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Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine logoLink to Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine
. 2018 Jun 28;14:45. doi: 10.1186/s13002-018-0240-9

A study on food-medicine continuum among the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district, Tamil Nadu, India

S Esakkimuthu 1, S Sylvester Darvin 1, S Mutheeswaran 1, M Gabriel Paulraj 1, P Pandikumar 1,, S Ignacimuthu 1,2,, N A Al-Dhabi 3
PMCID: PMC6025710  PMID: 29954417

Abstract

Background

Medicinal properties of the food species are one of the poorly documented and important areas of ethnopharmacology. The present survey quantitatively documented the medicinal foods prescribed by the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu.

Methods

Field work was carried out between December 2014 and April 2017 using a questionnaire. The illnesses mentioned by the informants were grouped as illness categories on the basis of emic perceptions. Sufficiency of sampling of this survey was assessed by plotting the cumulative number of UR and Shannon-Wiener’s index. The indices such as informant consensus factor (FIC), Index of Agreement on Remedies (IAR), and Cultural Food Significance Index (CFSI) were calculated.

Results

This study documented 165 medicinal foods used by 82 non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district, and 73.93% of these preparations were plant based. Among the animal taxa, 82.05% were represented by fish taxa. The illness category gastrointestinal ailments is the majorly cited illness category treated with plant-based formulations. The illness categories viz., gastrointestinal ailments, hemorrhoids, and neural ailments had high consensus under the group of plant-based medicinal foods. In animal-based medicinal foods, kapha ailments had gained 23.07% of UR. The illness categories such as bone fractures, male reproductive ailments, blood ailments, and anabolic had high FIC values.

Conclusions

Deeper studies on different dietary cultures of India may help to derive better interpretations on food-medicine continuum. This study identified some important claims such as the use of citron, pomegranate and Solanum americanum (gastrointestinal ailments), Abutilon indicum, onions and elephant foot yam (hemorrhoids), Boerhavia diffusa (urinary ailments), Moringa oleifera (anemia), Aloe vera (gynecological ailments), Eclipta prostrata (liver ailments), ivy gourd (diabetes), citron (hypertension), Centella asiatica (psychological ailments), spade nose shark (lactogogue), reticulate whipray (wheezing and bronchitis), Katelysia opima (impotence), Indian squid (anemia), and Indian oil sardine (anabolic). More studies on these claims will help identify novel functional foods to add to the field of medical nutrition therapy, with traditional brand identity. Robust studies on the documentation of the traditional knowledge on marine resources will yield a good database for various stakeholders and policy makers.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13002-018-0240-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Keywords: Medicinal foods, Functional foods, Traditional brand identity, Indian traditional medicine

Background

In many traditions, species which are used as medicine are also used as food and vice-versa; in many cases, ethnobiologists have documented this unclear delineation between food and medicine [1]. Ethnopharmacological surveys showed that the local people who gathered various wild species for food had knowledge about the health benefits of those species [2]. These health benefits go beyond from nutritional perspectives to health promoting phytochemicals [3] and many of them have been consumed by healthy people as a prophylactic measure. Local gastronomies are one of the important markers of regional identity and have been built upon various ecological, cultural, and religious beliefs [4]. Studies on the dietary patterns of a culture yield better clues on patterns of health and diseases observed in that population [5]. The importance of food-medicine interface in ethnopharmacology has been recognized for nearly 25 years [6, 7]. Many studies focused either on the dietary or pharmacological properties of the species and only limited studies addressed this food-medicine continuum [8].

India has a wide diversity of traditional cuisines; they contain whole grains, millets, wild gathered vegetables [9] and various spices for coloring, flavoring and preserving foods [10]. Besides cultural and religious beliefs, Indian cuisine was largely influenced by the principles of traditional medicinal systems. According to Indian philosophy, food was considered as the gift from god and it was classified into various categories [11]. The cuisine of Tamils is one of the important and oldest cuisine systems of India, and it is influenced largely by siddha system of traditional medicine [12]. The sangam (300BC–300AD) and post-sangam age (300–600AD) literatures such as tirukkuṟaḷ, pattuppāṭṭu, and ācārakkōvai describe various types foods and rules for eating. A classical siddha literature, patārtta kuṇa cintāmaṇi, describes the medicinal properties of various foods and drinks [13].

Diet diversification is one of the concepts to combat micronutrient malnutrition and to prevent chronic diseases [14, 15]. Various factors such as increasing healthcare costs, life expectancy, and desire for improving the quality of life among elders created a demand in global food industry to find novel foods with functional properties [16]. Globally, a significant increase in the consumption of functional foods for prevention and management of various chronic ailments was recorded. The market size of functional foods is expected to grow by 241 billion US$ by 2019. In India, the functional food industry is expected to grow by 20% and to reach a market size of 6.1 billion rupees by 2019–2020. Traditional diets are generally considered as holistic, healthy, and medicinal; thus, the demand and public interest on such foods are increasing rapidly, as in the case of herbal drugs [17]. Developing functional foods from traditional claims has been considered as an area for identifying novel functional foods [18]. In countries like India where traditional medicinal systems are looked with a nationalistic sentiment, the demand and the scope for functional foods with traditional brand identity are increasing. Besides these advantages, previous studies also demonstrated the adverse interactions of some functional foods with conventional therapies [19, 20]. In such scenario, it becomes important to document and inclusively evaluate the nutritional as well as functional properties of medicinal foods used locally and also to know the illnesses generally treated with these foods [8].

Siddha is one of the major traditional medical systems of India, which shares some commonalities with ayurveda. It has been majorly practiced in Tamil Nadu state and in its fringes; it has also been practiced in foreign countries such as Sri Lanka and Malaysia by Tamil people [21]. Previous studies indicated that the siddha literatures used in contemporary practice started from fourth to fifth century AD, though the practices emerged earlier [22]. The name siddha had also been coined recently in 1923 to delineate it from other systems of traditional medicines [23]. Literatures related to siddha are found exclusively in Tamil language as palm leaf manuscripts, and many of them remain undocumented. Institutional training on siddha system of medicine has been provided by the Government of India; however, the number of non-institutionally trained practitioners remains high [24]. Non-institutional training in siddha system of medicine is usually given from father to son and master to disciple forms [23]. This kind of knowledge transmission is usually done orally, and a lot of their recipes remain undocumented. Our previous survey in this area documented the medicinal plants used for the treatment of cardiometabolic diseases by non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners [25], and this survey aimed to document and analyze the medicinal foods prescribed by the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners for prevention or management of various illnesses.

Methods

Study area

Tiruvallur district is located in the northern part of Tamil Nadu state between 12°15′–13°15′ N and 79°15′–80°20′ E, with an area of 3423 km2 (Fig. 1). The eastern part of this district is bounded by the Bay of Bengal, and the remaining parts are mostly flat and dry. The coastal part of this district occupies 498 km2 and has a costal line of 80 km for marine fisheries. The inland fresh water area is 750 km2, and brackish water area is 148 km2. This district has a forest cover of 197.8 km2 which occupies 5.8% of the total area; these forests mostly fall under the classes of dry thorn and dry evergreen. This district has nine taluks (sub-districts) and 14 revenue blocks. This district exhibits both urban and rural characteristics. Nearly 47% of the total human workforce deals with agriculture; this district is one of the fastest developing districts of Tamil Nadu in terms of industries. The average rainfall of the district is 1104 mm, out of which 52% is received from northeast monsoon and 41% is received from southwest monsoon. The State Government is providing siddha treatment in 12 hospitals with 37 institutionally trained siddha practitioners.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Map showing the location of the study area, Tiruvallur district in Tamil Nadu, India

Interviews

The local knowledge of non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners on medicinal foods was documented between December 2014 and April 2017 using a questionnaire. The interview protocols used for this survey were in accordance with the previously published methods [2629] and also with the guidelines of ISE code of ethics for ethnobiological research [30]. This study focused on the local knowledge of siddha practitioners who learnt only through traditional methods of teaching (non-institutional training), practicing for a minimum of 5 years, and willing to share their knowledge. Snowball sampling method was used to recruit the informants, and the informants for this survey were recruited irrespective of age, gender, education, and nativity. The aim of this survey was explained to the participants in lay terms: one or two visits were taken to get familiarity, and the formal interviews were conducted after getting written informant consent to participate in this survey. By this way, the local knowledge of 82 non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners on medicinal foods was documented in this communication. The protocol used in this survey was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee for Ethnobiological Research.

The questionnaire used for this survey consisted of two parts. In the first part, the data related to the demography of the informants such as age, gender, education, mode of learning traditional medicine, experience, nativity, residential area, and occupation were documented. In the second part of the questionnaire, the data regarding the medicinal foods that they are prescribing to their patients, the ingredients (plants/animals) used to prepare these foods, parts, mode of preparation, illnesses treated with these foods, dosage, and duration of consumption were documented. Under the ingredients section, the key medicinal taxa which were perceived to attribute the medicinal effect were also documented. Besides it, other details such as the perceived availability of resources (very common - rare), localization of the usage (ubiquity - rare), frequency of usage (frequent - no longer used), parts used, multi-functional usage (different eatable forms reported), taste score (best - terrible), and medicinal role (very high - not recognized) were also documented. The informants were taken to the fields from where they usually collected the samples, including local markets, and asked to show the specimens of the taxa that they mentioned either fresh or in dry condition. The interviews were conducted in the local language Tamil, and they were video-graphed. Questionnaires were cross-verified with the video-graphs for ambiguous entries. The data were translated into English in the laboratory. Equivalent English terms for the illnesses were fixed by correlating the Tamil terminologies and symptoms with the biomedical literature by consulting an institutionally trained siddha practitioner.

Specimens

Representative specimens of the fresh plants or crude drugs were collected, herborized, and stored at the museum of Entomology Research Institute, Loyola College, Chennai. The botanical authenticity of the plants was confirmed by the examination of the voucher specimens using local flora [3134], and the valid names were confirmed with a website [35]. All the animals mentioned in this work were photographed, and their zoological names were confirmed by the Zoologist (MGP), who is one of the authors of this communication.

Quantification of the data

Medicinal plants/animals which were considered as key medicinal taxa by the informants were taken for the analysis. The illnesses mentioned by the informants were grouped as illness categories on the basis of emic perceptions. The illness category vadha ailments include the musculoskeletal disorders and kapha ailments include the pulmonary and respiratory diseases. The data were then converted into use reports (UR) and claims in accordance with our previous work. Briefly, UR can be described as “informant (i) prescribes a species (s) for a use category (u)” [36]; claims lack the informant (i) factor [37]. For example, if two informants mention a species for the treatment of an illness category, it yields two UR and a claim. Sufficiency of sampling of this survey was assessed by plotting the cumulative number of UR and Shannon Wiener’s index, which was calculated using PAST3 program.

Informant consensus over treating illnesses and on the taxa was assessed using informant consensus factor (FIC) and Index of Agreement on Remedies (IAR), respectively, [38] using the following formula.

FIC = (Nur − Nt)/(Nur − 1)

IAR = (nur − na)/(nr − 1)

where Nur is the number of UR for a particular illness category, Nt is the total number of taxa mentioned for that particular illness category, nur is the total number of UR registered for a taxon, and na is the number of illness categories that are treated with that taxon. These factors range from zero to one, where increasing values indicate high rate of informant consensus. Illness categories with high, average, and low consensus were calculated [39, 40]. Local uses of medicinal taxa having high IAR value and UR were compared with global usage pattern and scientific literature.

Humoral properties (cold and hot) of the medicinal plants and their uses in formal siddha medicine were taken from siddha materia medica [4144]. If no report was available about a taxon, it was kept under the category “unspecified.” relative frequency of citation (RFC) on the basis of humors for each illness category was calculated using the following formula.

RFC = (number of UR for a humor/total number of UR) ×  100

Cultural Food Significance Index (CFSI) of the key medicinal taxa was calculated in accordance with the method of Pieroni [45] with slight modifications (Table 1). For this calculation, key medicinal taxa with a minimum of two UR were considered. CFSI took seven indices into account, and it was calculated using the following formula.

Table 1.

Scores for Cultural Food Significance Index

Indices Attributes Scores
Availability index (AI) Availability
 Very common 4.0
 Common 3.0
 Middle 2.0
 Rare 1.0
Localization of the use
 Ubiquity 0.0
 Localized − 0.5
 Very localized − 1.0
Frequency of utilization index (FUI) > Once/week 5.0
Once/week 4.0
Once/month 3.0
> Once/year but < once/month 2.0
Once/year 1.0
No longer used during the past 30 years 0.5
Part used index (PUI) Whole aerial parts 3.0
Leaves with a few stems, whole aerial parts of very young plants 2.0
Root/root stocks, bulbs, leaves, fruits 1.5
Shoots 1.25
Bark, younger part of roots, stems, leaf stalks, young whorls of leaves, seeds 1.0
Younger part of shoots, buds, flowers, receptacles 0.75
Multifunctional food use index (MFFI) Chutney, dosa, gravy, sauce, salad 1.5
Jam, porridge, pickles, fried, syrups 1.0
Soup, milk preparation 0.75
Raw 0.5
Taste Score Appreciation Index (TSAI) Best 10.0
Very good 9.0
Good 7.5
Fair 6.5
Poor 5.5
Terrible 4.0
Food Medicinal Role Index (FMRI) IAR of the taxa > mean + SD 5.0
IAR of the taxa < mean + SD but IAR > mean − SD 4.0
IAR < mean − SD 3.0

CFSI = QI) ×  AI) ×  FUI) ×  PUI) ×  MFFI) ×  TSAI) ×  FMRI ×  10− 2

where Quotation index (QI) indicated the number of UR for a taxon. Availability index (AI) was obtained by subtracting scores of localization of the use from the scores of availability. Frequency of use index (FUI), part used index (PUI), multifunctional food use index (MFFI), Taste Score Appreciation Index (TSAI), and Food Medicinal Role Index (FMRI) were calculated as given in Table 1. In the case of FMRI, the taxa with IAR greater than mean plus standard deviation of the IAR of all taxa were given the highest score. The taxa with IAR value lower than mean plus standard deviation of the IAR were given the lowest score. Other taxa were given average FMRI score. For animal taxa, PUI was omitted from calculation.

Results

Demographic profile of the informants

Analysis of the informants’ demography indicated that the non-institutionally trained siddha tradition is a male dominant domain and a major portion of these practitioners had completed secondary or higher secondary schooling. Considerable portion (36.58%) of the practitioners had migrated to the study area from other districts. It also showed that major portion (71.94%) of practitioners was practicing in urban and semi-urban areas (Table 2).

Table 2.

Demographic profile of the informants interviewed in the survey (N = 82)

Number Percent
Age
 35–40 7 8.53
 41–50 44 53.65
 51–60 26 31.70
 Above 60 5 6.09
Gender
 Male 80 97.56
 Female 2 2.43
Education
 Primary school 5 6.09
 Secondary school 20 24.39
 Higher secondary 41 50.00
 Degree 16 19.51
Mode of learning
 From family members 13 15.85
 From traditional practitioners 69 62.19
Experience
 5 years 1 1.21
 6–20 years 62 75.60
 21–50 years 19 23.17
Nativity to the district
 Native 52 63.41
 Migrated 30 36.58
Residence
 Urban 35 42.68
 Semi-urban 24 29.26
 Rural 23 28.04
Occupation
 Full time practitioners 82 100

Descriptive statistics of the medicinal foods

This study documented 165 medicinal foods used by the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district to treat various illnesses. Among them 73.93% were plant based, and 26.07% foods used animal taxa as the major key ingredients. To prepare these foods, 104 (72.72%) plant taxa and 39 (27.27%) animal taxa were used and major portion of the animals was represented by fish taxa. Sampling sufficiency analysis showed a clear asymptote of the curve which indicated the sufficiency of the sampling (Fig. 2). Analysis of the data yielded 588 UR and 381 claims. Plant-based formulations gained high number of UR (77.68%) and claims (76.64%). The plant and animal taxa cited by the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners are given in Tables 3 and 4. The medicinal foods prescribed by the informants are given in Additional file 1: Table S1. The photographs of some animal taxa referred by the informants for the preparation of medicinal foods are given in Fig. 3.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Assessing sampling sufficiency for the plant and animal species cited to prepare medicinal foods by the non-institutionally trained Siddha practitioners in Tiruvallur district using Species Accumulation Curve

Table 3.

List of plant taxa cited by the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu for preparing medicinal foods

S.No Binomial name, Voucher number & Family Vernacular name Parts used Humoral propertya Reported pharmacological action in Siddhaa Illnesses treated Illnesses categories IAR
1. Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench
SE201
(Malvaceae)
Veṇṭaikkāy Tender fruits Cold Refrigerant, Aphrodisiac, Demulcent, Diuretic, Emollient, To treat diarrhea and dysentary Diabetes (2), Coolant (1), Oligospermia (1) Dia. (2), Coo. (1), Mal. (1) 0.333
2. Abutilon indicum (Link) Sweet
SE193
(Malvaceae)
Tutti Leaves Cold Demulcent, Tonic, Laxative, Diuretic, Sedative, To treat hemorrhoids, boils, gangrene and warts Hemorrhoids (3) Hem. (3) 1.000
3. Acalypha indica L.
SE188
(Euphorbiaceae)
Kuppaimēṉi Leaves Hot Anodyne, Anthelmintic, Cathartic, Diuretic, Emetic, Expectorant, Emmenagogue, To treat toothache, burns, organic poisons, stomachache, hemorrhoids, joint pain and bronchitis Bronchitis (1), Hemorrhoids (2), Intestinal worms (1) Hem. (2), Kap. (1), Gas. (1) 0.333
4. Allium cepa L.
SE170
(Amaryllidaceae)
Veṅkāyam Bulbs Hot Stimulant, Diuretic, Expectorant, Emmenagogue, Rubefacient, Demulcent, Aphrodisiac, To treat hemorrhoids, eczema, hypertension, mouth ulcers, polydipsia and diarrhea Hemorroids (1), Bleeding through rectum (3), Oligospermia (2), Burning sensation (1) Hem. (4), Mal. (2), Coo. (1) 0.666
5. Allium sativum L.
SE107
(Amaryllidaceae)
Veḷḷaippūṇṭu Bulbs Hot Carminative, Stomahic, Tonic, Alterative, Stimulant, Expectorant, Diuretic, Anthelmintic, To treat boils, cough, wheezing, intestinal worms and hemorrhoids Indigestion (1), Dysmenorrhea (1), Diabetes (1), Heart ailments (1), Flatulance (1) Gas. (2), Gyn. (1), Dia. (1), Hea. (1) 0.250
6. Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.
SE108
(Asphodelaceae)
Kaṟṟāḻai Leaves Cold Tonic, Alterative, Purgative, Emmenagogue, To treat dermatological ailments, leprosy, hemorrhoids, anal fistula, urolithiasis Obesity (1), Urolithiasis (1), Liver ailments (1), Dysmenorrhea (2), Metrorrhagia (1), Uteral ailments (1), Gastrointestinal ailments (1) Gyn. (4), Obe. (1), Uri. (1), Liv. (1), Gas. (1) 0.428
7. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC.
SE159
(Amaranthaceae)
Poṉṉāṅkaṇṇi Leaves Cold Alterative, Coolant, Good for eyes Menstrual migraine (1), To increase memory and vision (1) Gyn. (1), Psy. (1), Eye. (1) 0.000
8. Amaranthus viridis L.
SE117
(Amaranthaceae)
Araikkīrai Leaves Hot Stimulant, Aphrodisiac Male infertility (1), Anemia (1), General weakness (2) Wea. (2), Mal. (1), Blo. (1) 0.333
9. Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson
SE113
(Araceae)
Karuṇaikkiḻaṅku Rhizomes Cold Alterative, Nutritive, Tonic, To treat pulmonary ailments, Hemorrhoids and anorexia Hemorrhoids (3), Hypertension (1) Hem. (3), Hpt. (1) 0.666
10. Anacardium occidentale L.
SE127
(Anacardiaceae)
Muntiri Seeds Cold Tonic, Aphrodisiac General weakness (2), Fatigue (1) Wea. (2), Fat. (1) 0.500
11. Annona squamosa L.
SE183
(Annonaceae)
Cītāppaḻam Fruits Cold Coolant Coolant (1), Gastric ulcers (1) Coo. (1), Gas. (1) 0.000
12. Arachis hypogaea L.
SE126
(Fabaceae)
Vērkkaṭalai Seeds Hot Nutrient, laxative, Emollient General weakness (2), Fatigue (1) Wea. (2), Fat. (1) 0.500
13. Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn.
SE200
(Cucurbitaceae)
Veṇpūcaṇi Tender fruits Cold Diuretic, Styptic, Tonic, Alterative, Nutrient, To treat dysuria, fever, dermatological ailments, leucorrhea, psychological ailments Dysuria (1), To gain weight (1) Uri. (1), Wea. (1) 0.000
14. Beta vulgaris L.
SE150
(Amaranthaceae)
Pīṭrūṭ Rhizomes -- -- Anemia (2), Male infertility (1), Hypotension (1) Blo. (2), Mal. (1), Hpo. (1) 0.333
15. Boerhavia diffusa L.
SE194
(Nyctaginaceae)
Mūkkiraṭṭai Leaves Hot Expectorant, Diuretic, Laxative, Coolant, Anthelmintic, Emetic Dysuria (3) Uri. (3) 1.000
16. Borassus flabellifer L.
SE168
(Arecaceae)
Paṉai Inflorescence Cold Coolant, Diuretic Burning sensation (3), Jaundice (1) Coo. (3), Jau. (1) 0.666
17. Brassica oleracea var.
gongylodes L.
SE199
Brassicaceae
Nūkkal Stems -- -- Diabetes (2) Dia. (2) 1.000
18. Cardiospermum halicacabum L.
SE109
(Sapindaceae)
Muṭakkottāṉ Leaves Hot Diuretic, Laxative, Stomachic, Rubefacient, Antirheumatic, Nutritive, To treat musculo-skeletal and dermatological ailments Rhinitis (1), Cough (1), Somatalgia (3) Ana. (3), Kap. (2) 0.750
19. Carica papaya L.
SE182
(Caricaceae)
Pappāḷi Fruits Hot Laxative, Tonic, Diuretic, Lactogogue Constipation (1), Lactogogue (1), Joint pain (1) Gas. (1), Gyn. (1), Vad. (1) 0.000
20. Cassia fistula L.
SE197
(Fabaceae)
Carakkoṉṟai Flowers Hot Vermifuge, To treat leucorrhea, anemia, jaundice, dermatological infections and diabetes Diabetes (1) Dia. (1) 0.000
21. Centella asiatica (L.) Urban
SE157
(Apiaceae)
Vallārai Leaves Cold Alterative, Tonic, Diuretic, Stimulant, Emmenagogue, To treat fever, elephantiasis, scrotal swelling, Swollen lymph nodes, eczema, wounds and swellings To strengthen memory (2), Hypothyroidism (1) Psy. (2), Thy. (1) 0.500
22. Cicer arietinum L.
SE129
(Fabaceae)
Koṇṭaikkaṭalai Seeds Cold Antibilious, Diuretic, Aphrodisiac General weakness (2), Fatigue (1), Menstrual cramps (1) Wea. (2), Fat. (1), Gyn. (1) 0.333
23. Cichorium intybus L.
SE176
(Asteraceae)
Kāciṉikkīrai Leaves -- -- Male infertility (1) Mal. (1) 0.000
24. Cissus quadrangularis L.
SE137
(Vitaceae)
Piraṇṭai Stem Hot Alterative, Emmenagogue, Stomachic, To treat hemorrhoids, anorexia, ulcers, diarrhea and fatigue Obesity (1), Gastric ulcers (1), Bone fractures (1), Hemorrhoids (3) Hem. (3), Obe. (1), Gas. (1), Bon. (1) 0.400
25. Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai
SE178
(Cucurbitaceae)
Tarpūcaṇi Fruits Cold Coolant, Diuretic Hyperacidity (2), Dysuria (1) Gas. (2), Uri. (1) 0.500
26. Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck
SE167
(Rutaceae)
Elumiccai Fruits Hot Carminative, Rubefacient, To treat fainting, nausea, polydipsia, psychological ailments, eye ailments Indigestion (3), Constipation (1), Heart ailments (1), Acne (1), Diabetes (1), Arthritis (2), To increase vision (1), Hypothyroidism (1) Gas. (4), Vad. (2), Hea. (1), Der. (1), Dia. (1), Eye. (1), Thy. (1) 0.400
27. Citrus medica L.
SE184
(Rutaceae)
Nārattai Fruits Cold Aromatic, Stomachic, Astringent, Sedative, Digestive, Good to treat hypertension Hyperacidity (1), Heart ailments (2), Gastric ulcers (2), Hypertension (2), Anorexia (2), Dermatological ailments (1) Gas. (5), Hea. (2), Hpt. (2), Der. (1) 0.666
28. Citrus reticulata Blanco
SE185
(Rutaceae)
Ārañcu Fruits -- -- Heart ailments (1) Hea. (1) 0.000
29. Cleome gynandra L.
SE190
(Cleomaceae)
Nalla vēḷai Leaves Hot Rubefacient, Anthelmintic, Antispasmodic, Carminative, Diaphoretic Joint pain (1), Rhinitis (2), Fever (1), Heart ailments (1) Kap. (2), Fev. (1), Vad. (1), Hea. (1) 0.250
30. Coccinia grandis
(L.) Voigt
SE147
(Cucurbitaceae)
Kōvaikkāy Tender fruits Cold Expectorant, Antispasmodic, Febrifuge, To treat anorexia, fever, bronchitis and eczema Gastric ulcers (3), Mouth ulcers (2), Oliguria (1), Diabetes (5), Burning sensation (2), Bronchitis (1) Gas. (5), Dia. (5), Coo. (2), Uri. (1), Kap. (1) 0.692
31. Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels
SE139
(Menispermaceae)
Kaṭṭukkoṭi Leaves Hot Alterative, Laxative, Demulcent, Coolant, To treat diarrhea, metrorrhagia, dysuria and gastric ulcers Oligospermia (1), Coolant (1) Mal. (1), Coo. (1) 0.000
32. Cocos nucifera L.
SE154
(Arecaceae)
Tēṅkāy Endosperm Cold Coolant, Aperient, Nutrient, Diuretic, To treat mouth ulcers Male infertility (1), Hypotension (1), Gastric ulcers (1), Mouth ulcers (1) Gas. (2), Mal. (1), Hpo. (1) 0.333
33. Cucumis sativus L.
SE174
(Cucurbitaceae)
Veḷḷarikkāy Tender fruits Cold Diuretic, Nutrient, Demulcent, Coolant Hyperacidity (2) Gas. (2) 0.000
34. Cuminum cyminum L.
SE134
(Apiaceae)
Cīrakam Seeds Cold Carminative, Stimulant, Stomachic, Astringent, To treat hypertension, liver ailments, urolithiasis, dysentery, wheezing, rhinitis, insomnia Somatalgia (1), Anemia (1), Anorexia (1), Coolant (2), Hypertension (1), Gastric ulcers (2) Gas. (3), Coo. (2), Ana. (1), Blo. (1), Hpt. (1) 0.428
35. Daucus carota L.
SE153
(Apiaceae)
Kāraṭ Rhizome -- -- Male infertility (1), Hypotension (1), Bloating (1), Nausea (1) Gas. (2), Mal. (1), Hpo. (1) 0.333
36. Digera muricata (L.) Mart.
SE192
(Amaranthaceae)
Toyyakkīrai Leaves Cold Coolant Diarrhea (1), Dysentery (1) Gas. (2) 1.000
37. Echinochloa frumentacea Link
SE123
(Poaceae)
Kutiraivāli Seeds -- -- General weakness (2), Fatigue (1) Wea. (2), Fat. (1) 0.500
38. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.
SE177
(Asteraceae)
Karicalāṅkaṇṇi Leaves Hot Cholagogue, Tonic, Alterative, Emetic, Laxative, Deobstruent, Hepatoprotective, To treat throat ailments, jaundice, leprosy, ascites, anemia and toothache To increase memory (1) and vision (1), Liver ailments (2), Anemia (2) Liv. (2), Blo. (2), Psy. (1), Eye. (1) 0.400
39. Eleusine coracana Gaertn.
SE118
(Poaceae)
Kēḻvaraku Seeds Cold Nutrient, Astringent, To treat diabetes General weakness (2), Fatigue (1), Diabetes (1), To strengthen memory (1), Anemia (2) Wea. (2), Blo. (2), Fat. (1), Dia. (1), Psy. (1) 0.333
40. Erythrina variegata L.
SE138
(Fabaceae)
Kalyāṇamuruṅkai Leaves Hot Diuretic, Laxative, Emmenagogue, Lactogogue Bronchitis (1) Kap. (1) 0.000
41. Ferula assa-foetida L.
SE136
(Apiaceae)
Peruṅkāyam Resin Hot Stimulant, Carminative, Antispasmodic, Expectorant, Laxative, Anthelmintic, Diuretic, Aphrodisiac, Emmenagogue Somatalgia (1) Ana. (1) 0.000
42. Ficus benghalensis L.
SE142
(Moraceae)
Āl Fruits Cold Astringent, Tonic, Aphrodisiac Oligospermia (1) Mal. (1) 0.000
43. Ficus racemosa L.
SE140
(Moraceae)
Atti Fruits Cold Astringent, Laxative, Good to treat diarrhea, hemorrhoids and anemia Oligospermia (1), Anemia (2), Male infertility (1), Constipation (1), Wheezing (1), Gastric ulcers (1), Hemorrhoids (1) Mal. (2), Blo. (2), Gas. (2), Hem. (1), Kap. (1) 0.428
44. Ficus religiosa L.
SE141
(Moraceae)
Aracu Fruits Cold Laxative, Coolant Oligospermia (1) Mal. (1) 0.000
45. Foeniculum vulgare Mill.
SE114
(Apiaceae)
Peruñcīrakam Seeds Hot Carminative, Stomachic, To treat uteral ailments, fever, indigestion, bloating, cough, liver ailments, wheezing, rhinitis Heart ailments (1) Hea. (1) 0.000
46. Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Roxb.
SE101
(Clusiaceae)
Koṭampuḷi Fruits Hot Carminative, Digestive Obesity (1) Obe. (1) 0.000
47. Gossypium spp.
SE169
(Malvaceae)
Parutti Seeds Hot Laxative, Expectorant, Aphrodisiac General weakness (1), Somatalgia (1) Wea. (1), Ana. (1) 0.000
48. Hibiscus cannabinus L.
SE202
(Malvaceae)
Puḷiccakīrai Leaves Hot Emollient, Laxative, To treat anorexia and hypertension Anorexia (1) Gas. (1) 0.000
49. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.
SE102
(Malvaceae)
Cemparattai Flowers Cold Laxative, Aphrodisiac, Emmenagogue, Emollient, Demulcent, Coolant, To treat leucorrhea, metrorrhagia and hypertension Male infertility (1), Heart ailments (2) Hea. (2), Mal. (1) 0.500
50. Hybanthus enneaspermus (G.Don) R.Br. ex Arn.
SE162
(Violaceae)
Oritaḻtāmarai Flowers Cold Nutritive, Aphrodisiac Oligospermia (1), Hypothyroidism (1) Mal. (1), Hpo. (1) 0.000
51. Ipomoea aquatica Forssk.
SE191
(convolvulaceae)
Vaḷḷaikkīrai Leaves Cold Coolant, Lactogogue, Aphrodisiac, Antidiabetic Mouth ulcers (1), Gastric ulcers (2), Oligospermia (2) Gas. (3), Mal. (2) 0.750
52. Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl.
SE104
(Cucurbitaceae)
Curaikkāy Tender fruits Cold Coolant, Diuretic, Nutritive, Antibilious Obesity (1), Coolant (1), To strengthen memory (1), Swelling of the limbs (1), Dysuria (2) Uri. (3), Obe. (1), Coo. (1), Psy. (1) 0.500
53. Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link
SE112
(Lamiaceae)
Tumpai Leaves Hot Laxative, Expectorant, Stimulant, Emmenagogue, To treat headache, throat ailments, polydipsia, cough, bronchitis, sinusitis, leucorrhea, fatigue, somatalgia Rhinitis (1), Cough (1), Somatalgia (1) Kap. (2), Ana. (1) 0.500
54. Limonia acidissima Groff
SE148
(Rutaceae)
Viḷā Fruit bulbs Cold Aromatic, Coolant, To treat anorexia, bloating, polydipsia, cough and bronchitis Diabetes (3), Polydipsia (1), Hypertension (1) Dia. (4), Hpt. (1) 0.750
55. Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc.
SE100
(Fabaceae)
Koḷḷu Seeds Hot Astringent, Diuretic, Tonic Obesity (1) Obe. (1) 0.000
56. Mangifera indica L.
SE181
(Anacardiaceae)
Fruits Hot Laxative, Diuretic, Tonic, Aphrodisiac Male infertility (2), Heart ailments (4), Anorexia (3), To increase vision (1) Hea. (4), Mal. (2), Gas. (3), Eye. (1) 0.666
57. Marsilea quadrifolia L.
SE195
(Marsileaceae)
Āraikkīrai Leaves Cold Coolant, Polyuria Polyuria (2), Ulcers in urinary tract (2) Dia. (2), Uri. (2) 0.666
58. Melochia corchorifolia L.
SE189
(Malvaceae)
Puṇṇākkukkīrai Leaves Cold Diuretic, Laxative Pain during menopause (1) Gyn. (1) 0.000
59. Mentha arvensis L.
SE171
(Lamiaceae)
Putiṉā Leaves Hot Stomachic, Diuretic, Stimulant, Carminative, Antispasmodic Anemia (1), Anorexia (1) Blo. (1), Ana. (1) 0.000
60. Momordica charantia L.
SE149
(Cucurbitaceae)
Pākaṟkāy Tender fruits Hot Tonic, Stomachic, Stimulant, Antibilious, Laxative, Alterative, Anthelmintic Diabetes (1), Bloating (1), Intestinal worms (1) Gas. (2), Dia. (1) 0.500
61. Moringa oleifera Lam.
SE111
(Moringaceae)
Muruṅkai Leaves Cold Antispasmodic, Stimulant, Expectorant, Diuretic, To treat anorexia, headache, fainting and eye ailments Rhinitis (1), Cough (1), Somatalgia (2), Anemia (5), General weakness (1), To increase vision (1), Hypertension (2), Diabetes (1), Obesity (1), Anorexia (1), Menstrual migraine (2) Blo. (5), Ana. (2), Hpt. (2), Gyn. (2), Kap. (2), Wea. (1), Eye. (1), Dia. (1), Obe. (1), Gas. (1) 0.470
62. Mukia maderaspatana (L.)
M.Roem.
SE160
(Cucurbitaceae)
Mucumucukkai Leaves Hot Expectorant, To treat cough, bronchitis, wheezing, rhinitis Asthma (2), Bronchitis (2), Cough (1) Kap. (5) 1.000
63. Murraya koenigii (L.) Sprengel
SE106
(Rutaceae)
Kaṟivēppilai Leaves Hot Tonic, Stomachic, Diarrhea, Nausea, Fever, Psychological ailments Indigestion (2), Dysmenorrhea (1), Diabetes (1), Anemia (1), Obesity (1), Anorexia (1), Bloating (1) Gas. (4), Gyn. (1), Dia. (1), Blo. (1), Obe. (1) 0.428
64. Musa paradisiaca L.
SE145
(Musaceae)
Vāḻai Tender fruits, Flowers Hot Demulcent, Laxative, Nutritive, To treat hemorrhoids Menstrual cramps (3), Gastric ulcers (3), Mouth ulcers (1), Hyperacidity (1), Hemorrhoids (2), Bleeding through rectum (1) Gas. (5), Hem. (3), Gyn. (3) 0.800
65. Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.
SE105
(Nelumbonaceae)
Tāmarai Flowers Cold Coolant, Astringent, Expectorant, Sedative, To treat fever, polydipsia and liver ailments Heart ailments (1) Hea. (1) 0.000
66. Nigella sativa L.
SE135
(Ranunculaceae)
Karuñcīrakam Seeds Hot Carminative, Diuretic, Emmenagogue, Lactogogue, Anthelmintic, Stomachic, Antibiotic, Emmollient, To treat eczema, headache, cough, vomiting, nausea and jaundice Somatalgia (1), Amenorrhea (1) Ana. (1), Gyn. (1) 0.000
67. Oldenlandia umbellata L.
SE161
(Rubiaceae)
Impūral Leaves Cold Expectorant, Styptic, Cholagogue, Good to treat internal bleeding Productive cough (1), Bronchitis (1), Sinusitis (1) Kap. (3) 1.000
68. Oryza sativa L.
SE130
(Poaceae)
Arici Seeds Cold Nutrient, Demulcent, Coolant General weakness (2), Fatigue (1), Diabetes (1), Anemia (1) Wea. (2), Fat. (1), Dia. (1), Blo. (1) 0.250
69. Oxalis corniculata L.
SE203
(Oxalidaceae)
Puḷiyārai Leaves Cold Stomachic, Coolant, Astringent, To treat fainting, diarrhea, bleeding through anus and hemorrhoids Hypertension (2), Insomnia (1) Hpt. (2), Psy. (1) 0.500
70. Panicum sumatrense Roth ex Roem. & Schult.
SE121
(Poaceae)
Cāmai Seeds Cold Demulcent, Tonic, To treat polydipsia, fever and musculo-skeletal disorders General weakness (2), Fatigue (1) Wea. (2), Fat. (1) 0.500
71. Paspalum scrobiculatum L.
SE120
(Poaceae)
Varaku Seeds Cold Chologogue General weakness (2), Fatigue (1) Wea. (2), Fat. (1) 0.500
72. Pennisetum glaucum (L.)R.Br.
SE119
(Poaceae)
Kampu Seeds Cold Tonic General weakness (2), Fatigue (1), Anemia (1) Wea. (2), Fat. (1), Blo. (1) 0.333
73. Phoenix dactylifera L.
SE156
(Arecaceae)
Pērīṭcai Fruits Hot Tonic, Nutritive, Demulcent, Laxative, Diuretic, Febrifuge, Coolant, Expectorant, Aphrodisiac, Good to treat polydipsia, anorexia and diabetes Male infertility (1), Hypotension (1), General weakness (1) Mal. (1), Hpo. (1), Wea. (1) 0.000
74. Phyllanthus emblica L.
SE152
(Phyllanthaceae)
Nellikkāy Fruits Cold Astringent, Coolant, Diuretic, Laxative, To treat bronchitis, sinusitis, nausea, vomiting, giddiness and hypertension Heart ailments (2), Anemia (2), Constipation (1), Wheezing (1), Burning sensation (1), Diabetes (1), Anorexia (2), Rheumatalgia (1), To increase vision (2), Hypothyroidism (1) Gas. (3), Hea. (2), Blo. (2), Eye. (2), Kap. (1), Coo. (1), Dia. (1), Vad. (1), Hpo. (1) 0.384
75. Piper longum L.
SE133
(Piperaceae)
Tippili Seeds Hot Stimulant, Carminative, To treat cough, gastric ulcers, wheezing, anemia, fainting, anorexia, bloating, headache, sinusitis, throat ailments and oligospermia Somatalgia (1) Ana. (1) 0.000
76. Piper nigrum L.
SE132
(Piperaceae)
Miḷaku Seeds Hot Acrid, Carminative, Febrifuge, Rubefacient, Stimulant, Resolvent, Antidote Somatalgia (1), Anemia (1), Anorexia (1) Ana. (1), Blo. (1), Gas. (1) 0.000
77. Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng.
SE143
(Lamiaceae)
Ōmavalli Leaves Hot Stimulant, Diaphoretic, Expectorant Rhinitis (1), Bronchitis (1) Kap. (2) 1.000
78. Portulaca quadrifida L.
SE173
(Portulacaceae)
Ciṟu pacalai Leaves Cold Diuretic, Stomachic, Aphrodisiac, Antibilious Dysuria (2), Gastric ulcers (2), Hypertension (1), Anemia (1) Uri. (2), Gas. (2), Hpt. (1), Blo. (1) 0.400
79. Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D. A. Webb
SE128
(Rosaceae)
Vātumai Seeds Cold Demulcent, Emollient, Nutrient General weakness (2), Fatigue (1) Wea. (2), Fat. (1) 0.500
80. Psidium guajava L.
SE179
(Myrtaceae)
Koyyā Fruits Hot Tonic, Astringent Hyperacidity (1), Constipation (2), Diabetes (1) Gas. (3), Dia. (1) 0.666
81. Punica granatum L.
SE166
(Lythraceae)
Mātuḷai Fruits Cold Astringent, Coolant Bromhirdosis (1), Hyperacidity (1), Constipation (1), Gastric ulcers (1), Anorexia (2), Wheezing (1), Rheumatalgia (1), To increase vision (1), Hypothyroidism (1) Gas. (5), Der. (1), Kap. (1), Vad. (1), Eye. (1), Thy. (1) 0.444
82. Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb.
SE103
(Fabaceae)
Āvārai Flowers Cold Astringent, Tonic, Good to treat Diabetes Male infertility (1), Lumbago (1), Diabetes (2), Burning sensation (1) Mal. (1), Vad. (1), Dia. (2), Coo. (1) 0.000
83. Sesamum indicum L.
SE116
Pedaliaceae
Eḷ Seeds Hot Emmenagogue, Stimulant, Tonic, Diuretic, Lactogogue, Laxative Male infertility (1), Diabetes (1), Amenorrhea (1) Mal. (1), Dia. (1), Gyn. (1) 0.000
84. Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poiret
SE165
(Fabaceae)
Akatti Leaves Cold Antidote, Coolant, Laxative, Vermifuge Obesity (1), Gastric ulcers (3), Hemorrhoids (1), Burning sensation (1), Dysuria (1), Hypertension (1) Gas. (3), Obe. (1), Hem. (1), Coo. (1), Uri. (1), Hpt. (1) 0.285
85. Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauvois
SE122
(Poaceae)
Tiṉai Seeds Hot Nutrient, Diuretic, Astringent, Appitizer General weakness (2), Fatigue (1) Wea. (2), Fat. (1) 0.500
86. Solanum americanum Mill.
SE158
(Solanaceae)
Maṇattakkāḷi Leaves Cold Alterative, Diuretic, Diaphoretic, Expectorant, To treat mouth ulcers and bronchitis Menstrual migraine (1), Strength bones (1) and nerves (1), Bronchitis (1), Somatalgia (2), Heart ailments (1), Wheezing (1), Gastric ulcers (2), Mouth ulcers (2), Fever (1), Fatigue (1), Convulsions (1), Headache (1), Liver diseases (1), Jaundice (1), Mumps (1), Cough (1), Dermatological ailments (1), Hypertension (1), Constipation (1) Gas. (5), Kap. (3), Der. (2), Neu. (2), Ana. (2), Gyn. (1), Bon. (1), Hea. (1), Fev. (1), Fat. (1), Hed. (1), Liv. (1), Jau. (1), Hpt. (1) 0.409
87. Solanum lycopersicum L.
SE180
(Solanaceae)
Takkāḷi Fruits Cold Tonic, Coolant, To treat anemia Constipation (1), Heart ailments (1), Diabetes (1), Anorexia (1), Rheumatalgia (1), To increase vision (1) Gas. (2), Hea. (1), Dia. (1), Vad. (1), Eye. (1) 0.200
88. Solanum torvum Sw.
SE146
(Solanaceae)
Cuṇṭaikkāy Dried fruits Hot Expectorant, Germicide, Stomachic, To treat bloating, bronchitis, anorexia, intestinal worms and indigestion Hypotension (1), Heart ailments (1), Bronchitis (1), Anemia (1), Wheezing (1), Diarrhea (1), Diabetes (1) Kap. (2), Hpo. (1), Hea. (1), Blo. (1), Gas. (1), Dia. (1) 0.166
89. Solanum trilobatum L.
SE110
(Solanaceae)
Tūtuvaḷai Leaves Hot Stimulant, Expectorant, Tonic, Aphrodisiac, To treat bronchitis, cough and rhinitis Rhinitis (1), Cough (1), Somatalgia (1), To increase memory (1), Male infertility (2), Oligospermia (1) Mal. (3), Kap. (2), Ana. (1), Psy. (1) 0.500
90. Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench
SE124
(Poaceae)
Veḷḷaiccōḷam Seeds Cold Nutrient, Laxative General weakness (2), Fatigue (1) Wea. (2), Fat. (1) 0.500
91. Spinacia oleracea L.
SE175
Amaranthaceae
Pālakkīrai Leaves -- -- Hypertension (1) Hpt. (1) 0.000
92. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
SE151
(Myrtaceae)
Nāval Fruits Cold Stomachic, Diuretic, Tonic, Astringent, coolant, To treat polyuria, polydipsia and dysuria Diabetes (2) Dia. (2) 1.000
93. Tamarindus indica L.
SE198
(Fabaceae)
Puḷi Fruits Hot Laxative, To treat vomiting and hypertension Anorexia (1), Nausea (1) Gas. (2) 1.000
94. Trachyspermum ammi Sprague.
SE115
(Apiaceae)
Ōmam Seeds Hot Stomachic, Antispasmodic, Carminative, Antiseptic, Stimulant, Tonic, Sialogogue, to treat Cough, Diarrhea, Wheezing and Toothache Heart ailments (1), Somatalgia (1) Hea. (1), Ana. (1) 0.000
95. Trianthema portulacastrum L.
SE187
(Aizoaceae)
Cāraṇai Leaves Hot Laxative, Diuretic, To treat jaundice, swelling, anemia and bronchitis Heart ailments (1) Hea. (1) 0.000
96. Tribulus terrestris L.
SE196
(Zygophyllaceae)
Ciṟu neruñcil Leaves Cold Coolant, Diuretic, Demulcent, Tonic, Aphrodisiac, Astringent, To treat dysuria, fever, urolithiasis, enlargement of prostate, leucorrhea and polydipsia Dysuria (2), Oligospermia (2), Burning sensation (1) Uri. (2), Mal. (2), Coo. (1) 0.500
97. Trichosanthes cucumerina L.
SE172
(Cucurbitaceae)
Puṭal Tender fruits Cold Coolant, Aphrodisiac Oliguria (1) Uri. (1) 0.000
98. Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
SE163
(Fabaceae)
Ventayam Seeds Cold Coolant, Laxative, Diuretic, Demulcent, Astringent, Emollient, Aphrodisiac, Carminative, Tonic, To treat diarrhea, burning sensation, hypertension, fever, polydipsia and cough Diabetes (1), Burning sensation (1), Anemia (2) Blo. (2), Dia. (1), Coo. (1) 0.333
99. Triticum aestivum L.
SE164
(Poaceae)
Kōtumai Seeds Cold Nutritive, Demulcent, Aphrodisiac, Antirheumatic Diabetes (1) Dia. (1) 0.000
100. Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper
SE144
(Fabaceae)
Uḷuntu Seeds Cold Demulcent, Coolant, Aphrodisiac, Lactogogue, Nervine tonic, Nutritive, Good to strengthen pelvic bones General weakness (3), Burning sensation (1), Cervicalgia (1), Lumbago (1), Ovulation problems (1), As supplement after puberty (1), Diabetes (1), Anemia (1) Wea. (3), Vad. (2), Gyn. (2), Coo. (1), Dia. (1), Blo. (1) 0.444
101. Vitis vinifera L.
SE155
(Vitaceae)
Tirāṭcai Fruits Cold Laxative, Coolant, Diuretic, Nutritive, to treat anemia, bleeding and heart ailments Male infertility (1), Hypotension (1), Anemia (2), Anorexia (2), Constipation (1), Wheezing (1), Rheumatalgia (1) Gas. (3), Blo. (2), Mal. (1), Hpo. (1), Kap. (1), Vad. (1) 0.375
102. Zea mays L.
SE125
(Poaceae)
Makkāccōḷam Seeds Cold Tonic, Aphrodisiac General weakness (2), Fatigue (1) Wea. (2), Fat. (1) 0.500
103. Zingiber officinale Roscoe.
SE131
(Zingiberaceae)
Iñci Rhizomes Hot Carminative, Stomachic, Sialogogue, Digestive, Stimulant, Rubefacient Somatalgia (1), Bloating (1) Ana. (1), Gas. (1) 0.000
104. Ziziphus jujuba Mill.
SE186
(Rhamnaceae)
Ilantai Fruits Cold Astringent, Emollient, Appitizer, Antiemetic Anorexia (3), Nausea (1), Diabetes (1) Gas. (4), Dia. (1) 0.750

a - Data taken from siddha materia medica [41, 42]; Values given with in the parentheses indicate the number of UR for the respective illness/illness category

Table 4.

List of animal taxa cited by the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu for preparing medicinal foods

S.No Binomial name Vernacular name Parts used Humoral propertya Reported pharmacological action in Siddhaa Illnesses treated Illnesses categories IAR
1. Anguilla bengalensis bengalensis (J. E. Gray, 1831) Vilāṅku Meat Cold Aphrodisiac Fatigue (1), Joint pain (1) Fat. (1). Vad. (1) 0.000
2. Bos taurus
Linnaeus, 1758
Pacu Milk Cold To treat fever, internal ulcers, pain, urinary ailments, fatigue and emaciation To increase memory (1), Burning sensation (2), Oliguria (1), Indigestion (1) Psy. (1), Coo. (2), Uri. (1), Gas. (1) 0.500
3. Capra aegagrus hircus
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Veḷḷāṭu Meat Cold Nutritive, Aphrodisiac, To treat fever and tuberculosis Oligospermia (1), Impotence (1), Gastric ulcers (1), Bone fractures (2) Mal. (2), Gas. (1), Bon. (2) 0.500
4. Caranx melampygus Cuvier, 1833 Pāṟai Meat -- -- Anabolic (1), Cough (1), Chest pain (1), Wheezing (1), Coolant (1) Anb. (1), Kap. (2), Hea. (1), Coo. (1) 0.250
5. Channa spp. Virāl Meat -- -- Anabolic (1), Oligospermia (1), Coolant (1) Anb. (1), Mal. (1), Coo. (1) 0.000
6. Chanos chanos (Forsskal, 1775) Pāl keṇṭai Meat Cold -- Lactogogue (1), Fatigue (1), Impotence (1) Gyn. (1), Fat. (1), Mal.(1) 0.000
7. Eleutheronema tetradactylum (Shaw, 1804) Kālā Meat -- -- Impotence (1), Heart diseases (1), Hypertension (1), Urolithiasis (2) Uri. (2), Mal. (1), Hea. (1), Hpt. (1) 0.250
8. Euthynnus affinis (Cantor, 1849) Nīla tuṭuppu cūṟai Meat -- -- Fever (1), Cough (2) Kap. (2), Fev. (1) 0.500
9. Fenneropenaeus indicus (Milne-Edwards, 1837) Veḷḷai iṟāl Meat Hot Anabolic, To treat anemia To improve vision (1), Anabolic (3), Lactogogue (1) Anb. (3), Eye. (1), Gyn. (1) 0.500
10 Gallus gallus domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758) Kōḻi Eggs Cold Antirhematic, Aphrodisiac, To treat ulcers and bronchitis Anemia (2), Bronchitis for children (1) Blo. (2), Kap. (1) 0.500
11. Gerres oyena
(Forsskal, 1775)
Uṭuvāṉ Meat -- -- Somatalgia (1), Bronchitis (1), Lactogogue (1) Anb. (1), Kap. (1), Gyn. (1) 0.000
12. Gibelion catla
(Hamilton, 1822)
Kaṭlā Meat Cold -- Fatigue (2), Somatalgia (1), Impotence (1), Lactogogue (2), To increase vision (1) Fat. (2), Gyn. (2), Ana. (1), Mal. (1), Eye. (1) 0.333
13. Himantura uarnak
(Forsskal, 1775)
Tirukkai Meat Hot Aphrodisiac Somatalgia (1), Wheezing (3) Kap. (3), Ana. (1) 0.666
14. Katelysia opima
(Gmelin, 1791)
Cippi Meat -- -- Bronchitis (1), Impotence (2) Mal. (2), Kap. (1) 0.500
15. Lactarius lactarius
(Bloch & Schneider, 1801)
Cutumpu Meat -- -- Chest pain (1) Hea. (1) 0.000
16. Lates calcarifer
(Bloch, 1790)
Koṭuvā Meat -- -- Rheumatalgia (3), Impotence (1) Vad. (3), Mal. (1) 0.666
17. Lebeo rohita
Hamilton, 1822
Kaṇṇādi kendai Meat -- -- Somatalgia (1), Heart disease (1), Eye disease (1), Obesity (1) Ana. (1), Hea. (1), Eye. (1), Obe. (1) 0.000
18. Monodactylus argenteus (Linnaeus, 1758) Puraṇṭi Meat -- -- Cough (1) Kap. (1) 0.000
19. Mystus sp. Keḷutti Meat Cold Aphrodisiac Bronchitis (1) Kap. (1) 0.000
20. Nemipterus japonicas
(Bloch, 1791)
Caṅkarā Meat -- -- Chest pain (1) Hea. (1) 0.000
21. Oreochromis mossambicus
(Peters, 1852)
Jilēppi Meat -- -- Bronchitis (1), Joint pain (1), Fatigue (1), Lactogogue (1), Chest pain (1) Kap. (1), Vad. (1), Fat. (1), Gyn. (1), Hea. (1) 0.000
22. Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen, 1788) Vavāl Meat -- -- Cough (2), Lactogogue (1) Kap. (2), Gyn. (1) 0.500
23. Parastromateus niger (Bloch, 1795) Karuppu vavāl Meat Hot Aprhrodisiac and lactogogue Wheezing (3), To increase memory (1) Kap. (3), Psy. (1) 0.666
24. Parathelphusa hydrodromus (Bloch, 1795) Cēṟṟu naṇṭu Meat Hot Stimulant, Febrifuge, To treat bronchitis, rheumatism and indigestion Fever (3) Fev. (3) 1.000
25. Parupeneus indicus
(Shaw, 1803)
Nakarai/ mussara Meat -- -- Coolant (1) Coo. (1) 0.000
26. Portunus sanguinolentus
(Herbst, 1783)
Kaṭal naṇṭu Meat Hot -- Bronchitis (3), Fever (2) Kap. (3), Fev. (2) 0.750
27. Rachycentron canadus (Linnaeus, 1766) Ney mīṉ Meat -- -- Good for pregnant women (1), Lactogogue (1) Gyn. (2) 1.000
28. Rastrelliger kanagurta (Cuvier, 1816) Kāṉaṅkattai Meat -- -- Bronchitis (3) Kap. (3) 1.000
29. Sardinella longiceps
Valenciennes, 1847
Peichālai Meat -- -- Anabolic (4), Fatigue (1) Anb. (4), Fat. (1) 0.750
30. Scoliodon laticaudus Muller & Henle, 1838 Piḷḷaiccuṟā Meat Hot Appitizer, lactogogue, To treat rheumatism and bronchitis Lactogogue (7) Gyn. (7) 1.000
31. Scomberomorus guttatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Vañciram Meat -- -- Obesity (1), Fatigue (1), Chest pain (1), Rheumatalgia (1) Obe. (1), Fat. (1), Hea. (1), Vad. (1) 0.000
32. Sphyraena jello Cuvier in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829 Ūḻi Meat -- -- Lactogogue (1), Anabolic (2), Coolant (1) Anb. (2), Gyn. (1), Coo. (1) 0.333
33. Stolephorus indicus (van Hasselt, 1823) Nettili Meat -- -- Cough (1), Wheezing (2), Lactogogue (2) Kap. (3), Gyn. (2) 0.750
34. Stolephorus spp. -- Meat -- -- Oligospermia (2) Mal. (2) 1.000
35. Thryssa malabarica (Bloch, 1795) Poruvā Meat -- -- Arthritis (1) Vad. (1) 0.000
36. Trichiurus lepturus Linnaeus, 1758
Eupleurogrammus muticus (Gray, 1831)
Ōlai vāḷai Meat Hot Appitizer, To treat bronchitis and rheumatism Giddiness (1), Bronchitis (2), Joint pain (1) Kap. (2), Hyp. (1), Vad. (1) 0.333
37. Upeneus sulphureus
Cuvier, 1829
Navarai Meat -- -- Joint pain (2) Vad. (2) 1.000
38. Uroteuthis duvauceli
(d’Orbigny, 1835)
Ūci kaṉavā Meat -- -- Anemia (2), Rheumatalgia (1), Bronchitis (1) Blo. (2), Vad. (1), Kap. (1) 0.333

a - Data taken from siddha materia medica [43, 44]; Values given with in the parentheses indicate the number of UR for the respective illness/illness category

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

Photographs of some animal taxa referred by the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district for the preparation of medicinal foods. (a) Channa sp. (Virāl); (b) Pampus argenteus (Vavāl); (c) Scomberomorus guttatus (Vañciram); (d) Nemipterus japonicas (Caṅkarā); (e) Oreochromis mossambicus (Jilēppi); (f) Lates calcarifer (Koṭuvā); (g) Trichiurus lepturus (Ōlai vāḷai); (h) Caranx melampygus (Pāṟai); (i) Scoliodon laticaudus (Piḷḷaiccuṟā); (j) Parupeneus indicus (Nakarai); (k) Eleutheronema tetradactylum (Kālā); (l) Sardinella longiceps (Peichālai); (m) Himantura uarnak (Tirukkai); (n) Sphyraena jello (Ūḻi); (o) Stolephorus indicus (Nettili); (p) Fenneropenaeus indicus (Veḷḷai iṟāl); (q) Lebeo rohita (Kaṇṇādi kendai); (r) Parastromateus niger (Karuppu vavāl); (s) Mystus sp. (Keḷutti); (t) Uroteuthis duvauceli (Ūci kaṉavā); (u) Lactarius lactarius (Cutumpu); (v) Portunus sanguinolentus (Kaṭal naṇṭu)

Consensus over the use of plant-based medicinal foods

The illness categories viz., gastrointestinal ailments, hemorrhoids, and neural ailments were considered as illness categories with high consensus since they had higher FIC values than mean plus average FIC value. Sixteen illness categories such as kapha ailments, weakness, urinary, and ailments had average FIC values and were considered as illness categories with average consensus. Eight illness categories such as bone fractures, fatigue, fever, headache, hypotension, hypothyroidism, jaundice, and obesity were considered as illness categories with low consensus (Table 5).

Table 5.

FIC values for illness categories treated with plant-based medicinal foods by the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners in Tiruvallur district

Illness categories Abbreviations used N UR % UR N t % T N C N VC F ic
Analgesics Ana. 18 3.94 14 13.46 14 3 0.235
Anabolic Anb.
Blood ailments Blo. 29 6.35 18 17.30 18 8 0.379
Bone fracture Bon. 2 0.43 2 1.92 2 0 0.000
Coolants Coo. 18 3.94 14 13.46 14 3 0.235
Dermatological ailments Der. 5 1.09 4 3.84 4 1 0.250
Diabetes Dia. 35 7.67 24 23.07 24 6 0.323
Eye ailments Eye. 9 1.97 8 7.69 8 1 0.125
Fatigue Fat. 14 3.07 14 13.46 14 0 0.000
Fever Fev. 2 0.43 2 1.92 2 0 0.000
Gastrointestinal ailments Gas. 90 19.73 36 34.61 36 26 0.606
Gynecological ailments Gyn. 20 4.38 13 12.50 13 4 0.368
Headache Hed. 1 0.21 1 0.96 1 0 0.000
Heart ailments Hea. 21 4.60 15 14.42 15 4 0.300
Hemorrhoids Hem. 20 4.38 8 7.69 8 6 0.613
Hypertension Hpt. 13 2.85 10 9.61 10 3 0.250
Hypotension Hpo. 8 1.74 8 7.69 8 0 0.000
Hypothyroidism Thy. 3 0.65 3 2.88 3 0 0.000
Jaundice Jau. 2 0.43 2 1.92 2 0 0.000
Kapha ailments Kap. 32 7.01 17 16.34 17 10 0.483
Liver ailments Liv. 4 0.87 3 2.88 3 1 0.333
Male reproductive ailments Mal. 28 6.14 21 20.19 21 6 0.259
Neural ailments Neu. 2 0.43 1 0.96 1 1 1.000
Obesity Obe. 8 1.74 8 7.69 8 0 0.000
Psychological ailments Psy. 8 1.74 7 6.73 7 1 0.142
Urinary ailments Uri. 18 3.94 11 10.57 11 5 0.411
Vadha ailments Vad. 11 2.41 9 8.65 9 2 0.200
Weakness Wea. 35 7.67 19 6.50 19 15 0.470
Analgesics Ana. 4 3.076 4 10.526 4 1 0.000
Anabolic Anb. 11 8.461 5 13.157 5 2 0.600
Blood ailments Blo. 4 3.076 2 5.263 2 2 0.666
Bone fracture Bon. 2 1.538 1 2.613 1 1 1.000
Coolants Coo. 6 4.615 5 13.157 5 1 0.200
Dermatological ailments Der.
Diabetes Dia.
Eye ailments Eye. 3 2.307 3 7.894 3 0 0.000
Fatigue Fat. 7 5.384 6 15.789 6 1 0.375
Fever Fev. 6 4.615 3 7.894 3 2 0.166
Gastrointestinal ailments Gas. 2 0.769 2 2.613 2 0 0.000
Gynecological ailments Gyn. 19 14.615 10 26.315 10 4 0.500
Headache Hed.
Heart ailments Hea. 7 5.384 7 18.421 7 0 0.000
Hemorrhoids Hem.
Hypertension Hpt. 1 1.538 1 5.263 1 0 0.000
Hypotension Hpo.
Hypothyroidism Thy. 1 1.538 1 5.263 1 0 0.000
Jaundice Jau.
Kapha ailments Kap. 30 23.076 16 44.736 16 9 0.482
Liver ailments Liv.
Male reproductive ailments Mal. 11 6.923 8 21.052 8 3 0.714
Neural ailments Neu.
Obesity Obe. 2 1.538 2 2.613 2 0 0.000
Psychological ailments Psy. 2 1.538 2 2.613 2 0 0.000
Urinary ailments Uri. 3 2.564 2 2.613 2 1 0.500
Vadha ailments Vad. 11 8.461 8 23.684 9 2 0.222
Weakness Wea.

NUR number of use reports, % UR % of use reports, Nt number of taxa, % T % of taxa, Nc number of claims, Nvc number of valid claims, no UR and Fic value was not calculated

Consensus over the use of animal-based medicinal foods

Among the illness categories treated with animal-based medicinal foods, kapha ailments had gained high percentage (23.07%) of UR followed by gynecological ailments (14.61%). Nineteen illness categories were reported to be treated with animal-based medicinal foods. Analysis of the consensus showed that the categories viz., bone fractures, male reproductive ailments, blood ailments, and anabolic had high FIC values and were considered as illness categories with high consensus. Seven illness categories such as gynecological, urinary ailments, kapha ailments, fatigue, vadha ailments, coolants, and fever were grouped as illness categories with average consensus (Table 5).

Illness categories treated with plant-based medicinal foods having high consensus

These two illness categories had high FIC scores among the illness categories treated with plant-based medicinal foods. Gastrointestinal ailment is the majorly cited illness category that represented 19.73% of total UR. In this category, 36 plant taxa were used to prepare the medicinal formulations. Among them, 26 taxa had a minimum of two UR for treating gastrointestinal ailments. The taxa such as fruits of Citrus medica (citron), leaves, unripe fruits of Coccinia grandis (ivy gourd), and flowers of Musa paradisiaca (plantain) had high number of UR.

In the case of hemorrhoids, eight plant taxa were used; among them, six taxa had a minimum of two UR. In this category, Allium cepa (onion), Abutilon indicum, Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (elephant foot yam), and plantain had high number of UR and IAR values. In the case of neural ailments, Solanum americanum had high number of UR and was reported to strengthen the nerves (Table 6).

Table 6.

List of important plant and animal medicinal food taxa cited by the non-institutionally trained Siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district, Tamil Nadu, to treat various ailments

Illness categories Plants Animals
Analgesics Cardiospermum halicacabum (0.750), Moringa oleifera (0.470), Solanum americanum (0.409)
Anabolic Sardinella longiceps (1.000), Fenneropenaeus indicus (0.500), Sphyraena jello (0.333)
Blood ailments Moringa oleifera (0.470), Beta vulgaris (0.333), Eclipta prostrata (0.400), Eleusine coracana (0.333), Ficus racemosa (0.428), Phyllanthus emblica (0.384), Trigonella foenum-graecum (0.333), Vitis vinifera (0.375) Gallus gallus domesticus (0.500), Uroteuthis duvauceli (0.333)
Bone fracture Capra aegagrus hircus (0.333)
Coolants Borassus flabellifer (0.666), Coccinia grandis (0.692), Cuminum cyminum (0.428) Bos taurus (0.500)
Dermatological ailments Solanum americanum (0.409)
Diabetes Coccinia grandis (0.692), Limonia acidissima (0.750), Abelmoschus esculentus (0.333), Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes (1.000), Marsilea quadrifolia (0.666), Syzygium cumini (1.000)
Eye ailments Phyllanthus emblica (0.384)
Fatigue Gibelion catla (0.333)
Fever Parathelphusa hydrodromus (1.000), Portunus sanguinolentus (0.750)
Gastrointestinal ailments Citrus medica (0.666), Coccinia grandis (0.692), Musa paradisiaca (0.800) Punica granatum (0.444), Solanum americanum (0.409), Citrus limon (0.400), Murraya koenigii (0.428), Ziziphus jujuba (0.750), Cuminum cyminum (0.428), Ipomoea aquatica (0.750), Mangifera indica (0.666), Phyllanthus emblica (0.384), Psidium guajava (0.666), Sesbania grandiflora (0.285), Vitis vinifera (0.375), Allium sativum (0.250), Citrullus lanatus (0.500), Cocos nucifera (0.333), Cucumis sativus (1.000), Daucus carota (0.333), Digera muricata (1.000), Ficus racemosa (0.428), Momordica charantia (0.500), Portulaca quadrifida (0.400), Solanum lycopersicum (0.200), Tamarindus indica (1.000)
Gynecological ailments Aloe vera (0.428), Musa paradisiaca (0.800), Moringa oleifera (0.470), Vigna mungo (0.444) Scoliodon laticaudus (1.000), Gibelion catla (0.333), Rachycentron canadus (1.000), Stolephorus indicus (0.750)
Headache
Heart ailments Mangifera indica (0.666), Citrus medica (0.666), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (0.500), Phyllanthus emblica (0.384)
Hemorrhoids Allium cepa (0.666), Abutilon indicum (1.000), Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (0.666), Cissus quadrangularis (0.400), Musa paradisiaca (0.800), Acalypha indica (0.333)
Hypertension Citrus medica (0.666), Moringa oleifera (0.470), Oxalis corniculata (0.500)
Hypotension
Hypothyroidism
Jaundice
Kapha ailments Mukia maderaspatana (1.000), Solanum americanum (0.409), Cardiospermum halicacabum (0.750), Cleome gynandra (0.250), Leucas aspera (0.250), Moringa oleifera (0.470), Plectranthus amboinicus (1.000), Solanum torvum (0.166), Solanum trilobatum (0.500) Himantura uarnak (0.500), Parastromateus niger (0.666), Rastrelliger kanagurta (1.000), Stolephorus indicus (0.750), Euthynnus affinis (0.500), Pampus argenteus (0.500), Trichiurus lepturus Eupleurogrammus muticus (0.333)
Liver ailments Eclipta prostrata (0.400)
Male reproductive ailments Solanum trilobatum (0.500), Allium cepa (0.666), Ficus racemosa (0.428), Ipomoea aquatica (0.750), Mangifera indica (0.666), Tribulus terrestris (0.500) Capra aegagrus hircus (0.500), Katelysia opima (0.500), Stolephorus spp. (1.000)
Neural ailments Solanum americanum (0.409)
Obesity
Psychological ailments Centella asiatica (0.500)
Urinary ailments Boerhavia diffusa (1.000), Lagenaria siceraria (0.500), Marsilea quadrifolia (0.666), Portulaca quadrifida (0.400), Tribulus terrestris (0.500) Eleutheronema tetradactylum (0.250)
Vadha ailments Citrus limon (0.400), Vigna mungo (0.444) Lates calcarifer (1.000), Upeneus sulphureus (1.0)
Weakness Vigna mungo (0.444), Amaranthus viridis (0.333), Anacardium occidentale (0.500), Arachis hypogaea (0.500), Cicer arietinum (0.333), Echinochloa frumentacea (0.500), Eleusine coracana (0.333), Oryza sativa (0.250), Panicum sumatrense (0.500), Paspalum scrobiculatum (0.500), Pennisetum glaucum (0.333), Prunus dulcis (0.500), Setaria italica (0.500), Sorghum bicolor (0.500), Zea mays (0.500)

The values mentioned within the parentheses indicate the IAR values. Taxa are arranged in descending order of UR

Illness categories treated with plant-based medicinal foods having average consensus

Kapha (pulmonary and respiratory) ailments gained 7.01% of total UR and 17 taxa. In this category, Mukia maderaspatana had high IAR score and UR. In the case of general weakness, the flour of Vigna mungo seeds (black gram) had high number of UR. The use of Boerhavia diffusa leaves had high UR to treat urinary ailments. The leaves of Moringa oleifera scored high UR under the category of blood ailments for the treatment of anemia. The gel of Aloe vera had high UR under the category of gynecological ailments and given to treat general ailments of uterus, dysmenorrhea, and metrorrhagia. In this category, the flowers and tender fruits of plantain had a high IAR score.

Cooked leaves of Eclipta prostrata were given to treat the liver ailments, and it had high number of UR in this category. In the case of diabetes, the plants such as stems of Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes (kohlrabi) and the fruits of Syzygium cumini had high IAR score. In this category, the leaves and fruits of ivy gourd had high number of UR. The fruits such as mango and citron had high number of UR and IAR score under the category of heart ailments. In the case of male reproductive ailments, the leaves of Ipomoea aquatica (water spinach) and onion had high IAR score; the use of flowers of Solanum trilobatum had high UR. The use of citron had high UR and IAR for the treatment of hypertension. Other important plants under this group were Solanum americanum (dermatological ailments), Cardiospermum halicacabum (analgesics), Borassus flabellifer (coolants), Citrus limon (vadha ailments), Centella asiatica (psychological ailments), and Phyllanthus emblica (eye ailments) (Table 6).

Illness categories treated with animal-based medicinal foods having high consensus

The hoofs of Capra aegagrus hircus (goat) had been given to treat bone fractures. The use of milk and testes of goat, and the meat of Katelysia opima to treat male reproductive ailments had high UR; and the use of Stolephorus meat had high IAR score. The use of Gallus gallus domesticus eggs (chicken) and Uroteuthis duvauceli (Indian squid) had high UR under the category of blood ailments and were used to treat anemia. Sardinella longiceps (Indian oil sardine) and Fenneropenaeus indicus (Indian prawn) had high UR under the anabolics (Table 6).

Illness categories treated with animal-based medicinal foods having average consensus

In the case of gynecological ailments, Scoliodon laticaudus (spade nose shark) had high UR and IAR value; it was reported to increase lactation. In the case of urinary ailments, Eleutheronema tetradactylum (fourfinger threadfin) had high UR and was reported to treat urolithiasis. In the case of kapha ailments, Himantura uarnak (reticulate whipray) had high number of UR; Rastrelliger kanagurta (Indian mackerel) and Stolephorus indicus (Indian anchovy) had high IAR values. In the case of fever, Parathelphusa hydrodromus and Portunus sanguinolentus (blood spotted swimming crab) had high UR and IAR scores. Other important animals under this category were Gibelion catla (catla) to treat fatigue, Lates calcarifer (barramundi) and Upeneus sulphureus to treat vadha ailments, and the buttermilk of Bos taurus (cow) as coolant (Table 6).

Relationship between the humoral properties and illnesses

In the case of plant-based medicinal foods, the RFC for plants with cold humor was comparatively high (64.08%) compared to the plants with cold humor. In animal-based medications, no such variation was found. The illness categories such as analgesics, hemorrhoids, and kapha ailments had comparatively high RFC for plants with hot humor. In the case of animal-based foods, the categories such as fever, gynecological ailments, and kapha ailments have high RFC for plants with hot humor (Table 7).

Table 7.

Frequency of URs for illness categories treated with plant and animal medicinal food taxa on the basis of humors

Illness categories Plant food taxa Animal food taxa
Hot Cold Unspecified Hot Cold Unspecified
Analgesics 72.22 27.78 25 25 50
Anabolic 9.09 90.90
Blood ailments 24.13 68.97 6.90 50 50
Bone fracture 50 50 100
Coolants 11.11 88.89 33.33 66.66
Dermatological ailments 20 80
Diabetes 22.86 71.42 5.72
Eye ailments 33.33 66.67 33.33 33.33 33.33
Fatigue 14.28 78.58 7.14 57.14 42.85
Fever 50 50 83.33 16.66
Gastrointestinal ailments 35.56 62.22 2.22 100
Gynecological ailments 40 60 42.10 15.78 42.10
Headache 0 100
Heart ailments 52.35 42.65 5.00 0 0 100
Hemorrhoids 60 40
Hypertension 0 92.30 7.70 0 0 100
Hypotension 25 50 25
Hypothyroidism 33.33 66.67 100 0 0
Jaundice 0 100
Kapha ailments 59.37 40.63 36.66 6.66 56.66
Liver ailments 50 50
Male reproductive ailments 39.28 50 10.72 0 36.36 63.63
Neural ailments 50 50
Obesity 50 50 0 0 100
Psychological ailments 25 75 50 50 0
Urinary ailments 16.66 83.33 0 33.33 66.66
Vadha ailments 36.37 63.63 9.09 9.09 81.81
Weakness 22.85 71.42 5.73

No UR and frequency was not calculated

CFSI scores of the medicinal foods

List of plant and animal taxa having top ten CFSI scores are given in Table 8, and the CFSI scores for all taxa are given in Additional file 1: Table S2. It showed that the average CFSI score of the plant taxa was higher than that of the animal taxa.

Table 8.

List of plant and animal taxa which got top ten CFSI score

Name of the taxa CFSI
Plants
Solanum americanum 110.28
Murraya koenigii 97.20
Moringa oleifera 95.64
Cuminum cyminum 63.84
Musa paradisiaca 55.68
Coccinia grandis 45.67
Phyllanthus emblica 45.36
Solanum lycopersicum 40.50
Vitis vinifera 40.24
Punica granatum 39.96
Animals
Portunus sanguinolentus 33.75
Sardinella longiceps 29.25
Fenneropenaeus indicus 27.00
Stolephorus indicus 22.50
Bos taurus 19.50
Rastrelliger kanagurta 18.22
Sphyraena jello 16.20
Scoliodon laticaudus 15.75
Himantura uarnak 13.50
Parastromateus niger 13.50

Discussion

In Indian systems of traditional medicine, diet recommendation is an integral and important part of the therapy; it is considered as an ally for strengthening the drug efficacy [46]. However, this knowledge is poorly documented and under-utilized. Our previous studies in other districts of Tamil Nadu also indicated that non-institutional training of siddha system is a male dominant domain [37], and cultural reasons play a vital role on low women’s participation. Such unevenness was also recorded in some ethnobiological studies in other geographical parts [47]. Traditional medicine was often perceived as the healthcare option only for the poor and marginalized communities; a recent work in Nepal indicated that these practices prevailed both in rural and semi-urban areas, and it showed positive correlation with household income and traditional medicine use [48]. The data of this study also indirectly substantiated the previous work by showing relatively high percentage of traditional healers in urban and semi-urban areas.

Sampling sufficiency and the representativeness of the samples collected are considered as major concerns of modern ethnobiology research [49], and various methods are employed to ascertain them. Application of species richness curve was one of the methods, and in this study, it was done by plotting Shannon-Wiener’s index in ordinate axis (y) and cumulative number of UR in abscissa axis (x). Reaching a clear asymptote of the curve was considered as an indicator for the sufficiency of sampling. Comparatively low Shannon-Wiener score for the animal-based foods indicated the lack of diversity in the animal foods than plant foods. The traditional medical literatures of ayurveda and siddha described about the health benefits of animal-based foods; however, the cultural and spiritual beliefs along with better understanding of the nutritional properties of plants caused a preference of vegetarianism in India [50]. Our previous study on ethnodietetics among non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Virudhunagar district had also yielded high number of UR for plant-based foods [12]. The same trend was reflected in this survey, and plant taxa got high UR and average IAR values. The CFSI scores for the plant taxa were comparatively higher than that of animal taxa. Our previous surveys in inland of Tamil Nadu showed low UR for fish taxa [12, 51]. In this survey, comparatively better availability of fish taxa caused more UR towards them.

Gastrointestinal ailments are one of the illnesses which got high number of UR in many ethnopharmacological explorations [52]. Food is directly related with various gastrointestinal illnesses, and the use of medicinal foods among subjects with functional gastrointestinal disorders was also high [53, 54]. The use of citron got a high number of UR in this study; it has also been used to treat gastrointestinal ailments in ayurveda and Chinese system of traditional medicine [55]. It has also been used for the treatment of the same in countries such as Nepal [56] and Pakistan [57]. A small clinical study with 37 subjects having recurrent aphthous stomatitis indicated that the application of citrus essential oil alleviated the pain in oral ulcers [58]. Some preliminary scientific experiments on Citrus fruits revealed the effectiveness on Helicobacter pylori [59]. From Citrus fruits, the compounds such as nobiletin [60], hesperidin, neohesperidin [61], β-myrcene [62], limonene, β-pinene [63], and 7,8-dimethoxycoumarin [64] were reported to have gastroprotective effects. Despite its traditional usage in many geographical areas and preclinical evidences, this claim lacks robust clinical data. Preliminary preclinical evidences supported the use of ivy gourd [65] and plantain for the treatment of gastric ulcer [66], but no clinical studies were available. The use of pomegranate was reported for the treatment of gastrointestinal ailments in Mexico [67] and Algeria [68]. Solanum americanum is one of the important plants of Tamil Nadu used to treat gastrointestinal ailments [69], and it is also used to treat gastrointestinal ailments in some other groups [70, 71]. Our previous ethnobotanical explorations had also documented the use of onion, Abutilon indicum, and elephant foot yam to treat hemorrhoids [37, 40, 72]; no scientific validation was reported.

Our previous surveys documented the use of Mukia maderaspatana in treating various pulmonary ailments [37, 40, 51, 72]. Boerhavia diffusa had been used to treat renal illnesses also in other geographic regions, and preclinical investigations showed its nephroprotective and antilithiasis effects [73, 74]. Moringa oleifera leaves are used as a supplement to treat anemia in other regions also [75], and according to a preclinical study, the dietary iron in M. oleifera is reported as superior to ferric citrate [76]. In ayurveda also, Aloe vera has been used to treat various gynecological ailments [77].

Eclipta prostrata is one of the important plants used in Indian as well as Chinese systems of traditional medicine for hepatoprotection [55]. Kohlrabi is an exotic taxon to India; it was not mentioned in the siddha materia medica, but it was prescribed by the informants of this study. Studies on such claims may yield some clues on knowledge transmission about the uses of exotic flora. Antidiabetic effect of Brassica oleracea was reported [78]; the antidiabetic effect of red kohlrabi was found to be superior to the green variety by a preclinical experiment [79]. A randomized, double blind trial with 63 type 2 diabetic subjects showed that the administration of broccoli (a variety of Brassica oleracea) powder at 10 g/day significantly lowered the insulin resistance [80]. Though Syzygium cumini was reported for diabetes by many previous studies, its antidiabetic efficacy was inconclusive [81]. The use of ivy gourd for the treatment of diabetes was also documented in Sri Lanka [82], Bangladesh [83], and Pakistan [84]. A small, double blinded phase I trial with 61 healthy volunteers indicated that consumption of 20 g of ivy gourd leaves significantly lowered the fasting and post-prandial glucose levels [85]. Pretreatment with mangiferin to isoproterenol induced myocardial infarcted rats prevented the alterations in mitochondrial energy metabolism and structural integrity of the heart tissues [86]. Cardioprotective effect of citron was recently reviewed [87]; no clinical reports were available to substantiate the cardioprotective effect of mango and citron supplementation. The use of Citrus fruits for the management of hypertension by Polish migrants in Argentina was already reported [88], and small double-blind, cross-over study with 12 stage I hypertensive patients indicated its usefulness [25]. Two small clinical studies showed the anxiolytic potential of Centella asiatica [89, 90].

The principle of using meat of an organ to treat the illnesses of the similar organ (similia similibus curantur) was reported in previous ethnopharmacological surveys [51, 91]. Previous studies in various geographical locations documented the use of testes and bones of goat to treat male reproductive [92] and bone [93] ailments, respectively. Geographic accessibility was one of the important factors that determined the popularity of zootherapy [94]; this study also represented that the accessibility of marine taxa caused more UR for them among the animal-based foods. Deb and Haque [95] documented the importance of fish taxa in the culture of people in coastal region; however, the ethnopharmacology of fish taxa in India still has to be documented thoroughly. Various medicinal properties of molluscs were recently reviewed [96]; this study documented the use of two molluscs viz., Katelysia opima and Indian squid for the treatment of impotence and anemia, respectively. Indian oil sardine has high ω-3 fatty acid content, high ω-3/ω-6 ratio, eicosapentaenoic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid [97], which may help to gain healthy weight.

The use of spade nose shark to improve lactation had got high UR and IAR under gynecological ailments; however, no scientific report is available to validate this claim. The study by Deb and Haque [95] documented the use of catla as lactogogue, Anguilla bengalensis bengalensis for the treatment of arthritis, and Channa spp., for oligospermia. They also documented reticulate whipray as lactogogue and for the treatment of dysentery; this survey documented its usefulness to treat wheezing and bronchitis.

Conclusions

  • This preliminary report quantitatively documented the food-medicine continuum among the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district. Collectivistic cultures, influence of traditional norms, and medicinal beliefs caused Indian dietary habits to be very unique; this provides ample scope for further research to anthropologists and ethnobiologists. Deeper studies on different dietary cultures of India may help derive better interpretations on food-medicine continuum.

  • This study identified some important plant-based medicinal claims such as citron, pomegranate and Solanum americanum (gastrointestinal ailments), Abutilon indicum, onions and elephant foot yam (hemorrhoids), Boerhavia diffusa (urinary ailments), Moringa oleifera (anemia), Aloe vera (gynecological ailments), Eclipta prostrata (liver ailments), ivy gourd (diabetes), citron (hypertension), and Centella asiatica (psychological ailments). More studies on these claims will help identify novel functional foods to add to the field of medical nutrition therapy, with traditional brand identity.

  • This study also documented some important marine animal taxa such as spade nose shark (lactogogue), reticulate whipray (wheezing and bronchitis), Katelysia opima (impotence), Indian squid (anemia), and Indian oil sardine (anabolic) for the treatment of various illnesses. Generally, ethnopharmacological validations on ethnozoological claims are very meager and Indian marine resources are still under-utilized. Scientific studies on these claims may yield some novel and affordable functional foods.

  • Documentation of ethnopharmacological knowledge of marine resources is comparatively low in India. Indian coastal line spreads over 7516 km, and robust studies on the documentation of the traditional knowledge on marine resources will yield a good database for various stakeholders and policy makers.

  • Among zootherapy, the use of organs to treat illnesses of similar organs was documented in many instances. Future-specific studies will reveal the cultural and pharmacological importance of this claim.

Additional file

Additional file 1: (74.1KB, docx)

Table S1. List of medicinal foods prescribed by the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu. The taxa given in bold emphasis are mentioned as the key taxa for the reported medicinal activity of the food by the informants. The values given within the parentheses indicate the number of the UR for the respective illness. Table S2. Cultural Food Significance Index of the plant and animal taxa cited by the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu for preparing medicinal foods. Taxa having a minimum of two UR were taken for the analysis. AI Availability Index, QI Quotation Index, UFI Utilization Frequency Index, PUI Parts Used Index, MFFI Multi-Functional Food Use Index, TASI Taste Score Appreciation Index, FMRI Food-Medicinal Role Index, CFSI Cultural Food Significance Index (DOCX 74 kb).

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district for sharing their valuable knowledge. The authors thank the three anonymous reviewers for their comments which helped extensively to improve the quality of our manuscript.

Funding

The authors are grateful to Loyola College - Times of India Research Grant (sanction number 7LCTOIERI004) for the partial financial support. We also extend our appreciation to the International Scientific Partnership Program (ISPP) at King Saud University for partially funding this research work through ISPP#0020.

Availability of data and materials

All the data generated in this study are included with this article. Field notebooks and herbarium specimens were available at the museum of Entomology Research Institute, Loyola College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, 600034, India.

Abbreviations

AI

Availability index

CFSI

Cultural Food Significance Index

FIC

Informant Consensus Factor

FMRI

Food Medicinal Role Index

FUI

Frequency of use index

IAR

Index of Agreement on Remedies

MFFI

Multifunctional food use index

na

Number of illness categories treated with that taxon

Nt

Number of taxa

Nur

Number of UR

nur

Number of UR registered for taxa

PUI

Part used index

QI

Quotation index

RFC

Relative Frequency of Citation

TSAI

Taste Score Appreciation Index

UR

Use report

Authors’ contributions

SI, PP, and NAA conceived the idea and designed the study. SE, SD, SM, PP, and MGP were involved in the field study and species confirmation. SE, SI, PP, and NAA processed and analyzed the data and prepared the manuscript. All the authors read and approved the manuscript.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study is approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee for Ethnobiological Research (sanction number ERI/IEEC/2014/01). Written informant consent was obtained from all informants who were willing to participate.

Consent for publication

Consent for publication was obtained from the informants.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Footnotes

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13002-018-0240-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Contributor Information

S. Esakkimuthu, Email: esakkimuthu541991@gmail.com

S. Sylvester Darvin, Email: darvin.dsc@gmail.com

S. Mutheeswaran, Email: muthees2009@gmail.com

M. Gabriel Paulraj, Email: gabriel_paulraj@yahoo.com

P. Pandikumar, Phone: +91-44-2817 8348, Email: pkr_eri@hotmail.com

S. Ignacimuthu, Phone: +91-44-2817 8348, Email: eriloyola@hotmail.com

N. A. Al-Dhabi, Email: naldhabi@ksu.edu.sa

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Supplementary Materials

Additional file 1: (74.1KB, docx)

Table S1. List of medicinal foods prescribed by the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu. The taxa given in bold emphasis are mentioned as the key taxa for the reported medicinal activity of the food by the informants. The values given within the parentheses indicate the number of the UR for the respective illness. Table S2. Cultural Food Significance Index of the plant and animal taxa cited by the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu for preparing medicinal foods. Taxa having a minimum of two UR were taken for the analysis. AI Availability Index, QI Quotation Index, UFI Utilization Frequency Index, PUI Parts Used Index, MFFI Multi-Functional Food Use Index, TASI Taste Score Appreciation Index, FMRI Food-Medicinal Role Index, CFSI Cultural Food Significance Index (DOCX 74 kb).

Data Availability Statement

All the data generated in this study are included with this article. Field notebooks and herbarium specimens were available at the museum of Entomology Research Institute, Loyola College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, 600034, India.


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