Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Animal Nutrition logoLink to Animal Nutrition
. 2015 Dec 12;1(4):266–270. doi: 10.1016/j.aninu.2015.12.001

Cassava chip (Manihot esculenta Crantz) as an energy source for ruminant feeding

Metha Wanapat a,∗, Sungchhang Kang b
PMCID: PMC5940981  PMID: 29767011

Abstract

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is widely grown in sub-tropical and tropical areas, producing roots as an energy source while the top biomass including leaves and immature stems can be sun-dried and used as cassava hay. Cassava roots can be processed as dried chip or pellet. It is rich in soluble carbohydrate (75 to 85%) but low in crude protein (2 to 3%). Its energy value is comparable to corn meal but has a relatively higher rate of rumen degradation. Higher levels of non-protein nitrogen especially urea (1 to 4%) can be successfully incorporated in concentrates containing cassava chip as an energy source. Cassava chip can also be processed with urea and other ingredients (tallow, sulfur, raw banana meal, cassava hay, and soybean meal) to make products such as cassarea, cassa-ban, and cassaya. Various studies have been conducted in ruminants using cassava chip to replace corn meal in the concentrate mixtures and have revealed satisfactory results in rumen fermentation efficiency and the subsequent production of meat and milk. In addition, it was advantageous when used in combination with rice bran in the concentrate supplement. Practical home-made-concentrate using cassava chip can be easily prepared for use on farms. A recent development has involved enriching protein in cassava chips, yielding yeast fermented cassava chip protein (YEFECAP) of up to 47.5% crude protein, which can be used to replace soybean meal. It is therefore, recommended to use cassava chip as an alternative source of energy to corn meal when the price is economical and it is locally available.

Keywords: Cassava chip, Energy, Alternative feed, Rumen fermentation, Ruminants

1. Introduction

Livestock production in tropical areas plays a crucial role, which extends beyond its traditional supply of meat and milk. Livestock are used for multiple purposes as draft power, means of transportation, capital, credit, meat, milk, social value, hides, and provide a source of organic fertilizer for seasonal cropping. Ruminants can utilise agricultural crop residues and farm by-products that are abundantly available (Wanapat and Kang, 2013a, Jetana and Bintbihok, 2013). Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is an annual crop grown widely in the tropical and subtropical regions. It thrives well in sandy-loam soils with low organic matter, and in climates with low rainfall and high temperature. Cassava roots have high levels of energy (75 to 85% of soluble carbohydrate) and minimal levels of crude protein (2 to 3% CP); they have been used as a source of readily-fermentable energy (Kang et al., 2015, Polyorach et al., 2013, Wanapat et al., 2013a, Wanapat et al., 2013b, while the top growth could be harvested at four months initially and at 2 to 3 month intervals subsequently. The leaves and green stems are chopped and sun-dried to reduce their moisture and hydrocyanic acid (HCN) content to produce cassava hay (CH), which has been used as a ruminant feedings successfully (Wanapat, 2000, Wanapat, 2003, Lunsin et al., 2012). Harvesting of cassava leaves at an early growth stage (3 months) to make hay could reduce the condensed tannin (CT) content and increase the protein content (25% of DM) resulting in a higher nutritive value (Wanapat et al., 1997). Root yield is about 50 t/h and when processed into dried chip, it will be about 15 to 20 t/h. If the whole plant is harvested for hay making after 4 months after planting, it can be harvested when reaching one year, in this case the root yield will be reduced about 15% from the original yield.

Furthermore, establishment and development of food-feed-systems (FFS) under small-holder livestock farming systems have also been developed (Wanapat et al., 1997, Wanapat et al., 2013c). The FFS has been developed as an integrated livestock-crop production system where crops are grown on farms and the product is harvested for human consumption and the crop-residues or by-products of such crops are used as feeds for livestock. The use of legumes in such a system used can enrich soil fertility and enhance the crop productivity. A good example of such a system can be seen in the integrated dairy-cassava system with cowpea or Phaseolus calcaratus where CH can be produced as dairy feed (Wanapat, 1999, Wanapat et al., 2000a, Wanapat et al., 2006, Chanthakhoun et al., 2008). The expansion and intensification of these systems is a realistic objective, given the extent of farmer experience, the periodic collapse of world prices for plantation commodities and the projected demands for animal products in the future (Devendra, 2002).

2. Planting, cultivation and cutting of cassava

Studies by Wanapat et al., 1997, Wanapat et al., 2000a, Wanapat et al., 2000b, Wanapat et al., 2000c, Wanapat et al., 2000d have revealed the details of planting cassava for hay making. This procedure is designed to increase the whole crop digestible biomass while roots were considered as a by-product. Earlier work by Wanapat et al. (1997) demonstrated that planting cassava at 60 × 40 cm and intercropping between the rows with cowpea or Leucaena could enrich soil fertility and the leaves could be used as food and feed for human and livestock, respectively. The initial cutting of leaves three months after planting, followed by subsequent cuttings at two-month intervals involved hand breaking of the young stem about 20 to 30 cm above the ground (with 3 to 5 remaining branches). The fresh whole tops were either directly sun-dried or were chopped before sun-drying to obtain 80 to 90% dry matter content. This might take 2 to 3 days, but chopping helps to shorten the drying process. Sun-drying also eliminated more than 90% of HCN, enhanced the palatability and enabled long-term storage. Plant spacing and frequency of cuttings have been shown to affect the total yield of CH (Polthanee et al., 2001, Wanapat and Kang, 2013b).

3. Cassava chip (CC)

According to Wanapat and Kang (2013b), recent attempts have been made to develop new products using CC as an energy source with urea (U) as a non-protein nitrogen (NPN) source. Two new cassava based products have been developed, cassarea, cassaya and cass-ban. Different form of cassarea have been formulated to contain the following ingredients: 57.1% CC + 9.9% U and 3% tallow (Cassarea I, 30% CP); 83.6% CC + 13.4% U and 3% tallow (Cassarea Ⅱ, 40% CP); 80.2% CC + 16.8% U and 3% tallow (Cassarea Ⅲ, 50% CP). Cassareas were tested for rumen degradability using a nylon bag technique and were found to have 46.2 to 56.7% effective DM degradability. Further investigations with cassarea Ⅱ (40% CP) showed that it could be used to replace soybean meal (SBM) in the rations of lactating cows, but supplementation with a rumen by-pass protein such as cottonseed meal would be recommended. Cassaya (30% CP) was a product formulated using chopped whole cassava crop hay (85%) + SBM (5%) + CC (5%) + U (2%) + tallow (2%) + sulfur (1%), mixed with water, pressed through a pelleting machine and sun-dried to at least 85% DM. The use of cassaya in lactating dairy cows as a protein source proved to be efficient in promoting rumen fermentation, improved milk yield and composition, and in providing an increased economic return. Cass-ban was formulated by using cassava chip (56.6%) + raw banana (37.7%) + urea (5.7%). Feed intake, end-products of ruminal fermentation, ruminal microorganisms, milk yield and quality and economical return were enhanced by supplementation of cass-ban (Lunsin et al., 2010).

Chanjula et al. (2007a) conducted a study to assess effect of levels of U and CC on feed intake, rumen ecology, blood metabolites and microbial populations in growing male goats. It was reported that higher levels of U (3%) could be used with high levels of CC as a concentrate without altering feed intake, rumen ecology, blood metabolites or animal performance when compared with control diets. Increasing levels of U in the diet was associated with higher ruminal NH3–N but did not affect physiology and was adequate for microbial growth. It is a potential approach to exploiting the use of local feed resources. Moreover, Chanjula et al. (2007b) also reported that cassava was a good source of ruminal degradable starch in replacing corn grain and had the potential to improve goat performance. The optimal inclusion of cassava in replacing corn is suggested to be between 25 and 75% of CC (12.5 to 37.50 kg) in concentrate. There was no evidence of any adverse effects on feed intake, digestibility, rumen fermentation patterns, blood metabolites, rumen microbes and nitrogen balance or animal health when fed fresh elephant grass. Based on this data, it would be desirable to conduct further research on the use of CC in practical rations for small ruminant feeding systems (Table 1).

Table 1.

Use of cassava chip as an energy source in the diet of goat.1

Item Sources of data
Chanjula et al. (2007a)
 Chanjula et al. (2007b)
Cassava chip incorporated with urea Cassava chip replacement for corn meal
DM intake ns ns
Rumen ecology
pH ns ns
NH3–N ↑ ↓
Total VFA – ns
C2 – ns
C3 – ns
C4 – ns
BUN ns ↑
Microbe
Bacteria ns ns
Protozoa ns ns
Fungi ns ns
N balance
Excretion – ↓
Absorption – ns
Retention – ↑
Open in a new tab

NH3–N = ammonia nitrogen; VFA = volatile fatter acid; C2 = acetic acid; C3 = propionic acid; C4 = butyric acid, BUN = blood urea nitrogen.

1

ns = non-significant; ↓, decrease; ↑, increase.

Based on Chanjula et al. (2004) reported that providing a non-structural carbohydrate (NSC) source from cassava-based diets did not affect feed intake, rumen ecology, rumen microorganisms, milk production and composition, and animal performance compared with corn-based diets, but tended to improve milk fat (Table 2). These results indicated that feeding diets containing up to or more than 75% of DM, with NPN supplied by U>3% DM (3.3 to 4.5% DM) can be used in dairy rations without altering rumen ecology or animal performance compared with corn-based diets.

Table 2.

Use of cassava chip as an energy source in the diet of dairy cow.1

Item Sources of data2
Cassava chip incorporated with urea
DM intake ↑
Digestibility ↓
Rumen ecology
pH ns
NH3–N ↑
BUN ns
Microbe
Bacteria ↑
Protozoa ns
Fungi ns
Milk production
Milk yield ns
Milk fat ns
Lactose ns
Milk protein ns
Solids not-fat ns
Total solids ns
Open in a new tab

NH3–N = ammonia nitrogen; BUN = blood urea nitrogen.

1

ns = non-significant; ↓, decrease; ↑, increase.

The results of the study of Chanjula et al. (2003) demonstrated that the ruminal disappearance characteristics of seven feeds differed among feeds and that CC had the greatest retention time (Table 3). The content of DM and OM disappearance ranked from the highest to the lowest of rate of degradation (c) were as follows: CC, yellow sweet potato, purple sweet potato, white sweet potato, cassava waste, corn meal and rice bran, respectively. These values could potentially be used in synchronizing degradation with the availability of NPN in the rumen to optimize ruminal availability of energy : protein to maximize microbial protein synthesis.

Table 3.

Dry matter (DM) and organic matter (OM) disappearance in the rumen at various incubation times in crossbred beef steers.1

Item2 CC YP WP PP RB CW CM CV, %
DM disappearance, %
a 61.5a 47.4b 37.7c 28.5d 20.7e 19.7e 17.4f 2.8
b 37.8e 50.2d 59.5c 69.0a 66.8b 58.9c 64.3b 2.0
c 0.23a 0.21b 0.16c 0.20b 0.05e 0.13d 0.06e 10.4
a + b 99.3a 97.6ab 97.5ab 97.2b 87.5c 78.6e 81.7d 0.9
Effective degradability, % 92.5a 87.9b 87.9b 87.8c 63.6c 63.0c 59.3d 1.6
OM disappearance, %
a 65.0a 60.4b 45.3c 39.8d 25.0e 18.4f 24.1e 2.3
b 34.4e 38.4b 53.1c 58.7b 67.4a 66.6a 59.5b 1.6
c 0.26a 0.24a 0.18b 0.22a 0.05c 0.13c 0.07d 12.6
a + b 99.4a 98.8a 98.5a 98.4a 92.4c 85.1c 83.6d 1.0
Effective degradability, % 93.4a 89.8b 98.4b 88.1c 65.8d 66.9d 63.3e 0.7
Open in a new tab

CC = cassava chip; YP = yellow sweet potato; WP = white sweet potato; PP = purple sweet potato; RB = rice bran; CW = cassava waste; CM = cornmeal; CV = coefficient of variation.

a-f Within rows values not sharing common superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.05).

2

a, the gas production from the immediately soluble fraction; b, the gas production from the insoluble fraction; c, the gas production rate constant for the insoluble fraction (b); a + b, the gas potential extent of gas production.

4. Yeast fermented cassava chip protein (YEFECAP)

Cassava chip or other forms of cassava roots can be successfully fermented with yeast (Saccharomyces cereviceae) to obtain a final product with high CP and a relatively balanced profile of amino acids (Poungchompu et al., 2009, Polyorach et al., 2012, Wanapat et al., 2013c). The amino acid profile of the YEFECAP is presented in Table 4, with high levels of lysine, glutamic acid, leucine and phenylalanine. Supplementation of YEFECAP in replacement for SBM in concentrates for lactating dairy cows resulted in very good milk yields (15.7 kg/d) (Wanapat et al., 2011a).

Table 4.

Chemical composition of yeast fermented cassava chip protein (YEFECAP) detergent fiberyeast fermented cassava chip products.1

Item YEFECAP Cassava chip
Dry matter 90.6 90
Chemical composition, % of dry matter
Organic matter 97.2 97.3
Crude protein 47.5 2.4
Ether extract 7.9 –
Neutral detergent fiber 6.1 10.0
Acid detergent fiber 4.3 5.0
Amino acid profile, mg/100 g of YEFECAP
Alanine 70.5
Arginine 5.0
Aspartic acid 69.9
Cystine 5.0
Glutamic acid 189.4
Glycine 52.7
Histidine 55.4
Hydroxylysine 5.0
Hydroxyproline 5.0
Isoleucine 130.8
Leucine 201.5
Lysine 481.1
Methionine 16.3
Phenylalanine 167.8
Proline 47.9
Serine 29.8
Threonine 21.0
Trytophan 15.1
Tyrosine 87.2
Valine 92.6
Open in a new tab

Dietary yeast can be used as a ruminant feed especially Saccharomyces cerevisiae because the yeast cell contains nutrients that are rate limiting especially for ruminant production and the high lysine content is particularly important (7.6 ± 0.7 g/16 g N) (Polyorach et al., 2012, Nelson et al., 1959, Polyorach et al., 2013). Addition of yeast to ruminant diets can not only improve the rumen environment but also enhance microbial activity especially cellulolytic activities, which increases their total number, fiber digestion, reduces lactate accumulation and concentration of oxygen in rumen fluid and improves utilization of starch (Robinson, 1997, Lila et al., 2004). Moreover, S. cerevisiae also stimulates DM intake and productivity in growing and lactating cattle (Robinson and Garrett, 1999), improved microbial protein synthesis and milk production of dairy cows (Strohlein, 2003, Hristove et al., 2010). However, Desnoyers et al. (2009) reported that highly variable effects of live S. cerevisiae cultures could be associated with changing in the ratio of forage and concentrate used. Cassava chip is an energy source with low CP, to which when fermented with yeast could increase CP from 1 to 3% CP to 30.4% CP (Boonnop et al., 2009). Recently, Polyorach et al., 2012, Polyorach et al., 2013, Polyorach et al., 2014) reported that YEFECAP could be prepared to increase CP levels up to 47%. The YEFECAP preparation process according to the method of Polyorach et al. (2013) is shown in Table 4 and Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Open in a new tab

Process chart for yeast fermented cassava chip products (YEFECAP) preparation. Source: Polyorach et al. (2013).

The beneficial use of YEFECAP has been evaluated by Boonnop et al. (2010) and Wanapat et al., 2011a, Wanapat et al., 2011b. Boonnop et al. (2010) studied the effect of replacement of SBM by YEFECAP on rumen ecology and nutrient digestibility in dairy crossbred steers. It was found that YEFECAP could completely replace SBM and was beneficial to cattle in terms of efficiency of rumen fermentation, microbial protein synthesis, nitrogen retention and nutrient digestibility. Khampa et al. (2010) reported that YEFECAP could replace 75% of concentrate and improved ruminal fermentation efficiency, average daily gain and reduced cost of production in daily heifers. Supplementation with YEFECAP also increased the population of bacteria and fungal zoospores, but decreased the population of Holotrich and Entodiniomorph protozoa in the rumen of dairy steers (Khampa et al., 2009). Polyorach et al. (2010) and Wanapat et al., 2011a, Wanapat et al., 2011b revealed that replacing SBM with YEFECAP at rate of 0, 33, 67 and 100% enhanced milk yield, milk fat and milk protein and was the highest at 100% of replacement. Moreover, Wanapat et al. (2011b) compared from 4 sources of protein in concentrate diets, SBM, CH, Leucaena leucocephala (LL) and YEFECAP in lactating dairy cows and found that CP digestibility was the highest when supplementing with CH and YEFECAP. Propionic acid were found the highest in cows receiving CH and YEFECAP, while ruminal fungi, proteolytic and cellulolytic bacteria were the highest with YEFECAP supplement, milk fat and milk protein were significantly increased in cows offered CH and YEFECAP. Based on these studies, YEFECAP can practically prepared and used as an alternative protein source for ruminant feeding (Table 5).

Table 5.

Effect of using yeast fermented cassava chip products (YEFECAP) as a protein source in ruminants.1

Animal DMI Dig. TVFA C2 C3 C2:C3 Bact. Pro. Fung MSP Milk
 Reference2
Yield Fat Protein
Lactating dairy cows ↑ ↑ ↑ nc ↑ ↓ ↑ nc ↑ nd ↑ ↑ ↑ Wanapat et al. (2011a)
Dairy steers ↑ ↑ ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ ↑ nd nd nd Boonnop et al. (2010)
Lactating dairy cows ns ↑ ↑ nc ↑ nd ↑ ↓ ↑ nd nc ↑ ↑ Wanapat et al. (2011b)
Open in a new tab

DMI = dry matter intake; Dig. = digestibility; TVFA = total volatile fatty acid; C2 = acetate; C3 = propionate; C2:C3 = proportion of acetate to propionate; Bact. = bacteria; Pro. = protozoa; MPS = microbial protein synthesis.

1

↑, increase; ↓, decrease from control group; nd = not determined; nc = no change.

2

Yeast fermented cassava chip products replacement of soybean meal in concentrate diet.

Wanapat et al., 2011a, Wanapat et al., 2011b and Promkot et al. (2013) reported on the study of using YEFECAP (in replacing SBM) in concentrate mixtures for early lactation cows. It was found that YEFECAP can fully replace SBM in concentrate mixtures while enhancing rumen fermentation, dry matter intake, nutrient digestibility, milk yield and composition. A summary of the above research data is shown in Table 6.

Table 6.

Effect of yeast fermented cassava chip products (YEFECAP) as a protein source in concentrate mixtures for cow early lactation on milk production, milk composition and economic return.1

Item Treatments2
 SEM Contrasts
T1 T2 T3 T4
Production, kg/d
Milk yield 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 0.27 **
3.5% FCM 13.7 14.7 15.9 17.1 0.49 **
Milk composition, %
Protein 4.0 4.1 4.5 4.7 0.17 **
Fat 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 0.06 **
Lactose 4.5 4.6 4.6 4.7 0.07 ns
Solids-not-fat 8.2 8.4 8.4 8.5 0.29 ns
Total solids 12.3 12.7 12.8 13.0 0.78 ns
Milk urea N, mg/dL 14.8 12.5 12.3 12.0 0.58 *
Economic return, $US/(cow·d)
Feed cost 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.7 0.14 ns
Milk sale 9.5 9.8 10.2 10.5 0.19 **
Profit 7.0 7.2 7.6 7.8 0.16 **
Open in a new tab

SEM = standard error of means; FCM = fat corrected milk.

*P < 0.05; ∗∗P < 0.01; ns = non significant.

2

Replacement levels of soybean meal by YEFECAP at 0, 33, 67 and 100% in concentrates T1, T2, T3, and T4, respectively.

5. Conclusions

Based on this review, it can be concluded that cassava chip, and its' processed products are useful as an energy source especially when used with urea to improve ruminant productivity. Its relied availability in the tropical and sub-tropical regions facilitates practical use in ruminant production systems.

Footnotes

Peer review under responsibility of Chinese Association of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine.

References

  1. Boonnop K., Wanapat M., Nontaso N., Wanapat S. Enriching nutritive value of cassava root by yeast fermentation. Sci Agric (Piracicaba, Braz.) 2009;66:616–620. [Google Scholar]
  2. Boonnop K., Wanapat M., Navanukraw C. Replacement of soybean meal by yeast fermented-cassava chip protein (YEFECAP) in concentrate diets fed on rumen fermentation, microbial population and nutrient digestibilities in ruminants. J Anim Vet Adv. 2010;9:1727–1734. [Google Scholar]
  3. Chanjula P., Wanapat M., Wachirapakorn C., Uriyapongson S., Rowlinson P. Ruminal degradability of tropical feeds and their potential use in ruminant diets. Asian-Aust J Anim Sci. 2003;16:211–216. [Google Scholar]
  4. Chanjula P., Wanapat M., Wachirapakorn C., Uriyapongson S., Rowlinson P. Effect of synchronizing starch sources and protein (NPN) in the rumen on feed intake, rumen microbial fermentation, nutrient utilization and performance of lactating dairy cows. Asian-Aust J Anim Sci. 2004;17:1400–1410. [Google Scholar]
  5. Chanjula P., Ngampongsai W., Wanapat M. Effect of levels of urea and cassava chip on feed intake, rumen fermentation, blood metabolites and microbial populations in growing goats. Songklanakarin J Sci Technol. 2007;29:37–48. [Google Scholar]
  6. Chanjula P., Ngampongsai W., Wanapat M. Effects of replacing ground corn with cassava chip in concentrate on feed intake, nutrient utilization, rumen fermentation characteristics and microbial populations in goats. Asian-Aust J Anim Sci. 2007;20:1557–1566. [Google Scholar]
  7. Chanthakhoun V., Wanapat M., Wanapat S. Proceedings of the 13th AAAP International Congress, 2008 September 22–26, Hanoi, Vietnam. pp. II.O. 2008. Study on yield, nutritive value and ruminal degradability of Phaseolus calcaratus (Tua-mun) in swamp buffaloes; pp. 13–72. [Google Scholar]
  8. Desnoyers M., Giger-Reverdin S., Bertin G., Duvaux-Ponter C., Sauvant D. Metha-analysis of the influence of Saccharomyces cerevisiae supplementation on ruminal paramitters and milk production of ruminants. J Dairy Sci. 2009;92:1620–1632. doi: 10.3168/jds.2008-1414. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Devendra C. Crop-animal systems in Asia: future perspectives. Agric Syst. 2002;71:179–186. [Google Scholar]
  10. Hristove A.N., Varga G., Cassidy T., Long M., Heyler K., Karnati S.K.R. Effect of Saccharomyces cerevisiae fermentation product on ruminal fermentation and nutrient utilization in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci. 2010;93:682–692. doi: 10.3168/jds.2009-2379. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Jetana T., Bintbihok A. Potential benefits from the utilization of some natural feed resources in thai swamp buffaloes. Buffalo Bull. 2013;32(SPEC. 2):942–946. [Google Scholar]
  12. Kang S., Wanapat M., Phesatcha K., Norrapoke T. Effect of protein level and urea in concentrate mixture on feed intake and rumen fermentation in swamp buffaloes fed rice straw-based diet. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2015 doi: 10.1007/s11250-015-0777-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Khampa S., Chawarat P., Singhalert R., Wanapat M. Supplement of yeast fermented cassava chip (YFCC) as a replacement concentrate and Ruzi grass on rumen ecology in native cattle. Pak J Nutr. 2009;8:597–600. [Google Scholar]
  14. Khampa S., Chuelong S., Kosonkittiumporn S., Khejornsart P. Manipulation of yeast fermented cassava chip supplementation in dairy heifer raised under tropical condition. Pak J Nutr. 2010;9:950–954. [Google Scholar]
  15. Lila Z.A., Mohammed N., Yasui T., Kurokawa Y., Kanda S., Itabashi H. Effects of a twin strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae live cells on mixed ruminal microorganism fermentation in vitro. J Anim Sci. 2004;82:1847–1854. doi: 10.2527/2004.8261847x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Lunsin R., Wanapat M., Wachirapakorn C., Navanukraw C. Effects of pelleted cassava chip and raw banana (Cass-Bann) on rumen fermentation and utilization in lactating dairy cows. J Anim Vet Adv. 2010;9(17):2239–2245. [Google Scholar]
  17. Lunsin R., Wanapat M., Rowlinson P. Effect of cassava hay and rice bran oil supplementation on rumen fermentation, milk yield and milk composition in lactating dairy cows. Asian-Austral. J Anim Sci. 2012;25:1364–1373. doi: 10.5713/ajas.2012.12051. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Nelson G.E.N., Anderson R.F., Rhodes R.A., Shekleton M.C., Hall H.H. Lysine, methionine and tryptophane content of microorganisms II. Yeast Appl Microbiol. 1959;8:179–182. doi: 10.1128/am.8.3.179-182.1960. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Polthanee A., Wanapat S., Wanapat M., Wachirapakorn C. Proceedings of International Workshop on Current Research and Development of Cassava as Animal Feeds, July 23–23; Khon Kaen, Thailand. 2001. Cassava-Legumes inter-cropping: a potential food-feed system for dairy farmers. [Google Scholar]
  20. Polyorach S., Wanapat M., Sornsongnern N. National Pingtung University of Science and Technology; Pingtung, Taiwan, Republic of China: 2010. Effect of yeast fermented cassava chip protein (YEFECAP) in concentrate of lactating dairy cows; pp. 304–307. (Proceedings of the 14th Animal Science Congress of the Asian-Australasian Association of Animal Production Societies (AAAP), vol. 3, 2010 August 23–26). [Google Scholar]
  21. Polyorach P., Wanapat M., Wanapat S. Increasing protein content of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) using yeast in fermentation. Khon Kaen Agric J. 2012;40(Suppl. 2):178–182. [Google Scholar]
  22. Polyorach S., Wanapat M., Wanapat S. Enrichment of protein content in cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) by supplementing with yeast for use as animal feed. Emir J Food Agric. 2013;25:142–149. [Google Scholar]
  23. Polyorach S., Wanapat M., Cherdthong A. Influence of yeast fermented cassava chip protein (YEFECAP) and roughage to concentrate ratio on ruminal fermentation and microorganisms using in vitro gas production technique. Asian-Aust J Anim Sci. 2014;27:36–45. doi: 10.5713/ajas.2013.13298. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Poungchompu O., Wanapat M., Wachirapakorn C., Wanapat S., Cherdthong A. Manipulation of ruminal fermentation and methane production by dietary saponins and tannins from mangosteen peel and soapberry fruit. Arch Anim Nutr. 2009;63:389–400. doi: 10.1080/17450390903020406. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Promkot C., Wanapat M., Mansathit J. Effects of yeast fermented-cassava chip protein (YEFECAP) on dietary intake and milk production of Holstein crossbred heifers and cows during pre- and post-partum period. Livest Sci. 2013;154:112–116. [Google Scholar]
  26. Robinson P.H., Garrett J.E. Effect of yeast culture (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) on adaption of cows to postpartum diets and on lactational performance. J Anim Sci. 1999;77:988–999. doi: 10.2527/1999.774988x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Robinson P.H. Effect of yeast culture (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) on adaptation of cows to diets postpartum. J Dairy Sci. 1997;80:1119–1125. doi: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(97)76038-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Strohlein H. Back to nature. Live yeasts in feed for dairy cows. DMZ, Leb Ind Milchwirtsch. 2003;124:68–71. [Google Scholar]
  29. Wanapat M. Khon Kaen Publ. Comp. Ltd.; Khon Kaen, Thailand: 1999. Feeding of ruminants in the tropics based on local feed resources; p. 236. [Google Scholar]
  30. Wanapat M. Rumen manipulation to increase the efficient use of local feed resources and productivity of ruminants in the tropics. In: Stone G.M., editor. Proceedings of the 9th AAAP Congress. University of New South Wales; Sydney, Australia: 2000. pp. 59–67. [Google Scholar]
  31. Wanapat M. Manipulation of cassava cultivation and utilization to improve protein to energy biomass for livestock feeding in the tropics. Asian-Aust J Anim Sci. 2003;16:463–472. [Google Scholar]
  32. Wanapat M., Kang S. World buffalo production: challenges in meat and milk production, and mitigation of methane emission. Buffalo Bull. 2013;32(SPEC. 1):1–21. [Google Scholar]
  33. Wanapat M., Kang S. Enriching the nutritive value of cassava as feed to increase ruminant productivity. J Nutr Ecol Food Res. 2013;1:262–269. [Google Scholar]
  34. Wanapat M., Pimpa O., Petlum A., Boontao U. Proceedings of International Workshop on Local Feed Resources Based Animal Production, organized by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Kampuchia and FAO/Japan Regional Project. University of Agriculture; Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam: 1997. Cassava hay: a new strategic feeding for ruminants during the dry season. Livest Res Rur Devel 9: No2. [Google Scholar]
  35. Wanapat M., Pimpa O., Petlum A., Wachirapakorn C., Yuangklang C. Participation scheme of smallholder dairy farmers in NE Thailand on improving feeding systems. Asian-Aust J Anim Sci. 2000;13:830–836. [Google Scholar]
  36. Wanapat M., Petlum A., Pimpa O. Supplementation of cassava hay to replace concentrate use in lactating Holstein-Friesian crossbreds. Asian-Austral. J Anim Sci. 2000;13:600–604. [Google Scholar]
  37. Wanapat M., Puramongkon T., Siphuak W. Feeding of cassava hay for lactating dairy cows. Asian-Aust J Anim Sci. 2000;13:478–482. [Google Scholar]
  38. Wanapat M., Pimpa O., Sripuek W., Puramongkol T., Petlum A., Boontao U. Cassava hay: an important on-farm feed for ruminants. In: Brooker J.D., editor. vol. 92. 2000. pp. 71–74. (Proceedings of International Workshop on Tannins in Livestock and Human Nutrition). ACIAR Proc. [Google Scholar]
  39. Wanapat M., Poungchompu O., Joomjunta S., Lunsin R., Heebkaew J., Petlum A. Tropical Feed Resources Research and Development Center, Khon Kaen University; Khon Kaen: 2006. Study on growth and nutritive values of Phaseolus calcaratus. 40002, Thailand. [Google Scholar]
  40. Wanapat M., Polyorach S., Chanthakhoun V., Sornsongnern N. Yeast-fermented cassava chip protein (YEFECAP) concentrate for lactating dairy cows fed on urea–lime treated rice straw. Livest Sci. 2011;139:258–263. [Google Scholar]
  41. Wanapat M., Boonnop K., Promkot C., Cherdthong A. Effects of alternative protein sources on rumen microbes and productivity of dairy cows. Maejo Inter J Sci Technol. 2011;5:13–23. [Google Scholar]
  42. Wanapat M., Pilajun R., Polyorach S., Cherdthong A., Khejornsart P., Rowlinson P. Effect of carbohydrate source and cottonseed meal level in the concentrate on feed intake, nutrient digestibility, rumen fermentation and microbial protein synthesis in swamp buffaloes. Asian-Aust J Anim Sci. 2013;26:952–960. doi: 10.5713/ajas.2013.13032. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Wanapat M., Anantasook N., Rowlinson P., Pilajun R., Gunun P. Effect of carbohydrate sources and levels of cotton seed meal in concentrate on feed intake, nutrient digestibility, rumen fermentation and microbial protein synthesis in young dairy bulls. Asian-Aust J Anim Sci. 2013;26:529–536. doi: 10.5713/ajas.2012.12607. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Wanapat M., Kang S., Polyorach S. Development of feeding systems and strategies of supplementation to enhance rumen fermentation and ruminant production in the tropics. J Anim Sci Biotechnol. 2013;4(1):32. doi: 10.1186/2049-1891-4-32. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Animal Nutrition are provided here courtesy of KeAi Publishing

RESOURCES