The Stability of Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration from Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood in Sexual Minorities

Abstract

Purpose

To examine the stability of physical and sexual intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration from adolescence to emerging adulthood among sexual minorities.

Method

Adolescents who identified as a sexual minority (N=135; 71.1% female; mean age=15.02, SD=.77; 34.1% African American/Black, 26.7% White, 22.2% Hispanic) from southeast Texas were assessed annually for six years on their IPV perpetration.

Results

Structural equation modeling demonstrated that physical IPV perpetration was modestly stable across years 1–4 (24.6%, 24.6%, 26.4%, and 21.6%, respectively), decreased in year 5 (18.6%), and increased in year 6 (24.5%). The stability of sexual IPV perpetration was high across all six years (14.3%, 13%, 14.9%, 10.8%, 12.4%, and 14.4%).

Conclusions

This is the first study to examine the stability of IPV perpetration among sexual minority adolescents. Findings suggest that the development of interventions for IPV among sexual minority adolescents is needed, as IPV is unlikely to desist from adolescence to emerging adulthood.

Intimate partner violence (IPV), including physical and sexual violence, is a prevalent and serious problem in adolescence and into emerging adulthood. The annual prevalence of physical and sexual IPV in adolescent populations consistently ranges from 15–20% and 10–15%, respectively¹. This prior research has been primarily restricted to heterosexual adolescent populations despite a growing body of research demonstrating that IPV in sexual minority adolescents (i.e., adolescents who identify as lesbian/gay, bisexual, or questioning) is as prevalent, if not more prevalent, than their heterosexual peers^2,3.

However, research on the prospective course of IPV in sexual minority adolescents is scarce, which may be due to difficulty recruiting sexual minority adolescents. Within the heterosexual population, the existing literature shows a remarkably stable pattern of IPV perpetration beginning in adolescence and persisting into emerging adulthood⁴. Knowledge on whether IPV perpetration in sexual minority adolescents follows a similar pattern would provide important information on when IPV prevention programs should be initiated among sexual minority adolescents. Therefore, the current study examined whether physical and sexual IPV perpetration were stable across six years in a sample of sexual minority adolescents.

Method

Participants

Participants were drawn from a larger longitudinal study on adolescent health (N=1042)⁵. Only adolescents who identified as a sexual minority (e.g., not exclusively heterosexual; n=135) were included in the current study. The majority were female (71.1%) and the mean age at baseline was 15.02 (SD=.77). The ethnic/racial composition included African American/Black (34.1%), White (26.7%), Hispanic (22.2%), and “other” (17.1%). Participants were in the 9^th (76.3%) or 10^th (23.7%) grade at baseline. The majority of adolescents had begun dating at baseline (88.1%).

Procedure

Adolescents were recruited from high schools in southeast Texas and completed assessments annually for six years. Students were recruited during normal school hours and detailed information about the study along with a parental permission form was sent home with students for their parents to review, sign, and return (response rate = 62%). Assessments occurred during school hours in a private classroom reserved for the study. Participants received nominal gift card compensation for each assessment. Web-based surveys were administered once participants graduated high school. Parental consent and student assent/consent were obtained and all procedures received Institutional Review Board approval. Detailed procedures have been published elsewhere⁵.

Measure

IPV

The Conflict in Adolescent Dating Relationships Inventory (CADRI)⁶ was utilized to measure physical (4 items) and sexual (4 items) IPV perpetration. The baseline assessment assessed perpetration in adolescents’ lifetime and follow-up assessments asked about perpetration in the previous year. All items were rated using a Yes/No format and items were summed to create a total score for each type of violence. The CADRI is a widely used measure of IPV in adolescent dating relationships and has good psychometric properties⁵.

Data Analytic Plan

Structual equation modeling (SEM) in Mplus version 7.0 was utilized to examine the stability of IPV perpetration⁷. Full information maximum likelihood estimation (FIMLE) and robust maximum likelihood estimation were utilized. Modification indices were evaluated to determine if model fit could be improved by including residual covariances. Model fit was evaluated using the chi-square statistic (χ²; values less than 2.0 indicating good fit), the root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA; values less than .08 indicating good fit), and the comparative fit index (CFI; values greater than .95 indicating good fit)⁸. Two models were conducted: one for physical and one for sexual IPV perpetration, where stability paths across all six years were specified.

Results

Retention across the six years ranged from 100% (year 3) to 74.8% (year 5). The prevalence of physical IPV across the six years was 24.6% (year 1), 24.6% (year 2), 26.4% (year 3), 21.6% (year 4), 18.6% (year 5), and 24.5% (year 6). Figure 1 displays the stability of physical IPV. Modification indices indicated a need to include residual covariances between physical IPV at year 3 with physical IPV at year 5. The final model demonstrated that physical IPV was modestly stable from years 1 to 4, decreased in year 5, and increased in year 6.

Figure 1.

Stability of physical IPV across six years. χ² = 10.66 (df=9), p > .05; RMSEA = .04; CFI = .97. Residual covariances between years 3 and 5 were included in the model but not displayed for clarity.

The prevalence of sexual IPV across the six years was 14.3% (year 1), 13% (year 2), 14.9% (year 3), 10.8% (year 4), 12.4% (year 5), and 14.4% (year 6). Figure 2 displays the stability of sexual IPV. Modification indices indicated a need to include residual covariances between sexual IPV at year 3 with sexual IPV at year 5. The final model demonstrated that sexual IPV was highly stable from years 1 to 6.

Figure 2.

Stability of sexual IPV across six years. χ² = 12.71 (df=9), p > .05; RMSEA = .06; CFI = .97. Residual covariances between years 3 and 5 were included in the model but not displayed for clarity.

Discussion

Our findings provide the first evidence that IPV perpetration, particularly sexual IPV, is remarkably stable over the course of six years, from adolescence to emerging adulthood, among individuals who identify as a sexual minority. Despite a slight decrease in physical IPV in year 5, the prevalence of physical IPV across time was consistent with studies on non-sexual minority adolescents and highlights that adolescence and emerging adulthood are risky periods for IPV among sexual minorities.

Combined with the nascent literature on IPV in sexual minority adolescents, our findings indicate a need for IPV perpetration prevention programs to begin in early adolescence and contain culturally sensitive and relevant programming for sexual minority adolescents. Existing IPV programs for adolescents have largely failed to consider whether programming is sensitive to the unique needs and experiences of sexual minority youth⁹. It is crucial that efforts are made toward preventing IPV among sexual minority adolescents, which may include the development of new, or the refinement of existing, IPV prevention programs.

Future research is needed to clarify whether the stability of IPV varies by gender, as well as across sexual orientation subgroups/sexualities among adolescents, as our small sample sized precluded these analyses. Studies with larger samples of sexual minority adolescents will be able to examine these important areas. Research should also examine younger adolescents in order to examine the age of onset for IPV perpetration among sexual minorities. Despite the need for additional research, our findings make a notable contribution to the literature on adolescent IPV, as the majority of prior research has failed to examine IPV among sexual minorities.

Implications and Contributions.

This study examined the stability of physical and sexual intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration across six years in sexual minority adolescents. Findings showed that IPV perpetration is stable across time and indicate a need for the development of IPV prevention programs for sexual minorities.