Table 1.
Natural occurrence of modified mycotoxins in cereals and cereal-based foods and feed.
| Mycotoxin | Cereals/Cereals Based Food | Positive Samples | Min–Max [µg/kg] | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| DON | maize | 6/6 (100%) | 255–5245 | [117] |
| 3/3 (100%) | 90–680 | [25] | ||
| 10/10 (100%) | 32–2246 | [118] | ||
| 9/10 (90%) | 74–1382 | [119] | ||
| - | LOQ *–5660 | [120] | ||
| 51–100% | 0.3–4374 | [121] | ||
| maize silage for feed and ready feed | 799/1113 (71.8%) | 1.5–13,488 | [122] | |
| maize products | 91–97% | 0.3–2803 | [121] | |
| barley | 28/34 (82.4%) | LOQ–1180 | [123] | |
| 15/15 (100%) | <60 | [118] | ||
| 20/24 (83%) | 54–1602 | [124] | ||
| wheat | 76/92 (83%) | 11–1265 | [125] | |
| 29/30 (97.6%) | LOQ–5510 | [123] | ||
| 4/6 (66.7%) | 16–150 | [117] | ||
| 5/5 (100%) | 540–5080 | [25] | ||
| 6/6 (100%) | 46–2683 | [118] | ||
| 46/99 (46.5%) | 25–2975 | [124] | ||
| 5/5 (100%) | 4680–36,720 ** | [28] | ||
| 6/13 (46.1%) | LOQ–297 | [126] | ||
| 15/20 (75%) | LOQ–10,130 | [127] | ||
| durum wheat | 84/84 (100%) | 1750 (average) | [128] | |
| triticale | 4/5 (80.0%) | 43–737 | [118] | |
| 20/20 (100%) | 196–1326 | [124] | ||
| rye | 12/12 (100.0%) | <50 | [118] | |
| oat | 31/31 (100%) | 2690 (average) | [123] | |
| 1/6 (16.7%) | 46 | [117] | ||
| 9/11 (81.8%) | 62–2216 | [118] | ||
| 4/4 (100%) | 67–149 | [124] | ||
| bread | 4/6 (66.7%) | 20–102 | [117] | |
| corn flakes | 1/6 (16.7%) | 207 | ||
| white flour products | 16/17 (94.1%) | 5–30 | [129] | |
| mixed flour and whole-corn products | 32/36 (88.9%) | 13–431 | ||
| breakfast cereals | 2/7 (28.6%) | 31–347 | ||
| snacks | 21/34 (61.8%) | 13–320 | ||
| flours | 16/22 (72.3%) | 28–594 | ||
| DON | wheat flour | 349/359 (97.2%) | 1.3–825.9 | [130] |
| 4/4 (100%) | 78.9–325.8 | [126] | ||
| 5/5 (100%) | 940–5890 ** | [28] | ||
| feed for swine | 15/16 (93.8%) | 50–931 | [119] | |
| feed for poultry | 14/15 (93.3%) | 157–1231 | ||
| beer | 18/20 (90%) | LOQ–35.9 | [131] | |
| light beer | 118/217 (54.4%) | <LOQ–89.3 | [132] | |
| wheat beer | 36/46 (78.3%) | <LOQ–49.6 | ||
| dark beer | 14/47 (29.8%) | <LOQ–45.0 | ||
| bock beer | 18/20 (90.0%) | LOQ–27.1 | ||
| alcohol free beer | 5/19 (26.3%) | LOQ–26.1 | ||
| shandy beer | 13/25 (52.0%) | LOQ–12.7 | ||
| 3Ac-DON | maize | 6/6 (100%) | 63–643 | [117] |
| 1/3 (33%) | 10 | [25] | ||
| 0/10 (0%) | - | [119] | ||
| 33–57% | 0.3–368 | [121] | ||
| maize silage for feed and ready feed | 71/1113 (6.4%) | LOD ***–527 | [122] | |
| maize products | 22–73% | 0.3–105 | [121] | |
| barley | 14/34 (41.2%) | LOQ–23.6 | [123] | |
| wheat | 14/30 (46.7%) | LOQ–71.0 | [123] | |
| 1/6 (16.7%) | 17 | [117] | ||
| 3/5 (80.0%) | LOQ–50 | [25] | ||
| oat | 24/31 (77.4%) | LOQ–2720 | [123] | |
| 6/6 (100%) | 34–116 | [117] | ||
| bread | 6/6 (100%) | 29–51 | [117] | |
| corn flakes | 5/6 (83.3%) | 29–52 | [117] | |
| wheat flour | 40/359 (11.1%) | 0.6–3.6 | [130] | |
| feed for swine | 1/16 (6.3%) | 14 | [119] | |
| feed for poultry | 2/15 (13.3%) | 19–21 | ||
| light beer | 0/217 (0%) | - | [132] | |
| wheat beer | 0/46 (0%) | - | ||
| dark beer | 0/47 (0%) | - | ||
| bock beer | 0/20 (0%) | - | ||
| alcohol free beer | 0/19 (0%) | - | ||
| shandy beer | 0/25 (0%) | - | ||
| 15Ac-DON | maize | 6/6 (100%) | 61–792 | [117] |
| 0/3 (0%) | - | [25] | ||
| 6/10 (60%) | 15–79 | [119] | ||
| 48–90% | 0.3–1734 | [121] | ||
| maize silage for feed and ready feed | 128/1113 (11.5%) | LOD–2177 | [122] | |
| maize products | 52–92% | 0.3–1519 | [121] | |
| wheat | 0/6 (0%) | - | [117] | |
| 1/5 (20.0%) | 20 | [25] | ||
| oat | 2/6 (33.3%) | <LOQ–27 | [117] | |
| bread | 1/6 (16.7%) | 18 | ||
| corn flakes | 1/6 (16.7%) | 17 | ||
| wheat flour | 51/359 (14.2%) | 2.0–11.1 | [130] | |
| feed for swine | 10/16 (62.5%) | 10–34 | [119] | |
| feed for poultry | 7/15 (46.7%) | 17–45 | ||
| 3Ac-DON & 15Ac-DON | maize | - | <LOQ–11,900 | [120] |
| barley | 1/24 (4.2%) | 62 | [124] | |
| wheat | 34/99 (34.3%) | 25–98 | ||
| durum wheat | 41/84 (49%) | LOQ–190 | [128] | |
| triticale | 20/20 (100%) | 36–374 | [124] | |
| DON-3Glc | maize | 6/6 (100%) | 36–1003 | [117] |
| 2/3 (67%) | <LOQ–70 | [25] | ||
| 10/10 (100%) | <35 | [118] | ||
| 8/10 (80%) | 14–121 | [119] | ||
| - | <LOQ–1100 | [120] | ||
| 33–83% | 3–978 | [121] | ||
| maize silage for feed and ready feed | 701/1113 (63.0%) | 1.0–3159 | [122] | |
| maize products | 54–86% | 3–844 | [121] | |
| barley | 25/34 (73.5%) | <LOQ–1300 | [123] | |
| 0/15 (0%) | - | [118] | ||
| 7/24 (29%) | 43–277 | [124] | ||
| wheat | 25/30 (83.3%) | <LOQ–922 | [123] | |
| 1/6 (16.7%) | 18 | [117] | ||
| 5/5 (100%) | 50–200 | [25] | ||
| 5/6 (83.3%) | 43–737 | [118] | ||
| 27/99 (27.3%) | 40–356 | [124] | ||
| 25/92 (27%) | 16–138 | [125] | ||
| 4/13 (31%) | <LOQ | [126] | ||
| 15/20 (75%) | 100–1230 | [127] | ||
| 5/5 (100%) | 170–1040 ** | [28] | ||
| durum wheat | 80/84 (94%) | LOQ–850 | [128] | |
| triticale | 1/5 (20.0%) | 109 | [118] | |
| 15/20 (75.0%) | 40–434 | [125] | ||
| DON-3Glc | rye | 0/12 (0%) | - | [118] |
| oat | 27/31 (87.1%) | <LOQ–6600 | [123] | |
| 6/6 (100%) | 28–97 | [117] | ||
| 5/11 (45.5%) | 162–287 | [118] | ||
| 0/4 (0%) | - | [124] | ||
| bread | 5/6 (83.3%) | 26–29 | [117] | |
| corn flakes | 3/6 (50.0%) | 24–28 | ||
| white flour products | 14/17 (82.4%) | 5–30 | [129] | |
| mixed flour and whole-corn products | 28/36 (77.8%) | 7–41 | [129] | |
| breakfast cereals | 6/7 (85.7%) | 19–66 | [129] | |
| snacks | 28/34 (82.4%) | 11–94 | ||
| flours | 15/22 (68.2%) | 5–72 | ||
| wheat flour | 5/5 (100%) | 110–770 ** | [28] | |
| 120/359 (33.4%) | 0.2–15.7 | [130] | ||
| feed for swine | 15/16 (93.8%) | 6–80 | [119] | |
| feed for poultry | 14/15 (93.3%) | 30–107 | ||
| beer | 19/20 (95%) | LOQ–27.5 | [131] | |
| light beer | 142/217 (65.4%) | <LOQ–81.3 | [132] | |
| wheat beer | 32/46 (69.6%) | <LOQ–28.4 | ||
| dark beer | 28/47 (59.6%) | <LOQ–26.2 | ||
| bock beer | 20/20 (100%) | 2.4–33.3 | ||
| alcohol free beer | 9/19 (47.4%) | <LOQ–6.6 | ||
| shandy beer | 20/25 (80.0%) | <LOQ–7.9 | ||
| NIV | barley | 25/34 (73.5%) | <LOQ–302 | [123] |
| wheat | 13/30 (43.3%) | <LOQ–74.0 | ||
| oat | 22/31 (71.0%) | <LOQ–4940 | ||
| wheat flour | 4/4 (100%) | LOQ–140.6 | [126] | |
| NIV-3Glc | barley | 21/34 (61.8%) | <LOQ–65.3 | [123] |
| wheat | 13/30 (43.3%) | <LOQ–33.6 | ||
| oats | 6/31 (16.1%) | <LOQ–58.3 | ||
| HT-2 | barley | 12/34 (35.3%) | <LOQ–39.5 | [123] |
| 8/8 (100%) | 23–233 | [42] | ||
| 18/18 (100%) | 3–213 | [133] | ||
| wheat | 4/4 (100%) | 19–96 | [42] | |
| 19/30 (63.3%) | <LOQ–39.5 | [123] | ||
| 7/9 (77.8%) | 26–85 | [43] | ||
| HT-2 | oat | 8/8 (100%) | 11–187 | [42] |
| 23/31 (74.2%) | <LOQ–1830 | [123] | ||
| 8/9 (88.9%) | 21–851 | [43] | ||
| HT-2-Glc | barley | 18/34 (52.9%) | <LOQ–38.5 | [123] |
| 6/8 (75%) | - **** | [43] | ||
| 17/18 (94.4%) | 0.6–162.8 | [133] | ||
| wheat | 3/4 (75%) | - **** | [42] | |
| 16/30 (53.3%) | <LOQ–15.9 | [123] | ||
| oat | 6/8 (75%) | - **** | [42] | |
| 5/31 (16.1%) | <LOQ–300 | [123] | ||
| HT-2-di-Glc | barley | 2/8 (25%) | - **** | [42] |
| wheat | 0/4 (0%) | - **** | ||
| oats | 0/8 (0%) | - **** | ||
| T-2 | barley | 8/8 (100%) | 41–160 | [42] |
| 18/18 (100%) | 1–154 | [133] | ||
| wheat | 4/4 (100%) | 17–76 | [42] | |
| 5/9 (55.6%) | 11–23 | [43] | ||
| oat | 8/8 (100%) | 32–165 | [42] | |
| 8/9 (88.9%) | 10–377 | [43] | ||
| T-2-Glc | barley | 7/8 (87.5%) | - **** | [42] |
| 9/18 (50.0%) | 0.1–14.5 | [133] | ||
| wheat | 3/4 (75%) | - **** | [42] | |
| oat | 6/8 (75%) | - **** | [42] | |
| T-2-di-Glc | barley | 0/8 (0%) | - **** | [42] |
| wheat | 0/4 (0%) | - **** | ||
| oat | 0/8 (0%) | - **** | ||
| T-2 & HT-2 | maize | - | <LOQ–103 | [120] |
| ZEN | maize | 5/6 (83%) | 59–1071 | [117] |
| - | <LOQ–15,700 | [120] | ||
| maize silage for feed and ready feed | 884/1113 (79.4%) | 20–11,192 | [122] | |
| barley | 2/34 (5.9%) | <LOQ–17 | [123] | |
| 16/24 (67%) | 2–31 | [124] | ||
| wheat | 14/30 (46.7%) | <LOQ–234 | [123] | |
| 5/6 (83.3%) | 12–109 | [117] | ||
| ZEN | wheat | 47/99 (47.5%) | 1–100 | [124] |
| triticale | 20/20 (100%) | 4–86 | [124] | |
| oat | 13/31 (41.9%) | <LOQ–675 | [112] | |
| 4/6 (66.7%) | 13–85 | [117] | ||
| 4/4 (100%) | 5–15 | [124] | ||
| bread | 5/6 (83.3%) | 19–53 | [117] | |
| corn flakes | 5/6 (83.3%) | 34–90 | ||
| ZEN-14Glc | maize | 1/6 (17%) | 274 | [117] |
| barley | 6/34 (17.6%) | <LOQ–9.6 | [123] | |
| wheat | 2/30 (6.7%) | <LOQ–0.6 | [123] | |
| 0/6 (0%) | - | [117] | ||
| oats | 1/31 (3.2%) | <LOQ | [123] | |
| 0/6 (0%) | - | [117] | ||
| bread | 2/6 (33.3%) | 20–20 | [117] | |
| corn flakes | 0/6 (0%) | - | [117] | |
| ZEN-16Glc | barley | 8/34 (23.5%) | <LOQ | [123] |
| wheat | 2/30 (6.7%) | <LOQ–2.8 | ||
| oat | 18/31 (58.1%) | <LOQ–7.9 | ||
| ZEN-14S | maize | 1/6 (17%) | 51 | [117] |
| maize silage for feed and ready feed | 471/1113 (42.3%) | 2–4318 | [122] | |
| barley | 3/34 (8.8%) | <LOQ–26.1 | [123] | |
| wheat | 2/6 (33.3%) | 11 (average) | [117] | |
| 12/30 (40.0%) | <LOQ–22.5 | [123] | ||
| oats | 1/6 (16.7%) | 12 | [117] | |
| 9/31 (29.0%) | <LOQ–220 | [123] | ||
| bread | 1/6 (16.7%) | 24 | [117] | |
| corn flakes | 0/6 (0%) | - | [117] | |
| α-ZEL | maize | 6/6 (100%) | 22–262 | [117] |
| barley | 1/34 (2.9%) | <LOQ–0.6 | [123] | |
| 0/24 (0%) | - | [124] | ||
| wheat | 4/30 (13.3%) | <LOQ–0.7 | [123] | |
| 2/6 (33.3%) | 16 | [117] | ||
| 1/99 (1.0%) | 8 | [124] | ||
| triticale | 0/20 (0%) | - | [124] | |
| α-ZEL-14Glc | oat | 3/31 (9.7%) | <LOQ–2.2 | [123] |
| 2/6 (33.3%) | <LOQ–68 | [117] | ||
| 0/4 (100%) | - | [124] | ||
| bread | 2/6 (33.3%) | 18–110 | [117] | |
| corn flakes | 2/6 (33.3%) | 26–34 | ||
| maize | 1/6 (17%) | 283 | [117] | |
| barley | 8/34 (23.5%) | <LOQ–5.1 | [123] | |
| wheat | 5/30 (16.7%) | <LOQ–4.4 | [123] | |
| 0/6 (0%) | - | [117] | ||
| oat | 0/6 (0%) | - | [117] | |
| 0/31 (0%) | - | [123] | ||
| bread | 0/6 (0%) | - | [117] | |
| corn flakes | 0/6 (0%) | - | ||
| β-ZEL | maize | 4/6 (67%) | 12–103 | [117] |
| barley | 1/34 (2.9%) | <LOQ–2.0 | [123] | |
| wheat | 2/30 (6.7%) | <LOQ–10 | [123] | |
| 1/6 (16.7%) | 49 | [117] | ||
| 30/99 (30.3%) | 2–24 | [124] | ||
| triticale | 0/20 (0%) | - | [124] | |
| oat | 10/31 (32.3%) | <LOQ–6.0 | [123] | |
| 1/6 (16.7%) | 46 | [117] | ||
| 2/4 (50.0%) | 6–9 | [124] | ||
| bread | 3/6 (50.0%) | 55–96 | [117] | |
| corn flakes | 4/6 (50.0%) | 44–63 | ||
| β-ZEL-14Glc | maize | 3/6 (50%) | 92–193 | [117] |
| barley | 1/34 (2.9%) | <LOQ–0.7 | [123] | |
| wheat | 0/6 (0%) | - | [117] | |
| 0/30 (0%) | - | [123] | ||
| oat | 1/6 (16.7%) | 20 | [117] | |
| 0/31 (0%) | - | [123] | ||
| bread | 0/6 (0%) | - | [117] | |
| corn flakes | 0/6 (0%) | - | ||
| α-ZEL & β-ZEL | maize | - | <LOQ–7970 | [120] |
| ZEN-14Glc ZEN-14S α-ZEL-14Glc β-ZEL-14Glc |
maize | - | <LOQ–9750 (total) | [120] |
* Limit of quantification; ** Five wheat samples obtained by mixing of infected grain with mycotoxin-free grain in different proportions; *** Limit of detection, **** Relative content/relative peak are.