency of Madras’ (Gamble and Fischer, 1935) and ‘The Flora of Tamil Nadu Carnatic’ (Matthew, 1983). Identified species were confirmed with Dr. V. Balasubramaniam, Plant Taxonomist in the Botany Department of Kongunadu Arts and Science College, Coimbatore. Herbarium specimens are maintained in the Botany Department of the College.
2.3. Ailment categories
Sixteen ailment categories were grouped (Cook, 1995) as presented elsewhere (Venkatachalapathi et al., 2016) on basis of the information provided by the Irula healers of Walayar valley.
2.4. Analysis of data
Informant consensus factor (Fic) was used to know the level of consensus among the informants or healers on the use of a plant for a particular ailment category. The Use Value (UV) is importance of a species in terms of its use in herbal remedy in relation to other species. Fidelity level (FL) is a tool to determine the most frequently used plant species as per the informants for the treatment of a disease in a particular ailment category. The UV, Fic and FL were calculated as per the formula of Trotter and Logan, 1986, Phillips et al., 1994 and Friedmen et al. (1986) respectively.
3. Results
The Irula tribes of Walayar valley utilized a large number of 146 species of 122 genera belonging to 58 families for the treatment of various medicaments (Table 1). One of the interesting observations made in the study is that among the 146 ethnomedicinal plants, 26 claims from the species like Acacia leucophloea, Alstonia venenata, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Carissa spinarum, Curculigo orchioides, Hybanthus enneaspermus, Melia dubia and Solena amplexicaulis etc. are new and are reported for the first time (Table 1). Among the medicinal plant families represented, Fabaceae registered more number of 16 species followed by Euphorbiaceae (9 species), Lamiaceae (7 species) and Asclepiadaceae (6 species). Through the data obtained from life-form analysis, incidence of herbs (40.4%) were the primary source of medicine followed by trees (26.7%) and climbers (18.5%) (Fig. 2). In addition, among the utilization of various plant parts investigated, leaves of greater number of 55 species followed by whole plant (16 species), fruits (13 species) and rhizomes (12 species) were used by the tribal community for the treatment of common ailments such as cold, cough, jaundice, rheumatism etc. (Fig. 3). However, 18 species were exploited for their multiple usage in herbal remedy. They were administered either alone or in combination with parts of other species (Table 2). Generally, they were prescribed as decoction (63%), raw form (23%), paste (12%) and powders (2%) (Fig. 4).
Table 1.
List of medicinal plants used by the Irula tribal community in Walayar valley of Coimbatore district, Southern Western Ghats, India.
| S. No. | Botanical name and family | Local name | Use value | Parts used | #Ailment category: number of use reports (ailments treated) | Preparation | Application |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Trees Acacia catechu Willd. (Mimosaceae) |
Karungali |
0.60 | Stem | GIA-1 (ulcer) RSD-1 (chest pain) SMSD-1(swelling) |
Decoction Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral Oral |
| 2 | ∗,†A. leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. (Mimosaceae) | Vellvale maram | 1.40 | Bark | DID-4 (wound healing) GIA -3 (stomach problem) |
Raw Decoction |
Topical Oral |
| 3 | †A. nilotica (L.) Willd. (Mimosaceae) | Karuvale maram | 0.20 | Stem and bark | DC-1 (toothache) | Past | Toothpaste |
| 4 | Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. (Rutaceae) | Vilvam | 0.60 | Leaf and fruit | ED-1 (diabetes) Fvr-1 (fever) DID-1 (antiinflammatory) |
Raw Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral Oral |
| 5 | †Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. (Simaroubaceae) | Perumaram | 0.20 | Leaf | GUA-1 (menstrual problem) | Decoction | Oral |
| 6 | †Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wangerin. (Alangiaceae) | Alangi | 0.80 | Leaf and stem | GIA-2 (stomach ache) RSD-2 (chest pain) |
Raw Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 7 | ∗,†Albizia amara ROXB. (Fabaceae) | Arappu | 1.20 | Leaf | HC-6 (dandruff) | Raw | Oral |
| 8 | †A. lebbeck (L.) Benth. (Fabaceae) | Vagai | 0.20 | Leaf | DID-1 (eczema) | Raw | Oral |
| 9 | ∗,†Alstonia venenata R. Br. (Apocynaceae) | Sinnappalai | 0.20 | Latex | DID-1 (wound) | Raw | Oral |
| 10 | ∗,†Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. (Rutaceae) | Pala | 0.60 | Leaf and fruit | SMSD-1(arthritis) DID-2 (antioxidant and skin diseases) | Decoction Raw |
Oral Oral |
| 11 | Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae) | Vembu | 0.60 | Whole plant | PB-1 (snake bite) CSCD-1 (blood purification) SMSD-1 (rheumatism) |
Raw Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral Oral |
| 12 | †Canarium strictum Roxb. (Burseraceae) | Sambirani chedi | 0.20 | Bark | IC-1 (mosquito repellent) | Powder | Topical |
| 13 | †Canthium diococcum (Gaertn.) Merr. (Rubiaceae) | Payira maram | 0.40 | Leaf | PB-1 (dog bite) GIA-1(stomach ache) |
Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 14 | ∗,†Carissa spinarum Linn. (Apocynaceae) | Chrukila | 0.40 | Fruit and latex | ENT-1 (mouth ulcer) DID-1 (antioxidant) |
Decoction Raw |
Oral Oral |
| 15 | Cassia fistula Linn. (Caesalpiniaceae) | Kakke maram | 1.00 | Stem and flower | Fvr-2 (fever) GIA-2 (stomach pain) DID-1 (antiinflammatory) |
Decoction Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral Oral |
| 16 | †Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Nees & Eberm. (Lauraceae) | Pachkarpooram | 0.20 | Stem | ENT-1 (ear ache) | Decoction | Oral |
| 17 | ∗,†Commiphora caudata Wight & Arn. (Burseraceae) | Kiluvai | 0.80 | Leaf | Fvr-4 (fever) | Decoction | Oral |
| 18 | ∗,†Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC. (Fabaceae) | Ette | 0.20 | Stem | DID-1 (skin diseases) | Past | Topical |
| 19 | †Dodonaea angustifolia (L.f.) Benth. (Sapindaceae) | Baraley | 0.40 | Leaf and bark | SMSD-2 (Bone fracture and head ache) | Past | Topical |
| 20 | †Erythrina variegata (L.) Merr. (Fabaceae) | Mullumurungai | 0.40 | Leaf | RSD-2 (cold and cough) | Decoction | Oral |
| 21 | Ficus racemosa Roxb. (Fabaceae) | Athi | 0.60 | leaf, bark and fruit | CSCD-1 (blood secretion) GUA-1 (leucorrhoea) SMSD-1 (arthritis) |
Raw Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral Oral |
| 22 | ∗Limonia acidissima L. (Rutaceae) | Vilampalam | 0.60 | Fruit | GUA-1 (leucorrhoea) DID-1 (antioxidant) SMSD-1 (arthritis) |
Raw Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral Oral |
| 23 | †Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae) | Mavin mara | 0.80 | Leaf, bark and fruit | DID-2 (Wound healing and antioxidant) GIA-1 (menstrual problem) SMSD-1 (swelling) |
Raw Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral Oral |
| 24 | ∗,†Melia azedarach L. (Meliaceae) | Malaivembu | 0.60 | Bark | GIA-3 (stomach ache) | Decoction | Oral |
| 25 | ∗M. dubia L. (Meliaceae) | Malaivembu | 0.60 | Bark | IC-1 (mosquito repellent) ED-1 (diabetes) GIA-1 (stomach ache) |
Powder Decoction Decoction |
Topical Oral Oral |
| 26 | ∗,†Mesua ferrea L. (Calophyllaceae) | Churuli | 0.20 | Flower | GIA-1 (stomach ache) | Decoction | Oral |
| 27 | †Moringa oleifera L. (Moringaceae) | Murungai | 0.40 | Leaf, flower and fruit | GUA-2 (male fertility) | Decoction | Oral |
| 28 | Phyllanthus emblica L. (Euphorbiaceae) | Nelli | 0.60 | Fruit | CSCD-1 (blood purification) DID-1 (antioxidant) HC-1 (hair tonic) |
Raw Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral Oral |
| 29 | †Pongamia pinnata L. (Fabaceaae) | Pungam | 0.40 | Seed | SMSD-2 (rheumatism) | Decoction | Oral |
| 30 | †Sapindus emarginatus Vahl. (Sapindaceae) | Pucha | 0.60 | Stem and fruit | SMSD-1 (head ache) GH-2 (piles and bathing) |
Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 31 | †Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merrill & Perry. (Myrtaceae) | Kiraampu | 0.60 | Fruit | DC-3 (toothache) | Past | Toothpaste |
| 32 | †S. cuminii L. (Myrtaceae) | Naval | 1.40 | Leaf, bark, fruit and seed | ED-4 (diabetes) DID-2 (antioxidant) GIA-1 (dysentery) |
Raw Raw Decoction |
Oral Oral Oral |
| 33 | †Tamarindus indica L. (Fabaceae) | Puli | 0.40 | Seed | PB-1 (scorpion bite) DID-1 (antioxidant) |
Decoction Raw |
Oral Oral |
| 34 | †Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) W. & A. (Combritaceae) | Marutu | 0.20 | Bark | RSD-1 (chest pain) | Decoction | Oral |
| 35 | †T. bellerica Roxb. (Combritaceae) | Thanikai | 0.20 | Bark | RSD-1 (chest pain) | Decoction | Oral |
| 36 | †T. chebula Retz. (Combritaceae) | Kadukkai | 0.20 | Fruit | GIA-1 (stomach pain) | Decoction | Oral |
| 37 | †Wrightia tinctoria R. Br. (Apocynaceae) | Palai | 0.20 | Leaf | DC-1 (toothache) | Past | Toothpaste |
| 38 | †Ziziphus mauritiana L. (Ramnaceae) | Elanthai | 0.60 | Leaf | DID-3 (wound) | Past | Topical |
| 39 | †Z. enophylla L. (Ramnaceae) | Malai elanthai | 0.60 | Leaf | DID-3 (wound) | Past | Topical |
| 40 | Shrubs †Argemone mexicana L. (Papaveraceae) |
Kutiyotti |
0.60 | Latex | GIA-1 (ulcer) DID-2 (pimples and wound healing) |
Decoction Raw |
Oral Oral |
| 41 | †Atalantia monophylla L. (Rutaceae) | Kattuelumichai | 1.00 | Fruit | SMSD-4 (body pain) DID-1 (antioxidant) |
Decoction Raw |
Oral Oral |
| 42 | †Begonia malabarica L. (Begoniaceae) | Rattha choori | 0.80 | Whole plant | SMSD-4 (arthritis and joint pain) | Raw and Decoction | Oral |
| 43 | †Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.Aiton. (Asclepiadaceae) | Vella Erukku | 0.20 | Latex | DID-1 (wound) | Raw | Oral |
| 44 | †Cassia auriculata L. (Fabaceae) | Aavaarampoo | 1.20 | Flower | ED-6 (diabetes) | Raw and Decoction | Oral |
| 45 | †Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. (Rutaceae) | Elumichi | 0.20 | Fruit | GIA-1 (dysentery) | Raw and Decoction | Oral |
| 46 | †Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. (Lamiaceae) | Sangam | 0.20 | Leaf | DID-1 (skin diseases) | Decoction | Oral |
| 47 | †Helicteres isora L. (Sterculiaceae) | Valampuri edampuri | 0.20 | Fruit | ENT-1 (ear ache) | Decoction | Oral |
| 48 | †Jatropha gossypifolia L. (Euphorbiaceae) | Adalai | 0.60 | Latex | ENT-3 (mouth ulcer) | Decoction | Oral |
| 49 | †Justicia adhatoda L. (Acanthaceae) | Adatodai | 1.20 | Leaf | Fvr-6 (fever) | Decoction | Oral |
| 50 | †J. gendarussa L. (Acanthaceae) | Vadaikkutti | 0.20 | Leaf | SMSD-1 (body pain) | Decoction | Oral |
| 51 | ∗,†Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae) | Unnichedi | 0.40 | Leaf | DID-2 (wound healing and antiinflammatory) | Past / Decoction | Topical /Oral |
| 52 | †L. wightii L. (Verbenaceae) | Unnichedi | 0.60 | Leaf | DID-3 (wound healing) | Past | Topical |
| 53 | †Manihot esculenta L. (Euphorbiaceae) | Maravalli | 0.20 | Rhizome | DID-1 (wound healing) | Past | Topical |
| 54 | ∗,†Pavetta indica L. (Rubiaceae) | Vellaippavattai | 0.80 | Leaf | PB-4 (snake bite) | Decoction | Oral |
| 55 | †Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. (Apocynaceae) | Amalpori | 0.80 | Leaf | PB-4 (snake bite) | Decoction | Oral |
| 56 | †R. trtraphylla L. (Apocynaceae) | Pampukaalaachchedi | 0.60 | Leaf | PB-3 (snake bite) | Decoction | Oral |
| 57 | ∗,†Solanum surattense L. (Solanaceae) | Kandankathiri | 1.20 | Whole plant | RSD-6 (cold and wheezing) | Decoction | Oral |
| 58 | †Vitex negundo L. (Verbenaceae) | Notchi | 1.40 | Leaf | SMSD-7 (headache and body pain) | Decoction | Oral |
| 59 | Herbs †Abutilon indicum L. (Malvaceae) |
Thuththi |
0.80 | Whole plant | GH-4 (piles) | Decoction | Oral |
| 60 | †Acalypha indica L. (Euphorbiaceae) | Kuppaimeni | 0.20 | Leaf | LP-1 (jaundice) | Decoction | Oral |
| 61 | †A. fruticosa L. (Euphorbiaceae) | Punairananki | 0.20 | Leaf | DID-1 (skin disease) | Past | Topical |
| 62 | †Achyranthes aspera L. (Ameranthaceae) | Nayuruvi | 0.40 | Whole plant | PB-2 (dog bite and poisonous bite) | Decoction | Oral |
| 63 | †Acorus calamus L. (Acoraceae) | Vasambu | 1.80 | Rhizome | RSD-5 (cough) | Decoction | Oral |
| 64 | ∗,†Aerva lanata L. (Ameranthaceae) | Poolai poo | 1.20 | Leaf | ED-6 (kidney stone) | Raw | Oral |
| 65 | †Alpinia galanga L. (Zingiberaceae) | Perratthei | 0.40 | Rhizome | SMSD-1 (rheumatism) GIA-1 (ulcer) |
Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 66 | †Aloe vera L. (Liliaceae) | Sotru katrallai | 0.80 | Whole plant | GUA-4 (menstrual problem) | Raw and Decoction | Oral |
| 67 | Amorphophallus paeniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson. (Araceae) | Kattukarunai | 1.00 | Rhizome | GH-2 (tonic) GIA-1 (carminative) GUA-1 (menstrual problem) DID- 1 (antiinflammatory) |
Raw Decoction Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral Oral Oral |
| 68 | †Andrographis paniculata L. (Acanthaceae) | Neelavembu | 0.80 | Whole plant | PB-4 (snake bite) | Decoction | Oral |
| 69 | ∗,†Anisomeles malabarica (L.) R.BR. (Lamiaceae) | Peymiratti | 0.20 | Leaf | DID-1 (eczema) | Past | Topical |
| 70 | †Asystasia gangetica L. (Acanthaceae) | Mitikirai | 0.40 | Leaf | SMSD-1 (rheumatism) ED-1 (diabetic) |
Decoction Raw |
Oral Oral |
| 71 | †Centella asiatica L. (Apiaceae) | Vallarai | 0.60 | Whole plant | CSCD-1 (memory power) GIA-2 (gas trouble and stomach ache) |
Raw Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 72 | †Chromolaena odorata L. (Astraceae) | Kamyunist Alai | 0.20 | Leaf | DID-1 (wound healing) | Past | Topical |
| 73 | †Cleome aspera L. (Cleomaceae) | Karumpoondu | 0.20 | Leaf | DID-1 (eczema) | Past | Topical |
| 74 | †C. monophylla L. (Cleomaceae) | Ellukku sakkalathi | 0.40 | Leaf | Fvr-1 (fever) SMSD-1 (inflammation) |
Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 75 | ∗,†C. viscosa L. (Cleomaceae) | Naikadugu | 0.80 | Leaf | ENT-4 (ear ache) | Decoction | Oral |
| 76 | †Coleus aromaticus Benth. (Lamiaceae) | Karpooravalli | 0.40 | Leaf | RSD-2 (cough and cold) | Raw and Decoction | Oral |
| 77 | †Commelina benghalensis L. (Comllinaceae) | Kancatam | 0.20 | Whole plant | DID-1 (wound healing) | Past | Topical |
| 78 | †Curcuma aromatica Salisb. (Zingiberaceae) | Manjal | 1.00 | Rhizome | SMSD-1 (tumor) DID-4 (wound healing and antiinflammatory) |
Raw Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 79 | ∗,†Curculio orchids Gaertn. (Hypoxidaceae) | Nilapanai | 1.20 | Rhizome | CSCD-4(heart problem) SMSD-1 (joint pain) |
Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 80 | †Cyanotis axillaris L. (Commelinaceae) | Vallukkai | 0.40 | Leaf | SMSD-1 (swelling) DID-1 (itching) |
Raw Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 81 | †Cymbopogon citratus STAPF. (Poaceae) | Elumichai pul | 0.20 | Root | GIA-1 (diarrhoea) | Decoction | Oral |
| 82 | †Cynodon dactylon L. (Cyperaceae) | Arugam pull | 0.40 | Whole plant | GIA-2 (indigestion and stomach ache) | Raw and Decoction | Oral |
| 83 | †Cyperus rotundus L. (Cyperaceae) | Korai kilangu | 0.20 | Rhizome | DID-1 (wound) | Past | Oral |
| 84 | †Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. (Fabaceae) | Orilai | 0.40 | Stem and root | Fvr-1 (fever) SMSD-1 (head ache) |
Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 85 | †Eclipta prostrata L. (Asteraceae) | Karisalankanni | 1.00 | Leaf | HC-5 (hair tonic) | Decoction | Oral |
| 86 | ∗,†Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. (Poaceae) | Kaelvaragu | 0.20 | Seed | Fvr-1 (fever) | Decoction | Oral |
| 87 | †Enicostemma axillare L. (Gentianaceae) | Vellarugu | 0.20 | Leaf | PB-1 (snake bite) | Decoction | Oral |
| 88 | †E. littorale Blume. (Gentianaceae) | Vellarugu | 1.20 | Leaf | PB-6 (snake bite) | Decoction | Oral |
| 89 | †Evolvulus alsiniodes L. (Convolvulaceae) | Vishnukiranthi | 0.20 | Whole plant | Fvr-1 (fever) | Decoction | Oral |
| 90 | †Hemidesmus indicus L. (Asclipadaceae) | Nannari | 0.80 | Root | Fvr-1 (fever) GIA-3 (stomach problem) |
Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 91 | ∗,†Hybanthus enneaspermus L. (Violaceae) | Orithalthamarai | 1.00 | Whole plant | GUA-5 (male fertility) | Raw and Decoction | Oral |
| 92 | †Hygrophylla auriculata Schum. (Acanthaceae) | Voyal chullai | 0.20 | Leaf | GUA-1 (menstrual problem) | Decoction | Oral |
| 93 | †Hyptis sauveolens (L.) Poit. (Lamiaceae) | Karunchsatachi | 0.20 | Leaf | DID-1 (eczema) | Past | Topical |
| 94 | †Leonotis nepetaefolia (L.) W.T. Ait. (Fabaceae) | Theanthumpai | 0.20 | Leaf | DID-1 (eczema) | Past | Topical |
| 95 | †Mimosa pudica L. (Fabaceae) | Thootal sinigi | 1.20 | Whole plant | CA-4 (body coolant) RSD-2 (asthma) |
Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 96 | †Notonia grandiflora DC. (Astraceae) | Muyalkathu | 0.20 | Leaf | ENT-1 (ear ache) | Decoction | Oral |
| 97 | †Ocimum sanctum L. (Lamiaceae) | Nallathulasi | 1.20 | Leaf | RSD-6 (cold and cough) | Decoction | Oral |
| 98 | †O. tenuiflorum L. (Lamiaceae) | Karut tulasi | 0.40 | Leaf | RSD-2 (cold and cough) | Decoction | Oral |
| 99 | †Oxalis corniculata L. (Oxalidaceae) | Paliakirai | 0.40 | Whole plant | Fvr-1 (fever) ED-1 (kidney stone) |
Decoction Raw |
Oral Oral |
| 100 | †Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn. (Euphorbiaceae) | Kizhaanelli | 1.20 | Whole plant | LP-6 (jaundice) | Decoction | Oral |
| 101 | †P. maderaspatensis L. (Euphorbiaceae) | Civappu kilanelli | 0.60 | Fruit | GIA-3 (indigestion) | Raw and Decoction | Oral |
| 102 | †P. reticulatus Poir. (Euphorbiaceae) | Karunelli | 0.40 | Leaf | GH-1 (piles) DID-1 (antioxidant) |
Decoction Raw |
Oral Oral |
| 103 | ∗,†Physalis minima L. (Solanaceae) | Kupanti | 0.40 | Leaf | GIA-1 (gas trouble) | Decoction | Oral |
| 104 | †Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng. (Lamiaceae) | Karpooravalli | 1.20 | Leaf | RSD-6 (cold and cough) | Decoction | Oral |
| 105 | †Plumbago zeylanica L. (Plumbaginaceae) | Chittiramoolam | 1.20 | Flower | GUA-5 (sterility in women) | Decoction | Oral |
| 106 | †Polygala arvensis Willd. (Polygalaceae) | Vecinankai | 0.20 | Root | SMSD-1 (inflammation) | Decoction | Oral |
| 107 | Pseudarthria viscida (L.) Wight & Arn. (Fabaceaae) | Moovilai | 0.60 | Stem and root | CSCD-1 (heart problem) Fvr-1 (fever) GIA-1 (dysentery) |
Decoction Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral Oral |
| 108 | †Sansevieria roxburghiana Schult. (Agavaceae) | Sanam | 0.80 | Leaf | ENT-4 (ear ache) | Decoction | Oral |
| 109 | †Sesamum indicum L. (Pedaliaceae) | Ellu | 0.80 | Seed | CA-4 (body coolant) | Decoction | Oral |
| 110 | ∗,†Sida rhombifolia L. (Malvaceae) | Kurunthotti | 0.40 | Leaf and root | SMSD-1 (tumor) GIA-1 (gas trouble) |
Raw Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 111 | †Spermacoce latifolia Aubl. (Rubiaceae) | - | 0.20 | Leaf | DID-1 (wound healing) | Past | Topical |
| 112 | †Tephrosia purpurea (Linn.) Pers. (Fabaceae) | Kozhunji | 0.20 | Root | GIA-1 (stomach problem) | Decoction | Oral |
| 113 | ∗,†Tragia involucrata L. (Euphorbiaceae) | Kanchori | 0.20 | Fruit | SMSD-1 (one side headache) | Raw and Decoction | Oral |
| 114 | †Tridax procumbens L. (Astraceae) | Vettukkaya puntu | 0.80 | Leaf | DID-4 (wound healing) | Past | Topical |
| 115 | †Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. (Asteraceae) | Mukuttipoondu | 0.20 | Leaf | SMSD-1 (paralysis) | Decoction | Oral |
| 116 | †Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek. (Fabaceae) | Pasipayaru | 0.20 | Seed and latex | DID-1 (skin disease) | Past | Topical |
| 117 | †Withania somnifera L. (Solanaceae) | Amukkaramkizangu | 0.60 | Rhizome | SMSD-3 (nervous disorders) | Decoction | Oral |
| 118 | Climbers †Abrus precatorius L. (Fabaceae) |
Kundu mani |
1.20 | Seed, latex and root | ENT-4 (eye pain) GUA-2 (delivery pain) |
Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 119 | †Acacia sinuata (Lour.) Merr. (Fabaceae) | Seeyakkai | 0.40 | Fruit | DC-1 (toothache) HC-1 (dandruff) |
Powder Powder |
Oral Oral |
| 120 | †Ampelocissus tomentosa (Roth) Planch. (Vitaceae) | Kattukodi mundiri | 0.80 | Fruit | DID-4 (antioxidant and skin diseases) | Raw |
Oral |
| 121 | †Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Asparagaceae) | Thanneervittan | 1.20 | Rhizome | ED-6 (urinary problem) | Decoction | Oral |
| 122 | †Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn. (Polygonaceae) | Kodi roja | 0.20 | Root | DID-1 (anti-inflammatory) | Decoction | Oral |
| 123 | †Aristolochia bracteolata L. (Aristolochiaceae) | Aaduthinnapalai | 0.80 | Leaf | DID-3 (eczema, scabies and ringworm infection) PB-1 (snake bite) |
Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 124 | †A. indica L. (Aristolochiaceae) | Aaduthinnapalai | 0.80 | Leaf | DID-3 (eczema, scabies and ringworm infection) PB-1 (snake bite) |
Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 125 | †Basella rubra L. (Basellaceae) | Kodippasali | 0.40 | Leaf | CSCD-2 (anaemia and increase WBC) | Raw and Decoction | Oral |
| 126 | †Cardiospermum canasense Wall. (Sapindaceae) | Mudakathan | 1.40 | Leaf | SMSD-6 (joint pain) GIA-1 (stomach ache) |
Raw Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 127 | ∗,†C. halicacabum Wall. (Sapindaceae) | Mudakathan | 1.00 | Leaf | SMSD-4 (joint pain) GIA-1 (stomach ache) |
Raw Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 128 | †Cissus quadrangularis L. (Vitaceae) | Pirandai | 1.00 | Stem | GIA-5 (indigestion and inducing appetite) | Raw | Oral |
| 129 | †Coccinia grandis L. (Cucurbitaceae) | Kovai | 0.20 | Leaf | LP-1 (jaundice) | Decoction | Oral |
| 130 | †Cucurbita moschata Duch. ex Lam. (Cucurbitaceae) | Poosani | 0.20 | Fruit | GH-1 (increase weight) | Raw and Decoction | Oral |
| 131 | †Cuscuta chinensis L. (Convolvulaceae) | Manjapulluruvi | 0.20 | Stem | SMSD-1 (bone fracture) | Past | Oral |
| 132 | ∗,†Cyclea peltata L. (Menispermaceae) | Padaikilangu | 0.40 | Whole plant | GIA-1 (stomach ache) GH-1 (tonic) |
Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 133 | †Dioscorea oppositifolia L. (Dioscoreaceae) | Kavvala kodi | 1.60 | Rhizome | GIA-4 (piles) DID-4 (wound) |
Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 134 | †D. pentaphylla L. (Dioscoreaceae) | Kaattuvalli | 0.20 | Rhizome | GIA-1 (stomach ache) | Decoction | Oral |
| 135 | †Gloriosa superba L. (Liliaceae) | Kanuvalikodi | 0.20 | Root | GUA-1 (abortion) | Decoction | Oral |
| 136 | †Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. (Asclipadaceae) | Chirukurunjan | 1.00 | Leaf | ED-5 (diabetes) | Decoction | Oral |
| 137 | †Ipomea staphylina Roemer & Schultes. (Convolvulaceae) | Onan kodi | 0.20 | Latex | GH-1 (cracked feet) | Raw | Oral |
| 138 | ∗,†Mukia maderaspatana (Linn.) M. Roemer. (Cucurbitaceae) | Mosumosukkai | 1.40 | Leaf | GH-7 (piles) | Decoction | Oral |
| 139 | †Pergularia daemia Forsk. (Asclepiadaceae) | Vaeliparuththi | 0.40 | Leaf and fruit | RSD-1 (asthma) GIA-1 (gas trouble) |
Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 140 | †Piper betle L. (Piperaceae) | Vetrilai | 1.20 | Leaf | GIA-4 (indigestion) DID-2 (skin disease) |
Decoction Past |
Oral Topical |
| 141 | †P. nigrum L. (Piperaceae) | Kurumilagu | 0.40 | Seed | RSD-2 (cold and cough) | Decoction | Oral |
| 142 | †Sarcostemma acidum Roxb. (Asclepiadaceae) | Somamum | 0.40 | Latex | RSD-1 (cough) DID-1 (antiinflammatory) |
Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral |
| 143 | ∗,†Solena amplexicaulis L. (Curcurbitaceae) | Pulivanchi | 1.40 | Rhizome | DID-7 (skin diseases and antiinflammatory) | Decoction | Oral |
| 144 | †Tylophora indica R. Br. (Asclipedaceae) | Mekachettu | 0.20 | Leaf | RSD-1 (asthma) | Decoction | Oral |
| 145 | Epiphytes †Loranthus flacata Linn. f. (Loranthaceae) |
Pulluruvi |
0.20 | Bark | GUA-1 (menstrual problem) | Decoction | Oral |
| 146 | †Viscum album Mistletoe. (Loranthaceae) | Pulluruvi | 0.80 | Fruit | CSCD-3 (heart problem) SMSD-1 (tumour) |
Decoction Decoction |
Oral Oral |
∗Species of new claim; #Ailment categories: Circulatory system/cardiovascular diseases (CSCD), Cooling agent (CA), Dental care (DC), Dermatological infections/diseases (DID), Ear, nose, throat problems (ENT), Endocrinal disorders (ED), Fever (Fvr), Gastro-intestinal ailments (GIA), General health (GH), Genito-urinary ailments (GUA), Hair care (HC), Liver problem (LP), Poisonous bite (PB), Respiratory system diseases (RSD), Skeleto-muscular system disorders (SMSD) and Insecticidal (IC); †species with 100% fidelity level.
Figure 2.
Percent life-forms of medicinal plants used by Irulas in Walayar valley.
Figure 3.
Percent plant parts used for medicine preparation. Le – Leaf, St – Stem, Ba – Bark, Fl – Flower, Fr – Fruit, Se – Seed, La – Latex, Ro – Root, Rh – Rhizome, Wh - Whole plant and Mul - Multiple parts.
Table 2.
Ingredients added for the preparation of herbal medicines by the Irula healers.
| S. No. | Botanical name | Other plants added | Other ingredients added |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Trees Acacia catechu |
Alpinia galanga, Cleome monophylla and Cyanotis axillaris (chest pain) | Milk |
| 2 | A. leucophloea | Alangium salviifolium, Cyclea peltata, Dioscorea pentaphylla and Tephrosia purpurea (wound healing and stomach ache) | Coconut oil and honey |
| 3 | A. nilotica | Curcuma aromatica (toothache) | Coconut oil |
| 4 | Aegle marmelos | Curcuma aromatica, Piper nigrum and P. betle (diabetes) | Coconut oil and honey |
| 5 | Ailanthus excelsa | Curcuma aromatica, Piper nigrum and P. betle (menstrual problem) | Coconut oil |
| 6 | Alangium salviifolium | Acacia catechu, Terminalia arjuna, T. bellerica and Curculio orchids (chest pain) | Milk and honey |
| 7 | Albizia lebbeck | Anisomeles malabarica, Cleome aspera and Curcuma aromatica (eczema) | Coconut oil |
| 8 | Alstonia venenata | Curcuma aromatica (wound healing) | Coconut oil |
| 9 | Artocarpus heterophyllus | Ficus racemosa, Begonia malabarica, Pedalium murex and Cardiospermum halicacabum (arthritis and skin diseases) | Coconut oil |
| 10 | Azadirachta indica | Ficus racemosa, Alpinia galanga, Phyllanthus emblica and Asystasia gangetica (blood purification) | Milk and honey |
| 11 | Canarium strictum | Allium sativum and Curcuma aromatica (mosquito repellent) | – |
| 12 | Canthium diococcum | Curcuma aromatica, Piper nigrum and P. betle (dog bite and stomach ache) | Salt |
| 13 | Cassia fistula | Justicia adhatoda, Oxalis corniculata and Hemidesmus indicus (fever) | Milk |
| 14 | Cinnamomum camphora | Helicteres isora, Cleome viscosa and Costus specious (ear ache) | Coconut oil |
| 15 | Commiphora caudata | Ocimum sanctum, Cleome monophylla and Piper nigrum (fever) | Milk/honey |
| 16 | Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. | Curcuma aromatica (skin diseases) | Coconut oil |
| 17 | Dodonaea angustifolia | Cardiospermum halicacabum, C. canasense, Curculio orchids and Cissus quadrangularis (joint pain) | Egg white yoke and coconut oil |
| 18 | Erythrina variegata | Ocimum tenuiflorum, Piper nigrum and P. betle (cough and cold) | Honey |
| 19 | Ficus racemosa | Hemidesmus indicus, Pavetta indica, Vetiveria zizanioides, Curcuma aromatica and Ailanthus excelsa (leucorrhoea) | Milk and honey |
| 20 | Limonia acidissima | Hemidesmus indicus, Pavetta indica, Vetiveria zizanioides, Curcuma aromatica, Cardiospermum canasense and Ailanthus excelsa (leucorrhoea and arthritis) | Milk and honey |
| 21 | Mangifera indica | Curcuma aromatica (wound healing) | Coconut oil |
| 22 | Melia azedarach | Hemidesmus indicus, Terminalia arjuna, T. bellerica, Centella asiatica and Cynodon dactylon (stomach ache) | Milk |
| 23 | M. dubia | Allium sativum, Canarium strictum and Curcuma aromatica (mosquito repellent) | – |
| 24 | Mesua ferrea | Curcuma aromatica, Piper nigrum and P. betle (dog bite and stomach ache) | Sugar |
| 25 | Phyllanthus emblica | – | Sugar, milk and honey |
| 26 | Pongamia pinnata | Cardiospermum halicacabum and Cardiospermum canasense (rheumatism) | Neem oil |
| 27 | Syzygium cuminii | – | Milk and honey |
| 28 | Tamarindus indica | Curcuma aromatica, Piper nigrum and P. betle (scorpion bite) | Coconut oil |
| 29 | Terminalia arjuna | Alpinia galanga, Curculio orchids, Cleome monophylla, Terminalia bellerica and Cyanotis axillaris (chest pain) | Coconut oil, sugar and honey |
| 30 | T. bellerica | Alpinia galanga, Curculio orchids, Cleome monophylla, Terminalia bellerica and Cyanotis axillaris (chest pain) | Coconut oil, sugar and honey |
| 31 | T. chebula | Curcuma aromatica, Piper nigrum and P. betle (dog bite and stomach ache) | Salt |
| 32 | Wrightia tinctoria | Curcuma aromatica (toothache) | – |
| 33 | Ziziphus mauritiana | Curcuma aromatica (wound healing) | Coconut oil |
| 34 | Z. enophylla | Curcuma aromatica (wound healing) | Coconut oil |
| 35 | Shrubs Argemone mexicana |
Curcuma aromatica, Piper nigrum and P. betle (ulcer and pimples) | Milk and coconut oil |
| 36 | Atalantia monophylla | Adhatoda vasica, Eucalyptus globules and Ocimum basilicum (body pain) | Honey |
| 37 | Begonia malabarica | Cardiospermum halicacabum, C. canasense and Cissus quadrangularis (arthritis and joint pain) | Egg white yoke |
| 38 | Cassia auriculata | – | Milk |
| 39 | Citrus limon | – | Salt and sugar |
| 40 | Clerodendrum inerme | Curcuma aromatica (skin diseases) | Coconut oil |
| 41 | Helicteres isora | Cleome viscosa and Costus specious (ear ache) | Coconut oil |
| 42 | Jatropha gossypifolia | – | Coconut oil |
| 43 | Justicia adhatoda | Syzygium cuminii, Ocimum sanctum, Begonia malabarica, Piper nigrum and P. betle (fever) | – |
| 44 | J. gendarussa | – | Coconut oil |
| 45 | Lantana camara | Curcuma aromatica (wound healing) | Coconut oil |
| 46 | L. wightii | Curcuma aromatica (wound healing) | Coconut oil |
| 47 | Manihot esculenta | Curcuma aromatica (wound healing) | Coconut oil |
| 48 | Pavetta indica | Achyranthes aspera, Enicostemma littorale, Rauvolfia serpentina, R. trtraphylla, Ocimum sanctum, Piper nigrum and P. betle (snake bite) | – |
| 49 | Rauvolfia serpentina | Achyranthes aspera, Enicostemma littorale, Ocimum sanctum, Rauvolfia trtraphylla, Piper nigrum and P. betle (snake bite) | – |
| 50 | R. trtraphylla | Achyranthes aspera, Enicostemma littorale, Rauvolfia serpentina, Ocimum sanctum, Piper nigrum and P. betle (snake bite) | – |
| 51 | Solanum surattense | Piper nigrum, Zingiber officinale and Asystasia gangetica (weezing) | Food |
| 52 | Vitex negundo | Cleome viscosa, Cynodon dactylon, Euphorbia hirta, Ocimum sanctum and Piper nigrum (headache and body pain) | Coconut oil |
| 53 | Herbs Abutilon indicum |
Cassia auriculata and Cynodon dactylon (piles) | Castor oil |
| 54 | Acalypha indica | Piper nigrum and P. betle (jaundice) | Milk |
| 55 | Achyranthes aspera | Citrus limon, Vitex negundo, Piper nigrum and P. betle (dog bite and poisonous bite) | – |
| 56 | Acorus calamus | Ocimum sanctum, Piper nigrum and P. betle (cough) | Honey |
| 57 | Curculio orchids |
Citrus limon, Pseudarthria viscid, Terminalia arjuna and T. bellerica (heart problem) Cardiospermum halicacabum and C. canasense (joint pain) |
– Egg white yoke |
| 58 | Cleome monophylla | Commiphora caudate, Ocimum sanctum and Piper nigrum (fever) | Milk/honey |
| 59 | C. viscosa | Cinnamomum camphora, Helicteres isora and Costus specious (ear ache) | Coconut oil |
| 60 | Coleus aromaticus | Piper nigrum and P. betle (cough and cold) | – |
| 61 | Cymbopogon citratus | Allium sativum and Piper nigrum (diarrhoea) | Sugar/salt |
| 62 | Cynodon dactylon | – | Sugar |
| 63 | Desmodium gangeticum | Curcuma aromatica, Piper nigrum, Hemidesmus indicus and Ocimum sanctum (fever) Cleome viscose and Cynodon dactylon (headache) | Gingelly oil and Neem oil |
| 64 | Eclipta prostrata | Phyllanthus emblica, Hibiscus rosa-siensis, Cleome viscose and Cynodon dactylon (hair tonic) | Coconut oil |
| 65 | Eleusine coracana | – | Salt |
| 66 | Enicostemma axillare | Achyranthes aspera, Enicostemma littorale, Rauvolfia trtraphylla, Hibiscus rosa-siensis, Ocimum sanctum, Piper nigrum and P. betle (snake bite) | Salt |
| 67 | E. littorale | Achyranthes aspera, Enicostemma axillare, Rauvolfia trtraphylla, Hibiscus rosa-siensis, Ocimum sanctum, Piper nigrum and P. betle (snake bite) | Salt |
| 68 | Evolvulus alsiniodes | – | Sugar |
| 69 | Hemidesmus indicus | Ocimum sanctum and Piper nigrum (fever) | |
| 70 | Hybanthus enneaspermus | – | Milk and honey |
| 71 | Hygrophylla auriculata | – | Honey |
| 72 | Mimosa pudica | Alpinia galanga, Piper nigrum and Zingiber officinale (asthma) | Honey |
| 73 | Notonia grandiflora | Helicteres isora, Cleome viscosa and Costus specious (ear ache) | Coconut oil |
| 74 | Ocimum sanctum | Piper nigrum and P. betle (cough and cold) | Honey |
| 75 | O. tenuiflorum | Piper nigrum and P. betle (cough and cold) | Honey |
| 76 | Oxalis corniculata | Hemidesmus indicus, Piper nigrum and P. betle (fever) | Honey |
| 77 | Phyllanthus amarus | Andrographis paniculata, Piper nigrum and Piper betle (jaundice) | Milk |
| 78 | P. reticulatus | Abutilon indicum, Cassia auriculata and Cynodon dactylon (piles) | – |
| 79 | Physalis minima | Piper nigrum and P. betle (gas trouble) | Milk |
| 80 | Plectranthus amboinicus | Piper nigrum and P. betle (cough and cold) | Honey |
| 81 | Plumbago zeylanica | Hemidesmus indicus, Pavetta indica, Vetiveria zizanioides, Hybanthus enneaspermus, Begonia malabarica and Piper nigrum (sterility in women) | Milk/honey |
| 82 | Pseudarthria viscida | Terminalia arjuna, T. bellerica, T. chebula, Curculio orchids, Phyllanthus emblica and Desmodium gangeticum (heart problem and fever) | Coconut oil, Milk/honey |
| 83 | Sansevieria roxburghiana | Helicteres isora, Cleome viscosa and Costus specious (ear ache) | Coconut oil |
| 84 | Sida rhombifolia | Curcuma aromatica, C. neilgherrensis, Piper nigrum, Zingiber officinale, Wrightia tinctoria and Asparagus racemosus (tumor) | Coconut oil, salt, milk/honey |
| 85 | Spermacoce latifolia | Commelina benghalensis and Curcuma aromatica (wound healing) | Coconut oil |
| 86 | Tephrosia purpurea | Hemidesmus indicus, Cymbopogon citratus and Zingiber officinale (stomach problem) | Milk/honey |
| 87 | Tridax procumbens | Curcuma aromatica (wound healing) | Coconut oil |
| 88 | Vernonia cinerea | Curcuma aromatica, Cardiospermum halicacabum and C. canasense (paralysis) | Egg white yoke |
| 89 | Vigna radiata | Curcuma aromatica (skin disease) | Coconut oil |
| 90 | Withania somnifera | Syzygium cuminii, Begonia malabarica, Piper nigrum and P. betle (fever) | Milk/honey |
| 91 | Climbers Abrus precatorius |
Asparagus racemosus, Acalypha indica, Citrus limon, Curcuma aromatica, Piper nigrum, Allium sativum, Cleome viscosa and Costus specious (delivery pain and eye pain) | Milk/honey |
| 92 | Ampelocissus tomentosa | Curcuma aromatica and Citrus limon (antioxidant and skin diseases) | Honey and coconut oil |
| 93 | Antigonon leptopus | Curcuma aromatica, Solena amplexicaulis and Citrus limon (anti-inflammatory) | Coconut oil |
| 94 | Asparagus racemosus | Allium sativum, Citrus limon, Cyperus rotundus and Phyllanthus amarus (urinary problem) | Butter milk/cow milk |
| 95 | Aristolochia bracteolata | Achyranthes aspera, Aristolochia indica, Curcuma aromatica, Zingiber officinale, Wrightia tinctoria, Citrus limon, Vitex negundo, Piper nigrum and P. betle (snake bite, eczema, scabies and ringworm infection) | Coconut oil |
| 96 | Basella rubra | Basella alba, Phyllanthus emblica, Centella asiatica and Ficus racemosa (anaemia and increase WBC) | Honey |
| 97 | Cardiospermum canasense | Cardiospermum halicacabum, C. canasense, Curculio orchids, Cissus quadrangularis and Dodonaea angustifolia (joint pain) | Pungam oil, egg white yoke and coconut oil |
| 98 | Cissus quadrangularis | Allium cepa, A. sativum and Murraya koenigii (indigestion and inducing appetite) | Asafoetida |
| 99 | Coccinia grandis | Azadirachta indica, Phyllanthus amarus, Ocimum sanctum, Piper nigrum and P. betle (jaundice) | Milk and honey |
| 100 | Cucurbita moschata | Allium cepa, A. sativum and Murraya koenigii (increase weight) | Gingelly oil |
| 101 | Cuscuta chinensis | Cardiospermum halicacabum, Cissus quadrangularis and Curculio orchids (joint pain) | Egg white yoke and coconut oil |
| 102 | Cyclea peltata | Hemidesmus indicus, Pavetta indica and Vetiveria zizanioides (stomach ache and tonic) | Milk |
| 103 | Dioscorea oppositifolia | Abutilon indicum, Cassia auriculata and Cynodon dactylon (piles) | Castor oil |
| 104 | D. pentaphylla | Hemidesmus indicus, Allium cepa and A. sativum (stomach ache) | Milk and honey |
| 105 | Gloriosa superba | Cynodon dactylon, Justicia adhatoda, Piper nigrum and P. betle (abortion) | Coconut oil and honey |
| 106 | Gymnema sylvestre | – | Milk and honey |
| 107 | Ipomea staphylina | Curcuma aromatica, Cocculus hirsutus, Cuminum cyminum and Madhuca longifolia (cracked feet) | Coconut oil |
| 108 | Mukia maderaspatana | Curcuma aromatica (piles) | Coconut oil |
| 109 | Pergularia daemia | Piper nigrum and Tephrosia purpurea (asthma and gas trouble) | Milk |
| 110 | Piper betle | Coccinia grandis, Cissus quadrangularis, Curcuma aromatica and Piper nigrum (indigestion and skin diseases) | Milk and honey |
| 111 | P. nigrum | Allium cepa, A. sativum, Piper nigrum and P. betle (cold and cough) | Milk and honey |
| 112 | Sarcostemma acidum | Cocculus hirsutus, Cuminum cyminum and Madhuca longifolia (cough and antiinflammatory) | Coconut oil |
| 113 | Solena amplexicaulis | Cuminum cyminum and Madhuca longifolia (antiinflammatory) | Coconut oil |
| 114 | Tylophora indica | Piper nigrum, Withania somnifera, Allium sativum and Tephrosia purpurea (asthma and gas trouble) | Milk |
| 115 | Epiphytes Loranthus flacata |
Curcuma aromatica, Piper nigrum and P. betle (menstrual problem) | Coconut oil |
| 116 | Viscum album | Acacia catechu, Terminalia arjuna, T. bellerica and Curculio orchids (chest pain) | Milk and honey |
Figure 4.
Percent form of medicine preparation by Irula tribe.
Evidently, the current study documents, Acorus calamus as the most commonly used species prescribed for the treatment of cough by the Irula tribes with highest use value of 1.80 (Table 1). Other important species with high use value more than 1.20 were Abrus precatorius, Acacia leucophloea, Aerva lanata, Albizia amara, Cardiospermum canescens, Cassia auriculata, Dioscorea oppositifolia, Enicostemma littorale, Justicia adhatoda, Mimosa pudica, Mukia maderaspatana, Ocimum sanctum, Phyllanthus amarus, Piper betle, Plectranthus amboinicus, Plumbago zeylanica, Solanum surattense, Solena amplexicaulis, Syzygium cumini and Vitex negundo (Table 1). For employing informant consensus factor (Fic), more than 50 use-reports were obtained for certain ailment categories viz., dermatological infections (82 use-reports, 45 species), skeleto-muscular system disorders (54 use-reports, 29 species) and gastro-intestinal ailments (50 use-reports, 30 species) (Table 3) and their Fic values ranged between 0.10 and 1.0 (Table 3). In this study, high Fic value was obtained for insecticidal uses (1.0) and cooling agent (0.85), whereas lower Fic was obtained for endocrinal disorders, especially diabetes (0.10). It was found that the Irula tribals commonly apply bark powders of Canarium strictum and Melia dubia for mosquito repellency and Mimosa pudica and Sesamum indicum as body coolant in Walayar valley. Appreciably, it has been determined that a high number of 100 species have obtained 100% fidelity and were highly preferred for treating particular ailments (Table 1).
Table 3.
Ethnobotanical consensus index for traditional medicinal plant use categories.
| S. No. | Ailment category | Number of use-reports (Nur) | Number of taxa (Nt) | Informants’ consensus factor (Fic) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | Circulatory system/cardiovascular diseases (CSCD) | 14 | 8 | 0.46 |
| 2. | Cooling agent (CA) | 8 | 2 | 0.85 |
| 3. | Dental care (DC) | 6 | 4 | 0.40 |
| 4. | Dermatological infections/diseases (DID) | 82 | 45 | 0.45 |
| 5. | Ear, nose, throat problems (ENT) | 19 | 8 | 0.61 |
| 6. | Endocrinal disorders (ED) | 31 | 28 | 0.10 |
| 7. | Fever (Fvr) | 20 | 11 | 0.47 |
| 8. | Gastro-intestinal ailments (GIA) | 50 | 30 | 0.40 |
| 9. | General health (GH) | 23 | 9 | 0.63 |
| 10. | Genito-urinary ailments (GUA) | 25 | 12 | 0.54 |
| 11. | Hair care (HC) | 8 | 4 | 0.57 |
| 12. | Liver problem (LP) | 8 | 3 | 0.71 |
| 13. | Poisonous bite (PB) | 29 | 12 | 0.60 |
| 14. | Respiratory system diseases (RSD) | 35 | 16 | 0.55 |
| 15. | Skeleto-muscular system disorders (SMSD) | 54 | 29 | 0.47 |
| 16. | Insecticidal (IC) | 2 | 2 | 1.00 |
| Total | 414 | 223 | ||
| Average Fic = 0.55 | ||||
4. Discussion
The information on therapeutic uses of 146 species (Table 1) collected from the Irula tribal community of Walayar valley was compared with that of the early publications (Rajendran and Henry, 1994, Vashistha, 2015). In this content, 26 new claims were documented and are reported for the first time in this study (Table 1). Remaining species were already reported for their various medicinal uses (Jain and Goel, 1995, Yesodharana and Sujana, 2007, Sanjeev et al., 2015). Among the 58 families represented, Fabaceae manifested the first dominant family in terms of species richness followed by Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae and Asclepiadaceae (Table 1). It has been reported already that the members of these families, owing to rich variety of secondary metabolites and Lamiaceae members due to more types of volatile oils are getting importance in healing the illness (Sanjeev et al., 2015). From the life-form analysis, herbs were found to be the most common functional group of plants followed by trees and climbers (Fig. 2). In general, richness of herbaceous species than any other life-forms is higher in any natural community which may lead to more use of herbs for medicinal purposes than the species of other habits (Giday et al., 2010, Pushpakarani and Natarajan, 2014, Swapna, 2015). In support of this fact, Venkatachalapathi et al. (2014), also enumerated a higher number of herbaceous species than the other life-forms in various vegetations of Attukal area of Western Ghats, an adjoining part of Walayar valley.
Among the assortment of plant parts utilized, leaves were most frequently used by the Irula tribal community for healing purpose (Fig. 3). These results were in accordance with previous literatures that several traditional healers prescribe mainly the leaves for the preparation of medicines (Gonzalez et al., 2010, Amjad et al., 2015). Umapriya et al. (2011) found that the Irula tribals of Palamalai hills of Coimbatore, India also utilize leaves mainly for their therapeutic applications. Perhaps a more likely explanation for the high utility of leaves is that they can be collected very easily than the other parts (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2011). Furthermore, leaves are the active sites of photosynthesis and hence the production of a variety of bioactive entities (Bahmani et al., 2014). Obviously, for remedies preparations decoction form was prescribed by Irulas in Walayar valley (Fig. 4). Decoction is the major form of medicine preparation in some tribal communities worldwide (Ahirwar, 2010, Bahmani et al., 2014, Amjad et al., 2015). Raw consumption, paste and powder forms were also prepared and prescribed by the Irulas of Walayar. Further, Irula healers informed that preparation of medicine was made by using single plant part or in combination with parts of more than one species (Table 2). The study revealed that a single mode of medicine preparation was more predominant (52.7%) in comparison to multiple modes (26.01%). Umapriya et al. (2011) also reported that the single mode of medicine preparation by the Irula tribe in Palamalai hills of Western Ghats, is the most common type. Similar observations for other tribal communities were documented elsewhere (Erinoso and Aworinde, 2012, Savithramma et al., 2012, Senthilkumar et al., 2013, Shosan et al., 2014). The single mode of medicine preparation by the Irula tribe may be attributed to the presence of phytochemical constituents such as saponins, tannins, alkaloids, alkenyl phenols, flavonoids, terpenoids, phorbol esters and sesquiterpene lactones in the individual herbals which lead to the desired healing effect (Lixin et al., 2014). A single herb may even contain more than one aforementioned phytochemical constituents which works synergistically with each other in producing pharmacological effect (Bahmani et al., 2015). A sizeable number of 38 species used for multiple modes of preparation of medicine in the present study may be explained that certain pharmacological actions of active constituents of certain herbals are significant only when potentiated with other plants, but not evident when used alone (Parasuraman et al., 2014). Similar to Kani tribe (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2011), Irula tribal healers of Walayar valley utilize oils of coconut, castor, gingelly, pongam and neem for the preparation of paste. According to their traditional knowledge, certain specific plant parts were used for the preparation of medicines and they were administrated in dosage according to the age of the patients. The present study clearly demonstrated that some plants have high use value (Table 1). Among them, Acorus calamus is the most specifically used species well recognized by all informants for the treatment of cough. Similar to our study, Arunachalam and Parimelazhagan (2011) also reported that this species is generally prescribed by the Hooralis tribes of Kadambur hills of Eastern Ghats, India for treating cough and other throat problems. Saikia et al. (2013) in Assam and Venkatachalapathi et al. (2015) in nearby Walayar valley also found that A. calamus is mainly prescribed for the treatment of cough. In contrast, certain plant species were reported to have very low use values (0.20) in the present study as they were used for very little number of specific uses (Table 1).
4.1. Informant consensus factor (Fic)
Fic arrived for any species depends upon its availability and the knowledge of informants on medicinal plants (Venkatachalapathi et al., 2015). In the present study, the illnesses were grouped into 16 major ailment categories and their Fic values ranged between 0.10 and 1.0 per illness category (Table 3). The average Fic value for all ailment categories was 0.55, indicating a moderate level of informant consensus. However, it was not comparable to that of other studies in Tamilnadu by Ragupathy et al. (2008) among the “Malasars” of Velliangiri holy hills and Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu (2011) among the Kani tribals in Tirunelveli hills, the only two investigations with quantitative assessment in Tamil Nadu that showed the average Fic values, more than 0.70. Remarkably, high Fic obtained in the present study for the two ailment categories viz., insecticidal uses (1.0) and cooling agent (0.85), indicating a higher level of consensus among the Irula healers for the usage of species for these categories. They commonly apply bark powder of the species, Canarium strictum and Melia dubia particularly in avoiding mosquito bites through topical application. The insecticidal property category was not included in standardized illness groupings by Cook (1995). However, it was included in the present study, as the Irula tribes were commonly using these two species for their mosquito repellency very regularly. It may be explained that as the Walayar valley is situated in Palakkad gap of Western Ghats, rainfall through south-west monsoon is highly effective (ca. 1100 mm between June and September alone). This moist condition results in thick vegetations of various types and the wetted soil with dense plant formation becomes the favourable site for insects including mosquitos. Higher informant consensus was recorded by other workers also for certain ailment categories (Owuor and Kisangan, 2006, Black et al., 2007, Ragupathy et al., 2008, Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2011, Venkatachalapathi et al., 2015). The high Fic obtained may indicate that there may be some key phytochemical ingredients in these species which require further phytopharmacological analysis to validate the species scientifically. In our study, lower consensus factor was obtained for endocrinal disorders (Fic 0.10) which includes only one illness, diabetes (Table 3). Logically, it may be the indicative of the lack of diabetic patients among the Irula communities of Walayar valley. However, no clinical data are made available for diabetics for the Irula tribals in Walayar area.
4.2. Fidelity level
Among the 146 plants used for medicinal purposes by the Irula tribal community, interestingly it has been determined that a high number of 100 species have obtained 100% fidelity and most of them were used for the treatment of single ailment category as per the informants (Table 1). This fact indicates that all these 100 species were the highly preferred plants for treating the illness of particular ailment category due to their high healing potential. In agreement with the present findings, the species viz., Acacia nilotica, Acorus calamus, Cassia auriculata, Cissus quadrangularis, Tridax procumbens and Vitex negundo available in Walayar landscape were already reported to have 100% fidelity in Tirunelveli hills (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2011).
5. Conclusion
This wide spectrum of usage of 146 plant species indicates their strong traditional knowledge on medicinal plants. The moderate, average Fic value (0.55) reveals that the consensus on traditional knowledge on medicinal plants among the Irula healers of this landscape has not been shared adequately. However, consensus for certain illness categories viz., insecticidal property and cooling agent shows the effectiveness and reliability of the species viz., Canarium strictum and Melia dubia, and Mimosa pudica and Sesamum indicum on healing the respective ailment. Several new claims made in the study showed the unique knowledge of Irulas of this region on medicinal plants. Recognizing more species with high fidelity level and greater use value indicates the presence of rich varieties of phytoconstituents in these species. The species of high use value, new claims and greater fidelity level and the taxa on which higher consensus were obtained among the informants for using them in particular ailment category are suggested for further studies in the line of phytochemistry and pharmacology and hence to identify them for pharma industries.
Acknowledgements
The authors graciously acknowledge Dr. M. Aruchami Research Foundation, Coimbatore for financial support to carry out this work (ARF/RA-2012/018 Dt. 12.02.2012). The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Saud University for funding this work through research group no. (RG-195). Tamil Nadu State Forest Department is also acknowledged for granting permission to do the work in Walayar valley. Authors are thankful to Dr. V. Balasubramaniam, Plant Taxonomist and Associate Professor of Botany, Kongunadu Arts and Science College, Coimbatore to confirm the taxonomic position of medicinal plants. We also wish to express our gratitude to the Irula tribal healers of Walayar landscape for providing information on medicinal plants.
Footnotes
Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.
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