Skip to main content
Chinese Journal of Lung Cancer logoLink to Chinese Journal of Lung Cancer
. 2013 Dec 20;16(12):671–675. [Article in Chinese] doi: 10.3779/j.issn.1009-3419.2013.12.10

分子靶向治疗在肺鳞癌中的研究进展

Advances of Molecular Targeted Therapy in Squamous Cell Lung Cancer

Li MA 1, Shucai ZHANG 1,*
PMCID: PMC6000638  PMID: 24345494

Abstract

Squamous cell lung cancer (SQCLC) is one of the most prevalent subtypes of lung cancer worldwide, about 400, 000 persons die from squamous-cell lung cancer around the world, and its pathogenesis is closely linked with tobacco exposure. Unfortunately, squamous-cell lung cancer patients do not benefit from major advances in the development of targeted therapeutics such as epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitors or anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) inhibitors that show exquisite activity in lungadenocarcinomas with EGFR mutations or echinoderm microtubule associated protein like-4 (EML4)-ALK fusions, respectively. Major efforts have been launched to characterize the genomes of squamous-cell lung cancers. Among the new results emanating from these efforts are amplifications of the fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) gene, the discoidin domain receptor 2 (DDR2) gene mutation as potential novel targets for the treatment of SQCLCs. Researchers find that there are many specific molecular targeted genes in the genome of squamous-cell lung cancer patients. These changes play a vital role in cell cycle regulation, oxidative stress, cell apoptosis, squamous epithelium differentiation, may be the candidate targeted moleculars in SQCLCs. Here, we provide a review on these discoveries and their implications for clinical trials in squamous-cell lungcancer assessing the value of novel therapeutics addressing these targets.

Keywords: Lung neoplasm, Squamous-cell cancer, Targeted therapy


过去的十几年中,分子靶向治疗在肺腺癌的治疗中具有里程碑式的作用,至少1/3的肺腺癌患者均能从靶向药物治疗中获益,如人表皮生长因子受体(epidermal growth factor receptor, EGFR)抑制剂吉非替尼、厄洛替尼和埃克替尼以及间变性淋巴瘤激酶(anaplastic lymphoma kinase, ALK)抑制剂克唑替尼等,但肺鳞癌却仍无明确的分子靶点指导临床实践[1]。最新报道陆续揭示了新的肺鳞癌相关基因改变。本文旨在综述近年来肺鳞癌分子靶向治疗的相关研究,从肺鳞癌流行病学特征、肿瘤发生及生物学差异、潜在分子靶点的发现与研究进展、临床研究的进展等方面分析靶向药物应用于肺鳞癌治疗中的临床价值。

1. 肺鳞癌流行病学和病理学特征

肺鳞癌约占非小细胞肺癌的20%-30%,与吸烟密切相关[2]。肺鳞癌的组织病理特征为细胞角质化、细胞间桥呈珍珠状,肿瘤细胞有大量胞质,不规则胞核,核仁较小[3]。临床上可通过手术切除的肿瘤标本、细针穿刺细胞学或支气管刷获取的细胞学或组织学标本用于诊断。通过免疫组织化学法分析癌基因p63和甲状腺转录因子-1(thyroid transcription factor-1, TTF-1)的表达水平协助诊断肺鳞癌。肺鳞癌均表达P63而不表达TTF1[3]。最近证据[4]表明P40,一个P63同型异构体抗体,对鳞状细胞核特异性更高(ΔNP63),比传统P63抗体更敏感。还有一些鳞状细胞免疫标志物也被广泛应用于临床实践,如高分子量的细胞角蛋白5/6(cytokeratin 5/6, CK5/6),但由于组织学的差异和染色分级系统不完善,其诊断的特异性和敏感性还有待进一步研究[5]。此外,腺鳞癌在非小细胞肺癌约占0.4%-4%,常见于吸烟、EGFR野生型和无ALK基因变异的患者[6]。因此,临床医生需进一步鉴别鳞癌和腺鳞癌。由于分子检测和临床诊断多基于病理组织学的鉴定,组织学的误差可能会导致一些潜在的病例错失接受靶向治疗的机会,因此临床医生也应总结临床特征,加强与病理科医师的协作,保证诊断的准确性。

2. 肿瘤发生和生物学差异

2.1. 肿瘤发生的基因变异

临床治疗疗效的差异提示肺鳞癌的生物学特征与肺腺癌存在差异。新的分子检测方法的出现使我们探索到鳞癌基因序列的特征。长期暴露于烟草导致上呼吸道正常上皮形态发生改变。支气管上皮、粘膜的变化使基底细胞增生,鳞状上皮化生,导致肿瘤的发生。最早的改变发生在正常上皮包括染色体3p区域性等位缺失(3p21, 3p22–24, 3p25),染色体9p21[细胞周期依赖性激酶抑制基因(cyclin-dependent kinase inhibit gene, CDKN2A)]和8p21-23缺失[7]。这些变异均伴随着17p13[抑癌基因(P53 tumor protein, TP53)]、13q14[视网膜母细胞瘤基因1(retinoblastoma 1, RB1)]的缺失。证据[8]表明,除了上述位点变异,肺鳞癌可能还存在一些信号通路的改变。如磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶(phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase, PI3K)通路,泛素连接酶复合体衔接蛋白1(Kelch-like ECH-associated protein1, KEAP1)/小鼠核因子E2相关蛋白2(Rat nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, NFE2L2)通路等。研究者正试图从中探索特异性鳞癌分子靶点,为开发新的药物提供依据。

2.1.1. Y染色体性别决定区相关高速泳动族框因子(sry-related HMG box-containing, SOX2)基因扩增

SOX2基因是一个最新发现的与肺鳞癌患者生存密切相关的癌基因,可以控制胚胎干细胞多能转化和气管支气管上皮的形成。同时,SOX2参与了从正常上皮到恶性肿瘤的发展,促进鳞癌组织标志物的表达,如P63[9]。通过比较基因组杂交技术(comparative genomic hybridization, CGH)发现,60%-80%的鳞癌患者存在SOX2基因扩增,Wilbertz等[10]通过两个独立队列研究发现了SOX2扩增在非小细胞肺癌中的作用。免疫组织化学染色分析指出,与肺腺癌相比,SOX2的表达在肺鳞癌中明显升高(P < 0.001),荧光原位杂交技术检测提示大多数肺鳞癌肿瘤组织中SOX2低水平扩增(68%,143/210例),而在肺腺癌中只发现6%例(13/208例)有SOX2低水平扩增。此外,高水平扩增只出现在肺鳞癌中(8%,16/210例)。SOX2蛋白高表达患者总生存期(overall survival, OS)相对延长(P=0.036),但SOX2高水平扩增与OS延长无明显相关(P=0.078)。研究[8, 11]表明,仅SOX2基因扩增虽不是组织恶性转化的必要条件,但可能参与了肿瘤的发生,并促进鳞癌细胞的增殖、分化、侵袭和迁移。目前虽然未明确SOX2扩增是一个特异性的分子靶点,但由于这些肿瘤的细胞周期蛋白D1(cyclinD1)水平均过表达,因此,细胞周期抑制剂可能是一个潜在可行的治疗手段[12]

2.1.2. TP63扩增

P63是具有转录活性的P53的靶基因,而P63截断体被认为是鳞癌细胞必要因子,是促进鳞癌发生发展的癌基因。截断型ΔNP63α片段变异体普遍表达于鳞状上皮和TP63扩增的肺癌细胞中。肺鳞癌中TP63既有基因扩增也有蛋白过表达[13]。一项Massion的研究[13]通过荧光原位杂交技术检测出88%(191/271例)肺鳞癌有TP63扩增。在鳞状细胞恶性转化前就可以检测到此基因拷贝数的增加,提示其在鳞癌早诊中具有潜在的病理学价值。TP63基因扩增和过表达与肺鳞癌患者生存时间密切相关[14]

2.1.3. KEAP1/NFE2L2基因突变

细胞通过KEAP1-NFE2L2通路调节对氧化应激及异源化合物应激的反应。研究表明,KEAP1基因突变在非小细胞肺癌中约占19%,其中大部分是肺腺癌[15]。NFE2L2是一个转录活性因子,参与谷胱甘肽合成,活性氧自由基灭活,抑制异源化合物活性。NFE2L2高表达和KEAP1低表达与非小细胞肺癌生存时间短密切相关[16]。研究[16]表明,NFE2L2突变主要发生在肺鳞癌中,与吸烟有关。在两个KEAP1相连的区域出现NFE2L2突变,激活NFE2L2转录活性,促进细胞增殖分化[17]。Shibata[18]分析了NFE2L2点突变出现在10.7%(11/103例)原发非小细胞肺癌(主要是肺鳞癌)。一项研究[19]报道了mTOR激活存在于NFE2L2突变的肿瘤细胞系中,mTOR抑制剂西罗莫司(sirolimus)可在体内体外抑制该细胞的增殖。但目前尚无特异性的NFE2L2抑制剂。此外,其他基因可能在KEAP1-NFE2L2通路中也起一定修饰作用。Sarkaria[20]发现鳞状细胞相关蛋白(defective in cullin neddylation 1, domain containing 1, DCUN1D1)扩增出现在48%(21/44例)原发肺癌中,其中63%(20/32例)肺鳞癌患者中存在DCUN1D1的过表达,而在腺癌中只发现了8%(1/12例),两者具有统计学差异(P=0.004),提示其在鳞癌中的相对特异性表达,但仍需进一步明确其在鳞癌肿瘤发生发展中的作用。

2.2. 潜在驱动基因

2.2.1. 磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶/蛋白激酶B/哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of Rapamycin, PI3K/Akt/mTOR)信号通路

PI3K/AKT/mTOR信号通路是一个调节细胞分化、代谢、增殖、血管发生的重要传导通路。研究[20]表明PI3K/PTEN/AKT/mTOR通路的异常在肺鳞癌中比肺腺癌更常见。PIK3CA突变率在鳞癌中约占3.6%-6.5%,突变发生在第9和20外显子[21]。Okudela等[22]通过荧光原位杂交技术检测到43%(12/28例)日本肺鳞癌患者存在PIK3CA基因扩增,而Ji等[23]通过PCR技术检测到42%(40/95例)中国肺鳞癌患者存在PIK3CA基因扩增。此外,AKT1是PI3K/AKT信号途径的活性中心,AKT1的E17K突变导致PI3K/AKT信号通路的活化,具有抗肿瘤细胞凋亡,促进肿瘤细胞的增殖和分化的作用[24]。报道称AKT1突变存在肺鳞癌中约7%(5/73例),但在肺腺癌中尚未发现,提示在肺鳞癌中AKT1 E17K突变可能作为治疗肺鳞癌特异候选靶向基因发挥更重要的作用。PTEN是肿瘤抑制基因,可负调节PI3K-AKT-mTOR通路,PTEN缺失可以激活此通路,促进细胞生长和增殖。有研究[25, 26]报道了PTEN表达缺失与PTEN甲基化分别发生在24%(30/125例)和35%(7/20例)的非小细胞肺癌中,指出PTEN基因突变在肺鳞癌中占10.2%(6/59例),明显高于肺腺癌(1.7%,2/117例)(P=0.02)。来自纪念斯隆-凯特琳癌症中心(MSKCC)的研究[27]发现,经免疫组化确诊的肺鳞癌中未发现EGFR/KRAS突变,而发现4%(4/95例)PIK3CA突变和1%(1/95例)AKT1突变,为PIK3CA突变和AKT1突变作为肺鳞癌的靶向基因提供证据。此外,mTOR高表达于非小细胞肺癌中,其中肺鳞癌与肺腺癌的表达无统计学差异(P=0.65),与肿瘤侵袭性高、预后差明显相关[28]。mTOR抑制剂(依维莫司)体内体外研究均可抑制肿瘤的生长,其应用于肺癌的Ⅰ期/Ⅱ期临床研究获得良好的安全性和有效性[29]

一些PI3K通路的抑制剂正在用于实体瘤治疗研究中,包括PI3K不同异构体的抑制剂,AKT1和mTOR抑制剂,PI3K/mTOR双靶点抑制剂。这些研究的要点集中在肺腺癌中PIK3CA基因突变与其他癌基因的变异同时存在的情况下,如KRASBRAFEGFREML4-ALK的基因变异。部分靶点陆续应用于肺鳞癌中,研究者试图通过多靶点联合抑制达到更好疗效已经成为目前靶向治疗的新方向[21]

2.2.2. 纤维母细胞生长因子受体1(fibroblast growth factor receptor 1, FGFR1)扩增

FGFR是一个酪氨酸激酶跨膜受体,参与胚胎的发育、细胞增殖、分化和血管生成。FGFR家族有四个成员(FGFR1、FGFR2、FGFR3、FGFR4),通过扩增、突变或易位而导致肿瘤的发生。2010年,FGFR1扩增首次发现于肺鳞癌中,吸烟可能通过破坏FGFR1蛋白的编码基因而与肺鳞癌的发生密切相关[30]。近期Weiss等[31]在155例原发肺鳞癌标本中,通过单核苷酸多态性(single nucleotide polymorphism, SNP)技术发现22%例标本存在FGFR1扩增,而581例非鳞癌患者中,仅1%存在FGFR1基因扩增。结果显示,FGFR1扩增可能是肺鳞癌特有的分子标志。进一步动物试验中还指出在裸鼠致瘤模型中运用FGFR1抑制剂PD173074可使存在FGFR1基因扩增的肺鳞癌小鼠的肿瘤明显缩小。一些选择性FGFR1酪氨酸抑制剂(AZD4547、BGJ398)早期临床试验(ClinicalTrail.gov NCT01795768)亦在进行中[8]

2.2.3. 盘状结构域受体(discoidin domain receptor tyrosine kinase 2, DDR2)突变

DDR是一个酪氨酸激酶受体,调节细胞粘连、增殖,通过与配体胶原连接调节胞外重建机制。非小细胞肺癌中DDR1的上调与无病生存时间和总生存时间延长密切相关,尤其是鳞癌[32]。2011年,Hammerman等[33]通过测序法检测了290例肺鳞癌肿瘤组织和细胞系明确DDR2突变率为3.8%。进一步体外研究表明针对DDR1和DDR2的多激酶抑制剂达沙替尼可以抑制DDR2突变的肿瘤细胞增殖和分化。早期研究还发现了1例EGFR野生型肺鳞癌患者接受达沙替尼和厄洛替尼治疗后影像学上病灶明显缩小。而将治疗前肿瘤组织进行DNA测序发现DDR2激酶区突变(S768R)[34]。肺鳞癌DDR2突变率虽然不高,接近于肺腺癌EML4-ALK融合基因的发生率,但若进一步研究发现肺鳞癌DDR2突变者对达沙替尼确实有效,将会对该亚型患者带来革命性福音。

2.2.4. EGFR Ⅷ变异

研究[35]表明,虽然EGFR敏感突变(19外显子缺失和L858R点突变)在鳞癌中少见,但可以在部分患者中找到另外一种EGFR突变类型:外显子2-7的第Ⅲ类EGFR缺失突变(EGFR Ⅷ)。这个区域缺失导致配体二聚体形成和促进磷酸化激活。这种突变在肺鳞癌的突变率约5%-8%。小样本研究[36]表明EGFR Ⅷ突变并不是一个对可逆型TKI敏感的突变类型。临床研究和实践中,大部分EGFR突变且EGFR-TKI受益者是肺腺癌患者,此突变的鳞癌患者能否获得与腺癌同样的疗效尚缺乏大样本研究。未来的研究重点应探索不可逆EGFR/Her2抑制剂Neratinib、Afatinib在肺鳞癌中的作用以及EGFR Ⅷ突变能否作为此类药物疗效预测的分子标志。

3. 总结

第二代基因测序技术的快速发展使了解不同种类疾病的基因组学特征成为可能,使肺鳞癌的个体化治疗紧随肺腺癌的发展,成为目前关注的热点之一。目前可行的靶向治疗在PIK3CA突变(20%-30%)、FGFR1扩增(20%)和DDR2突变(4%)已经成为个体化治疗靶点的选择[8]DDR2突变和FGFR1扩增导致相应跨膜受体信号下调增加。PIK3CAPTENAKT基因变异导致PI3K通路激活。KEAP1NFE2L2突变导致NFE2L2介导的细胞保护基因表达增加。SOX2扩增导致控制肿瘤生长的SOX2介导基因激活。此外,突变基因还包括TP53CDKN2AMLL2NOTCH1RB1HLA-A。最新研究[37]表明免疫治疗在肿瘤治疗中也发挥了重要的作用,如程序性死亡分子1(programmed death 1, PD1)和细胞毒T淋巴细胞相关抗原4(cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4, CTLA4)抑制剂。重要的通路包括NFE2L2/KEAP1、PI3K/AKT、CDKN2A/RB1,这些基因也参与鳞状细胞的恶性转化。针对这些新靶点的临床研究正在开展,虽然存在很多争议和疑惑,但这些发现和探索将会为肺鳞癌的个体化靶向治疗提供新的思路和诊疗方案。

Funding Statement

本研究受北京市科技计划课题项目(No.Z121107001012081)资助

This study was supported by the grant from Capital Beijing Science and Technology Plan Fund Project (to Shucai ZHANG)(No.Z121107001012081)

References

  • 1.Kris MG, Johnson BE, Kwiatkowski DJ, et al. Identification of driver mutations in tumor specimens from 1, 000 patients with lung adenocarcinoma: the NCI's Lung Cancer Mutation Consortium (LCMC) Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol. 2011;29(suppl):abstr CRA7506. [Google Scholar]
  • 2.Travis WD. Pathology of lung cancer. Clin Chest Med. 2011;32:669–692. doi: 10.1016/j.ccm.2011.08.005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3.Travis WD, Brambilla E, Mullere-Hermelink HK, et al. World Health Organization classification of tumors. Pathology and genetics of tumours of the lung, pleura, thymus and heart. Lyon: IARC Press; 2004. [Google Scholar]
  • 4.Rekhtman N, Ang DC, Sima CS, et al. Immunohistochemical algorithm for differentiation of lung adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma based on large series of whole-tissue sections with validation in small specimens. Mod Pathol. 2011;24(10):1348–1359. doi: 10.1038/modpathol.2011.92. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 5.Chen Y, Cui T, Yang L, et al. The diagnostic value of cytokeratin 5/6, 14, 17, and 18 expression in human non-small cell lung cancer. Oncology. 2011;80(5-6):333–340. doi: 10.1159/000329098. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 6.Ohtsuka K, Ohnishi H, Fujiwara M, et al. Abnormalities of epidermal growth factor receptor in lung squamous-cell carcinomas, adenosquamous carcinomas, and large-cell carcinomas: tyrosine kinase domain mutations are not rare in tumors with an adenocarcinoma component. Cancer. 2007;109(4):741–750. doi: 10.1002/(ISSN)1097-0142. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7.Wistuba II, Behrens C, Virmani AK, et al. High resolution chromosome 3p allelotyping of human lung cancer and preneoplastic/preinvasive bronchial epithelium reveals multiple discontinuous sites of 3p allele loss and three regions of frequent breakpoints. http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/60/7/1949. Cancer Res. 2000;60(7):1949–1960. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 8.Drilon A, Rekhtman N, Ladanyi M, et al. Squamous-cell carcinomas of the lung: emerging biology, controversies, and the promise of targeted therapy. Lancet Oncol. 2012;13(10):e418–e426. doi: 10.1016/S1470-2045(12)70291-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 9.Hussenet T, du Manoir S. SOX2 in squamous cell carcinoma: amplifying a pleiotropic oncogene along carcinogenesis. Cell Cycle. 2010;9(8):1480–1486. doi: 10.4161/cc.9.8.11203. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10.Wilbertz T, Wagner P, Petersen K, et al. SOX2 gene amplification and protein overexpression are associated with better outcome in squamous cell lung cancer. Mod Pathol. 2011;24(7):944–953. doi: 10.1038/modpathol.2011.49. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11.Bass AJ, Watanabe H, Mermel CH, et al. SOX2 is an amplified lineage-survival oncogene in lung and esophageal squamous cell carcinomas. Nat Genet. 2009;41(11):1238–1242. doi: 10.1038/ng.465. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 12.Lu Y, Futtner C, Rock JR, et al. Evidence that SOX2 overexpression is oncogenic in the lung. PLoS One. 2010;5(6):e11022. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0011022. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 13.Massion PP, Tafl an PM, Jamshedur Rahman SM, et al. Significance of p63 amplification and overexpression in lung cancer development and prognosis. http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/63/21/7113/F2.expansion.html. Cancer Res. 2003;63(21):7113–7121. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 14.Pallier K, Cazes A, El Khattabi L, et al. DeltaN TP63 reactivation, epithelial phenotype maintenance, and survival in lung squamous cell carcinoma. Tumour Biol. 2012;33(1):41–51. doi: 10.1007/s13277-011-0239-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 15.Singh A, Misra V, Thimmulappa RK, et al. Dysfunctional KEAP1-NRF2 interaction in non-small-cell lung cancer. PLoS Med. 2006;3(10):e420. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030420. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16.Kim YR, Oh JE, Kim MS, et al. Oncogenic NRF2 mutations in squamous cell carcinomas of oesophagus and skin. J Pathol. 2010;220(4):446–451. doi: 10.1002/path.v220:4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 17.Solis LM, Behrens C, Dong W, et al. Nrf2 and Keap1 abnormalities in non-small cell lung carcinoma and association with clinicopathologic features. Clin Cancer Res. 2010;16(14):3743–3753. doi: 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-09-3352. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 18.Shibata T, Ohta T, Tong KI, et al. Cancer related mutations in NRF2 impair its recognition by Keap1-Cul3 E3 ligase and promote malignancy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008;105(36):13568–13573. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0806268105. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 19.Shibata T, Saito S, Kokubu A, et al. Global downstream pathway analysis reveals a dependence of oncogenic NF-E2-related factor 2 mutation on the mTOR growth signaling pathway. Cancer Res. 2010;70(22):9095–9105. doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-10-0384. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 20.Sarkaria I, O-charoenrat P, Talbot SG, et al. Squamous cell carcinoma related oncogene/DCUN1D1 is highly conserved and activated by amplification in squamous cell carcinomas. Cancer Res. 2006;66(19):9437–9444. doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-06-2074. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 21.Kawano O, Sasaki H, Endo K, et al. PIK3CA mutation status in Japanese lung cancer patients. Lung Cancer. 2006;54(2):209–215. doi: 10.1016/j.lungcan.2006.07.006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 22.Okudela K, Suzuki M, Kageyama S, et al. PIK3CA mutation and amplification in human lung cancer. Pathol Int. 2007;57(10):664–671. doi: 10.1111/pin.2007.57.issue-10. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 23.Ji M, Guan H, Gao C, et al. Highly frequent promoter methylation and PIK3CA amplification in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) BMC Cancer. 2011;11:147. doi: 10.1186/1471-2407-11-147. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 24.Do H, Salemi R, Murone C, et al. Rarity of AKT1 and AKT3 E17K mutations in squamous cell carcinoma of lung. Cell Cycle. 2010;9(21):4411–4412. doi: 10.4161/cc.9.21.13654. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 25.Jin G, Kim MJ, Jeon HS, et al. PTEN mutations and relationship to EGFR, ERBB2, KRAS, and TP53 mutations in non-small celllung cancers. Lung Cancer. 2010;69(3):279–283. doi: 10.1016/j.lungcan.2009.11.012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26.Xu JL, Wang ZW, Hu LM, et al. Genetic variants in the PI3K/PTEN/AKT/mTOR pathway predict platinum-based chemotherapy response of advanced non-small cell lung cancers in a Chinese population. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2012;13(5):2157–2162. doi: 10.7314/APJCP.2012.13.5.2157. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 27.Rekhtman N, Paik PK, Arcila ME, et al. Clarifying the spectrum of driver oncogene mutations in biomarker-verified squamous carcinoma oflung: lack of EGFR/KRAS and presence of PIK3CA/AKT1 mutations. Clin Cancer Res. 2012;18(4):1167–1176. doi: 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-2109. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 28.Oh MH, Lee HJ, Yoo SB, et al. Clinicopathological correlations of mTOR and pAkt expression in non-small cell lung cancer. Virchows Arch. 2012;460(6):601–609. doi: 10.1007/s00428-012-1239-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 29.Sun JM, Kim JR, Do IG, et al. A phase-1b study of everolimus plus paclitaxel in patients with small-cell lung cancer. Br J Cancer. 2013;109(6):1482–1487. doi: 10.1038/bjc.2013.467. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 30.Tran TN, Selinger CI, Kohonen-Corish MR, et al. Fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) copy number is an independent prognostic factor in non-small cell lung cancer. Lung Cancer. 2013;81(3):462–467. doi: 10.1016/j.lungcan.2013.05.015. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 31.Weiss J, Sos ML, S eidel D, et al. Frequent and focal FGFR1 amplification associates with therapeutically tractable FGFR1 dependency in squamous cell lung cancer. http://busqueda.bvsalud.org/portal/resource/es/mdl-21160078. Sci Transl Med. 2010;2(62):62r–62ra93. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3001451. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 32.Ford CE, Lau SK, Zhu CQ, et al. Expression and mutation analysis of the discoidin domain receptors 1 and 2 in non-small cell lung carcinoma. Br J Cancer. 2007;96(5):808–814. doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6603614. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 33.Hammerman P, Sos ML, Ramos AH, et al. Mutations in the DDR2 kinase gene identify a novel therapeutic target in squamous cell lung cancer. Cancer Discov. 2011;1(1):78–89. doi: 10.1158/2159-8274.CD-11-0005. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34.Song Y, Sun X, Bai WL, et al. Antitumor effects of Dasatinib on laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma in vivo and in vitro. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2013;270(4):1397–1404. doi: 10.1007/s00405-013-2394-3. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35.Ji H, Zhao X, Yuza Y, et al. Epidermal growth factor receptor variant Ⅲ mutations in lung tumorigenesis and sensitivity to tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2006;103(20):7817–7822. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0510284103. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 36.Sasaki H, Kawano O, Endo K, et al. EGFR Ⅷ mutation in lung cancer correlates with increased EGFR copy number. https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/or.17.2.319/download. Oncol Rep. 2007;17(2):319–323. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 37.Forde PM, Reiss KA, Zeidan AM, et al. what lies within: novel strategies in immunotherapy for non-small cell lung cancer. Oncologist. 2013;18(11):1203–1213. doi: 10.1634/theoncologist.2013-0171. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Chinese Journal of Lung Cancer are provided here courtesy of Editorial office of Chinese Journal of Lung Cancer

RESOURCES