A High Quality Genome for Mus spicilegus, a Close Relative of House Mice with Unique Social and Ecological Adaptations

Abstract

Genomic data for the closest relatives of house mice (Mus musculus species complex) are surprisingly limited. Here, we present the first complete genome for a behaviorally and ecologically unique member of the sister clade to house mice, the mound-building mouse, Mus spicilegus. Using read cloud sequencing and de novo assembly we produced a 2.50 Gbp genome with a scaffold N50 of 2.27 Mbp. We constructed >25 000 gene models, of which the majority had high homology to other Mus species. To evaluate the utility of the M. spicilegus genome for behavioral and ecological genomics, we extracted 196 vomeronasal receptor (VR) sequences from our genome and analyzed phylogenetic relationships between M. spicilegus VRs and orthologs from M. musculus and the Algerian mouse, M. spretus. While most M. spicilegus VRs clustered with orthologs in M. musculus and M. spretus, 10 VRs with evidence of rapid divergence in M. spicilegus are strong candidate modulators of species-specific chemical communication. A high quality assembly and genome for M. spicilegus will help to resolve discordant ancestry patterns in house mouse genomes, and will provide an essential foundation for genetic dissection of phenotypes that distinguish commensal from non-commensal species, and the social and ecological characteristics that make M. spicilegus unique.

As the premier mammalian model system in biomedical, evolutionary, and quantitative genetics, the genomic and bioinformatic resources for house mice (Mus musculus species complex) are unparalleled in mammals (Mouse Genome Sequencing Consortium et al. 2002; Valdar et al. 2006; Keane et al. 2011; Nicod et al. 2016; Morgan et al. 2016; Eppig et al. 2017). In contrast, genomic resources for the closest relatives of house mice are surprisingly limited, and this constrains the evolutionary scope of comparative and experimental studies. House mice are sister to a clade of Eurasian, non-commensal (aboriginal) species that includes M. spicilegus, M. macedonicus, and M. cypriacus (Suzuki et al. 2004; 2013; Macholán et al. 2012). Whereas phylogenies based on a small number of loci have placed the Algerian mouse, M. spretus, as basal to both clades (Macholán et al. 2012; Suzuki et al. 2013), recent analysis using whole exome sequences place M. spretus as the basal member of the clade containing M. spicilegus (Sarver et al. 2017).

The availability of a medium coverage (20x) genome for M. spretus (Keane et al. 2011) has provided key insight into genome structure and molecular evolution in house mice (e.g., Nellåker et al. 2012; Wynn et al. 2012; Baker et al. 2015). However, M. spretus has a history of introgression with house mouse subspecies, M. m. domesticus (Song et al. 2011; Liu et al. 2015), and ∼12% of loci in M. musculus subspecies genomes place M. spretus within the house mouse clade (Keane et al. 2011). Both of these factors may complicate analyses using only M. spretus as a close outgroup to house mice. Moreover, complete genome sequences for additional Eurasian Mus species will enable genetic dissection of the ecological and behavioral adaptations that differentiate aboriginal from commensal species. The power of genomic data for a suite of ecologically diverse congeners is illustrated by the Drosophila 12 genomes project (Drosophila 12 Genomes Consortium et al. 2007), and the wide applications of these resources (e.g., Haerty et al. 2007; Croset et al. 2010; Nourmohammad et al. 2017).

Here, we present the first complete genome sequence for the mound-building mouse, M. spicilegus. This Eastern European species occurs from the Austro-Hungarian border, east to the Ukraine and south to the Black Sea, with disjunct distribution in Montenegro, Albania, and Greece (Coroiu et al. 2016) (Figure 1). We chose M. spicilegus for three main reasons. First, given historic introgression and moderate phylogenetic discordance between M. musculus lineages and M. spretus, the inclusion of another close relative of house mice is desirable for resolution of ancestry patterns across house mouse genomes (e.g., Keane et al. 2011). Second, both M. spicilegus and M. spretus exhibit behaviors consistent with social monogamy, including paternal care (Patris and Baudoin 2000; Cassaing et al. 2010). Yet male reproductive phenotypes suggest that the opportunity for sperm competition in both species is significantly higher than in house mice (Gómez Montoto et al. 2011), in which female multiple mating is common (Dean et al. 2006; Thonhauser et al. 2010). Complete genome sequences for both M. spicilegus and M. spretus will facilitate work on the genetic basis of these intriguing observations. Third, behaviors and life-history traits associated with over-winter survival in M. spicilegus are unique among Eurasian Mus and completely unstudied at the genetic level.

Figure 1.

The geographic distribution of the mound-building mouse, Mus spicilegus. Inset: Mound-building mice are highly social and exhibit natural burrowing behavior under laboratory conditions. Au, Austria; Hu, Hungary; Se, Serbia; Bu, Bulgaria; M, Moldova; A, Albania; G, Greece. Distribution based on Coroiu et al. (2016). Photo, AG Ophir.

As the species’ common name suggests, M. spicilegus builds large mounds of soil and vegetation that serve a thermoregulatory function (Szenczi et al. 2011; 2012). Mounds, and the complex burrow systems they protect, are constructed in the autumn by young of the year that spend the winter underground and delay reproduction until the following spring (Garza et al. 1997; Poteaux et al. 2008; Szenczi et al. 2011). Mound and burrow construction takes several days to weeks and is thought to involve division of labor (Hurtado et al. 2013), a key feature of cooperative behaviors (Beshers and Fewell 2001). Higher within vs. between mound relatedness based on eight microsatellites suggest that cooperative mound construction is favored by kin selection (Garza et al. 1997). The availability of a genome for M. spicilegus will facilitate larger scale analyses of relatedness and population structure, and exploration of the genetic basis of behaviors unique to this species.

Materials And Methods

Strain selection, library creation and sequencing

We sequenced the genome of a male M. spicilegus from the wild-derived strain, ZRU. The strain was developed at the Wild Mouse Genetic Repository (Montpellier, France) using wild-caught founders from Kalomoyevka, Ukraine, captured in 1982. Very high molecular weight DNA was isolated from liver tissue using pulse field electrophoresis for 10x Genomics high throughput linked read sequencing. Libraries were prepared using the Chromium Genome v2 Library Kit and were barcoded for linking using the 10x Chromium microfluidic platform. Chromium linked libraries (Spies et al. 2017) were sequenced on the Illumina HiSeq 2500 platform with 150 paired end chemistry. Sequencing generated a total of 713.5 million reads (107 Gbp).

To obtain maximal coverage of expressed genes for transcriptome assembly we collected liver, heart, lung, brain, gonad and salivary gland from the same male and from one female M. spicilegus. Tissue was homogenized in Qiazol reagent (Qiagen) with a hand held rotor, and total RNA was extracted using the RNeasy Universal Kit (Qiagen) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. RNA was stored at -80° until processing for Illumina sequencing.

All RNA sequencing libraries were prepared with the Illumina NEBNext Ultra RNA Library Prep Kit according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Libraries were sequenced on the Illumina HiSeq 4000 platform with 150 paired end chemistry. All Illumina generated data for both the genome and transcriptome were quality filtered using standard Illumina recommended quality settings.

Genome assembly, RNA-seq, genome annotation, and comparative genomics

Genomic linked chromium reads were assembled using the Supernova assembly software version 1.1.5 (Weisenfeld et al. 2017). FASTQ linked reads were deconvoluted using the Long Ranger program (10x Genomics) and Illumina’s bcl2fastq software. Supernova was used to assemble the barcoded reads into phased scaffolds. Final scaffolds were produced using Supernova mkoutput pseudohap option. The resulting phased assembly had a size of 2.50 Gbp and was used for all downstream gene calling and subsequent analysis. All generated RNA-seq reads were de novo assembled using the RNA assembly program Trinity (Grabherr et al. 2011). Run time settings included a minimum contig length of 200bp, 50x coverage read depth normalization, and no use of jaccard clip. All genomic and transcriptome assemblies were conducted on the XSEDE (Towns et al. 2014) supercomputer Bridges, operated by the Pittsburg Supercomputing Center.

Peptide sequences were called from the Trinity assembly using the reading frame prediction program Transdecoder (Haas et al. 2013). A minimum peptide length of 100 amino acids was used as a length cutoff. Transcript construction, both for final gene model creation and for the training of ab initio gene calling, was accomplished by aligning the assembled Trinity transcripts onto the genome using the transcript alignment program PASA2 (Haas et al. 2003), which leverages the EST alignment program GMAP (Wu and Watanabe 2005). PASA alignment was conducted using the gmap alignment software with an average alignment identify of >95% and minimum percent alignment of >75%. Cufflinks (Trapnell et al. 2010) based gene models, which were integrated with PASA2, were produced using the standard Cufflinks protocol with a maximum bundle length of 6,500,000. High quality PASA2 transcript models were used to train the gene calling program Augustus (Stanke et al. 2006) for exon/intron boundary calling for ab initio predictions. Ab initio models were generated using the trained Augustus species parameters (Hoff and Stanke 2013) with hints provided by Blat transcript alignments (Kent 2002). Blat alignment hints were produced with the following runtime settings: -stepSize = 5 -repMatch = 2253 -minScore = 0 -minIdentity = 0. Protein to genome alignments were created using MouseGRCm38.p5 proteins and NCBI Blast+ (Camacho et al. 2009) with the assembled genome. All PASA2 transcript assemblies, protein to genome alignments, and ab initio gene models were combined and consolidated into a single representative model for each gene, using the gene calling program EVidenceModeler (EVM) (Haas et al. 2008). Weighted Criteria for gene model construction prioritized transcript to genome alignments (weight = 10) and protein to genome alignments (weight = 10) over ab initio predictions (weight = 5) for the consensus assembly.

All final gene models and predicted transcript peptides were annotated using the Trinotate platform (Bryant et al. 2017) with a combination of homology-based search using Blast+, domain identification using hmmscan (Finn et al. 2015) and the pfam 30.0 database (Finn et al. 2016), and cellular localization with signal P 4.0 (Petersen et al. 2011; Hoff and Stanke 2013). In addition, the C-It-Loci (Weirick et al. 2015) and Uniprot (Uniprot Consortium 2017) databases were used for functional annotation. Comparative genomic analysis was conducted using a custom Blast database of the predicted proteomes for five Mus genomes from the EMBL database (Kulikova et al. 2004). E values of 1e-10 or less were considered evidence of homology and were included in a top-hit species based analysis.

Given that the M. spicilegus ZRU strain was developed at a facility that also housed wild-derived house mouse strains, we checked for evidence of contamination by searching for chromosomal intervals with few or no SNPs relative to the mouse reference genome. SNP analysis was conducted using bowtie2 (Langmead and Salzberg 2012) alignments against the mouse genome (GRCm38.p5). Quality filters were a minimum quality score of 30 and 25x coverage. Plink (Purcell et al. 2007) was used to create a 1MB sliding window with 200kb step intervals.

Identification and analysis of vomeronasal receptors

We extracted all vomeronasal receptor (VR) sequences from our M. spicilegus gene model and transcriptome database and searched for additional VRs in the M. spicilegus genome assembly by running a BLASTn homology search against a published dataset comprising VR gene models derived from M. musculus vomeronasal transcripts (Dataset S5 from Ibarra-Soria et al. 2014). We used the same dataset to annotate VRs in M. spicilegus. For M. spicilegus sequences with equally high scoring top hits to two or more VRs in the M. musculus transcript dataset (e.g., e = 0, % identity within 2%), we ran another BLASTn homology search against the mouse genome. Twenty-six M. spicilegus VRs could not be resolved with either approach and are identified by two or more receptor numbers (e.g., Vmn2r77/78/79).

Annotated M. spretus VR sequences, together with sequences with high homology to a specific VR in the mouse genome, were downloaded using Biomart (Ensembl release 90). All sequences were aligned with MAFFT, implemented in Geneious 10.1.3, and columns with >80% gaps were stripped from the alignment. Inclusion of all known transcript variants from the mouse genome resolved alignment problems caused by incomplete coding sequence for some receptors from M. spicilegus. Phylogenetic relationships were inferred using RAxML (Stamatakis 2014) with 100 replicates of rapid bootstrapping. Trees were visualized with the Bioconductor R package ggtree (Yu et al. 2017).

Data availability

Raw data are deposited in the NCBI Sequence Read Archive (Bioproject PRJNA421365; Biosample SAMN08141584; SRA SRP126293). The genome assembly is deposited at DDBJ/ENA/GenBank (accession QGOO00000000), the assembly with original graph information, gene models and transcriptome peptides are available for download at Figshare https://doi.org/10.25387/g3.6137465. Vomeronasal receptor sequences and phylograms are available at FigShare as File S1 and Figure S1 (V1Rs), and File S2 and Figure S2 (V2Rs). Supplemental material available at Figshare: https://doi.org/10.25387/g3.6137465.

Results

Overview of read cloud sequencing and genome assembly

The genome of M. spicilegus was sequenced using 10x Genomics linked read sequencing (Spies et al. 2017). For gene calling and genome annotation we sequenced pooled RNA from multiple tissue types and generated high quality transcripts suitable for gene construction and annotation. Totals of 116 Gbp of genomic read data (56.6x coverage) and 59.6 Gbp of transcriptome data were generated (Table 1).

Table 1. Mus spicilegus genome and transcriptome raw read and base counts.

Value	10x Genome	Transcriptome
Read Pairs	1 550 168 820	19 878 467
Total Bases	116 262 661 500	59 63 540 100

We produced a high quality genome of 2.50 Gbp with a scaffold N50 of 2.27 Mbp. Comprehensive summary statistics are provided in Table 2. Almost all scaffold and contig data were non-ambiguous nucleotides (95.76%). The assembly was highly continuous: more than 90% of the scaffolds were larger than 235 kb. Gene models were created with a combination of Trinity (Grabherr et al. 2011) transcript alignments, ab initio trained Augustus models (Stanke et al. 2006; Hoff and Stanke 2013), and protein to genome alignments. Combining these sources of evidence produced a total of 28 624 raw gene models (Table 2). Genome completeness was calculated at 99.57%, based on the presence of complete or partial homologs for 232 of 233 conserved single copy genes found using the gVolante (Nishimura et al. 2017) webserver with the Busco v3 algorithm (Simão et al. 2015). Because our transcriptome data comprised pooled tissues from both sexes, Y-linked genes were not well represented and only one was among our high confidence gene models (Rbmy, 98% amino acid identity to mouse NCBI reference). However, cursory Blast searches against our genome with Y gene sequences from the mouse reference genome identified ∼180 kb that included sequences from several single copy genes from the short arm of the mouse Y chromosome (e.g., Kdm5d, Ube1y, Uty, Zfy2). Taken together these results support the use of read cloud sequencing to produce very high quality mammalian genomes.

Table 2. Genome, transcriptome, and annotation statistics for M. spicilegus.

De novo genome assembly	Valuea
Scaffold N50	2 198 966
Scaffold N90	235 414
Assembly size scaffolds	2 496 544 896
Contig N50	30 918
Contig N90	7729
Contig assembly size	2 390 795 516
Scaffolds 10kb+ N50	2 265 242
Scaffolds 10kb+ N90	413 257
Size 10kb+ scaffolds	2 396 298 463
De novo transcriptome
Number of assembled transcripts	169 733
Total bases in assembled transcriptome	229 968 259
Transcriptome N50	2178
Transcriptome N90	536
Number of predicted proteins	112 521
Number of full length predicted proteins	55 149
Annotated genome
Number of transcript to genome alignments (GMAP)	771 752
Number of PASA2 assemblies	83 465
Number of AUGUSTUS ab initio models	28 885
Number of protein to genome alignments	16 665
Number of EVM gene models	28 624
Number of final gene models with PASA	26 074
Average gene length	18 265
Average protein lengthb	465.2
Average cDNA length	2476.2
Number of exons	334 559
Average number of exons/gene	12.8
Number of genes with Blast hit ≤1e-10	25 557

^aValues are reported in base pairs or ^bamino acids.

Gene model comparisons to congeners

To determine homology between our M. spicilegus gene models and previously sequenced genomes, we compared our final protein gene models to all the proteins present in the Uniprot Trembl database (Uniprot Consortium 2017) using BLASTp. To reduce redundancy of isoforms we clustered our protein set at 98% similarity using CD-HIT (Huang et al. 2010). Using an e-value cutoff of 1e-10 or less, 25 557 of these non-redundant proteins returned a positive hit in the Uniprot Trembl database (Table 3). To evaluate homology relative to other Mus species, we ran one to one comparisons between the 25 557 M. spicilegus proteins and the genomes of wild-derived strains that represent the closest relatives of M. spicilegus: M. spretus, the three house mouse subspecies and M. caroli, a species that is outside the clade containing house mice, M. spicilegus and M. spretus. We also included the mouse reference genome, which is a mosaic of all three house mouse subspecies with the largest contribution from M. m. domesticus (Yang et al. 2011). Using the 1e-10 cutoff, we found a similarly high percentage of positive hits for all comparisons (range, 97.8–96.8%, Table 3).

Table 3. Blastp comparison of M. spicilegus gene models to other Mus species, and the largely M. m. domesticus-derived mouse reference genome.

Species or strain	Genomea or database	Positive hits
Mus spretus	SPRET_EiJ_v1	24 779
Mus musculus domesticus	WSB_EiJ_v1	24 729
C57BL/6J	GRCm38.p5	25 006
Mus musculus castaneus	CAST_EiJ_v1	24 771
Mus musculus musculus	PWK_PhJ_v1	24 742
Mus caroli	CAROLI_EiJ_v1.1	24 768
	Uniprot Trembl	25 557

^aEnsembl assembly name.

To infer genomic relationships between M. spicilegus and related species, we ran a homology search against a single database containing the five wild-derived Mus genomes listed in Table 3. Based on the single best scoring hit for each M. spicilegus protein model, the genome with the largest number of top hits was that of M. spretus (11 800; Table 4). When top hits to each of the M. musculus subspecies’ genomes were combined, homology to M. musculus remained slightly lower (11 029; Table 4). Interestingly, within M. musculus, there were approximately twice as many top hits to the M. m. domesticus genome as to either the M. m. musculus or the M. m. castaneus genomes (Table 4).

Table 4. Blastp homology table for M. spicilegus top hits to Mus species database.

Species	Number of Hits
M. spretus	11 800
M. musculus combined	11 029
M. m. domesticus	5581
M. m. castaneus	2606
M. m. musculus	2842
M. caroli	2147
Total	24 976

Sliding window analysis based on ∼17 million quality-filtered SNPs did not provide any evidence for recent contamination from a M. musculus strain. There were no intervals devoid of SNPs and those with a low number of variants were in gene-poor regions, or on the sex chromosomes where coverage may be lower, or were small (≤300kb). We emphasize, however, that this course-grained comparison with the mouse reference genome does not rule out the more interesting possibility of gene flow between M. spicilegus and M. m. musculus in nature.

Vomeronasal receptors in M. spicilegus

To evaluate the utility of this genome for identification and comparative analysis of ecologically important genes, we explored the numerical and molecular diversity of vomeronasal receptors (VRs) in M. spicilegus. In mice, these chemoreceptors are narrowly tuned to chemical cues in urine, tears, and other excretions, and are critical modulators of social and reproductive behaviors (Del Punta et al. 2002; Stowers et al. 2002; Haga et al. 2010; Doyle et al. 2016). VRs comprise three gene families, the numerically diverse V1Rs and V2Rs, and eight formyl peptide receptors (FPRs). Of the >500 VRs annotated in the lab mouse genome, more than 400 are expressed (Ibarra-Soria et al. 2014). Currently, only 80 VRs are annotated in the M. spretus genome (ensembl.org/Mus_spretus/ accessed November 16, 2017). However, targeted analysis of VR repertoires in a suite of house mouse genomes determined that >80% of VRs in house mice have one to one orthologs in M. spretus, with an additional six having evidence of independent duplication in M. spretus (Wynn et al. 2012). This suggests that the diversity of VRs in house mice should be comparable in aboriginal close relatives, including M. spicilegus.

Vomeronasal receptors in M. spicilegus were identified and annotated using homology searches against a published VR transcript gene model dataset (Ibarra-Soria et al. 2014) and against the mouse reference genome (M. musculus; GRCm38.p5). After removing duplicates and VRs annotated as pseudogenes, these approaches recovered a total of 196 high confidence VRs, of which 120 belong to the single exon V1R family (File S1), and 76 belong to the multi-exon V2R family (File S2). We extracted exonic sequences for each family, aligned these to orthologs in the mouse genome, together with available orthologs from the M. spretus genome, and estimated phylogenetic relationships using maximum likelihood criteria.

In the majority of cases, each M. spicilegus VR was sister to either the M. musculus or the M. spretus ortholog, or directly basal to both (Figure 2; Figures S1 and S2). For the 60 V1Rs with sequences for all three species, we inferred sister relationships between M. spicilegus and M. musculus, M. spicilegus and M. spretus, and M. musculus and M. spretus for 24, 15 and 21 receptors, respectively (Figure 2a; Figure S1). These values were not significantly different from random expectations (Chi-square = 3.15, P = 0.2). The distribution of sister relationships was similarly random for the 12 V2Rs represented by all three species (Figure 2b; Figure S2; M. spicilegus + M. musculus n = 7, M. spicilegus + M. spretus n = 2, M. musculus + M. spretus n = 3; Chi-square = 5.25, P = 0.07). More notably, four V2R (Vmn2r14, Vmn2r28, Vmn2r37, Vmn2r43) and six V1R (Vmn1r7, Vmn1r8, Vmn1r20, Vmn1r27, Vmn1r168, Vmn1r177) sequences from M. spicilegus were more closely related to each other, or to different VRs in M. musculus, than they were to the orthologous VRs in M. musculus (arrow heads in Figure 2). These receptors are strong candidates for species-specific response to socially relevant chemosignals in M. spicilegus.

Figure 2.

Phylogenetic relationships among the two major vomeronasal receptor subfamilies, V1Rs (A) and V2Rs (B) in M. spicilegus (MUSP, red branches and gene names), M. musculus (MUMU, black branches and gene names), and M. spretus (SPRET, green branches and gene names). Trees are unrooted cladograms, open circles on nodes indicate bootstrap support >90. Red arrowheads indicate M. spicilegus receptors that are not sister to orthologs with the same name in either M. musculus or M. spretus. Gene names with an underscore and number appended are transcript variants in M. musculus. Gene names with “like” appended are unannotated putative VRs in the M. spretus genome. M. spicilegus VR sequences are provided in Supplemental Material (V1Rs: File S1; V2Rs: File S2).

Discussion

Using read cloud sequencing, we produced a high quality reference assembly for Mus spicilegus, a close relative of house mice that is ecologically and behaviorally unique. Using a single DNA library for a high quality assembly represents a cost and labor efficient method for generating assembly data for mammalian species, and facilitates the production of a large number of genome assemblies for comparative or population genomics. Preliminary comparative analyses of 25 557 protein gene models suggest a slightly closer relationship between M. spicilegus and M. spretus than between M. spicilegus and house mice (represented in our analysis by genomes from the three main subspecies). This inference is consistent with phylogenetic analyses based on whole exome sequencing, which place M. spicilegus and M. spretus in the sister clade to house mice with M. spretus as the basal member of that clade (Sarver et al. 2017). Of the three house mouse subspecies, M. m. domesticus had the highest homology to M. spicilegus. This is also consistent with current phylogenetic hypotheses for the house mouse clade that place M. m. domesticus as the basal member (White et al. 2009; Keane et al. 2011). We note two caveats to this result. First, the genomes of the wild-derived inbred strains used to represent M. m. castaneus (CAST/EiJ) and M. m. musculus (PWK/PhJ) have low levels of contamination from M. m. domesticus-derived classical inbred strains (8% in CAST/EiJ, 6% in PWK/PhJ; Yang et al. 2011). This would not, however, bias our inference that M. spicilegus peptide sequences share higher homology with M. m. domesticus relative to the two other house mouse subspecies. Second, use of the largely M. m. domesticus–derived lab mouse genome as a reference for the wild-derived subspecies’ genomes (Kolmogorov et al. 2016) might upwardly bias the probability of detecting higher homology to M. m. domesticus (i.e., WSB/EiJ) relative to the other two subspecies. We anticipate that the M. spicilegus genome will promote additional phylogenetic hypothesis testing that will help to resolve evolutionary relationships between house mice and related species.

Exploratory characterization of the vomeronasal receptor repertoire in M. spicilegus provides a foundation for comparative analysis of the molecular and functional diversity of genes that modulate social and reproductive behavior in mice. Indeed, phylogenetic relationships between VR orthologs in M. spicilegus, M. spretus and M. musculus suggest an intriguing pattern of lineage-specific evolution for small subsets of receptors. More generally, these data illustrate the usefulness of this genome for identification of candidate genes underlying species differences in ecology and behavior.

Finally, house mouse subspecies, M. m. domesticus and M. m. musculus, hybridize in nature (Payseur et al. 2004; Janoušek et al. 2012) and historic introgression is documented between M. m. domesticus and sympatric congener, M. spretus (Song et al. 2011; Liu et al. 2015). However, the possibility of introgression between M. m. musculus and M. spicilegus is untested. The two species are sympatric throughout the eastern European and Ukrainian range of M. spicilegus, and are syntopic in crop fields during the spring and summer breeding season (Muntyanu 1990; Poteaux et al. 2008). Fertile F₁ females were produced from an experimental cross between M. spicilegus and a M. m. domesticus-derived lab mouse (Zechner et al. 1996). Thus, gene flow between mound-building mice and house mice is a formal possibility that is worthy of future study. A high quality genome for M. spicilegus will facilitate robust assignment of ancestry patterns in natural populations.