Abstract
This study investigated acceptability and consumer segmentation of soy sauce and famous Korean dish, bulgogi. A total of 123 participants evaluated intensity of 18 attributes and sensory liking of 4 commercial soy sauce samples and bulgogi samples made by aforementioned soy sauces. The overall results showed that appearance liking was the only significant different attribute among soy sauce samples and there were no significant differences among bulgogi samples. Furthermore, there was little correlation between overall liking of soy sauce and bulgogi samples. However, different segments of consumer groups were found by cluster analysis. Four and five subgroups of consumers were identified on evaluation of soy sauce samples and bulgogi samples, respectively. These results demonstrated that consumers’ different preference pattern. In conclusion, this study specified characteristics of commercial soy sauce perceived by consumers and consumers’ acceptability toward soy sauces and bulgogi made using soy sauces.
Keywords: Soy sauce, Bulgogi, Consumer acceptability, Flavor intensity, US consumers
Introduction
Much research had been done on Korean foods, keeping pace with the globalization of Korean food. Most of all, Korean soy sauce is considered to be not only one of the important condiment but a key ingredient of the Korean food. Soy sauce is derived from aged mixture of soybean and salt solution. Soy sauce is a crucial condiment used in dishes in East Asia, which has complicated flavor characteristics [1]. From Shoyu, Japanese soy sauce and Kecap in Indonesia to Chinese soy sauce, diverse version of soy sauce are used for their own traditional foods. Korean soy sauce is also used in various Korean foods such as bulgogi, pickled vegetables, and a number of soups because of its distinguishing umami taste. Not only East Asia, but also other countries gradually recognize and use soy sauce. Fenko et al. [2] showed that soy sauce had the highest familiarity and expected tastiness among soy-related products with German consumer, suggesting growing recognition of Western countries toward soy sauce.
Bulgogi is barbecued beef marinated with various seasonings and vegetables such as soy sauce, sugar, black pepper, sesame oil, sesame seeds, garlic, and green onion. Marinating is a process to enhance flavor of main ingredients with the purpose of satisfying consumers’ need for palatability [3]. During marinating, flavor of beef is further improved [4]. Bulgogi comes from harmony of beef, soy sauce with deep umami flavor and salty taste, and marinating, is being loved by many people. Indeed, bulgogi is one of the most preferred dishes by both Korean and foreigners [5, 6], thus a representative dish of Korea to foreigners [7]. Because of that, plenty of studies were conducted. There are research on understanding aroma components of bulgogi [8], sensory characteristics of ready-to-heat bulgogi and improvement sensory attributes of irradiated bulgogi [9, 10], and cross-cultural consumer acceptability for bulgogi [11, 12]. There are also many studies on the investigation and classification of volatile profiles isolated from soy sauces [13, 14]. Studies to reduce the amount of salt in soy sauce also continued while still maintaining sensory factors [15–17]. Several descriptive analyses of soy sauce were conducted by researchers [18, 19]. Kim et al. [20] showed that soy sauce included meat patty suppressed oxidation by-product of meat. However, there was no study considering flavor and acceptability of both soy sauce and bulgogi simultaneously. In addition, bulgogi was cooked using soy sauces produced in China or Japan in other countries [21]. It might be due to limited export of Korean soy sauce, being available mainly at Korean grocery stores. Soy sauce from Japan such as Kikkoman and Yamasa, in comparison, is sold widely across America [22]. In this respect, further studies should be carried out about soy sauce and bulgogi as traditional Korean foods in the US. Moreover, a study argued that standardization on taste or recipe of Korean food was not achieved yet [21]. It is needed to understand a relationship between sensory attributes of soy sauces and bulgogi to understanding US consumers’ acceptance.
This study aimed to determine US consumers’ acceptability of the soy sauce and bulgogi related to their sensory characteristics. It would help understand how soy sauce, as a main component of bulgogi flavor, affects sensory characteristics and acceptability of bulgogi by US consumers.
Materials and methods
Sample preparation and presentation-Soy sauce
Cherdchu et al. [18] evaluated and classified soy sauce samples based on overall flavor. To reflect their results and market availability in Philadelphia, PA, USA, four samples bestselling in the US were chosen and they were Kikkoman All-Purpose Seasoning (Kikkoman, Noda, Japan), Kimlan Light Soy Sauce (Kimlan, Taoyuan, Taiwan), La Choy All-Purpose soy sauce (La Choy, Archbold, Ohio, USA), and Sempio soy sauce 701 (Sempio, Seoul, Korea). All samples were original products and ingredients were largely similar across samples; Kikkoman had water, wheat, soybeans, salt, sodium benzoate, and less than 1/10 of 1% as a preservative; Kimlan listed water, soybean (15.5%), wheat (15.5%), salt, sugar, yeast extract, acidity regulators (E296, E331), dextrin, and licorice extract; La Choy had water, hydrolyzed soy protein, corn syrup, salt, caramel color, and potassium sorbate (preservative); and Sempio used water, defatted soybean, wheat, salt, isomaltooligosaccharide, spirits, yeast extract, and licorice extract. Samples were stored in the refrigerator at 5 °C and 30 mL of soy sauce of each sample was served in clear plastic solo cups (2 oz., Solo Cup Co., Lake Forest, IL, US) coded with three-digit random numbers. Rice was cooked using a rice cooker (NS-ZLH18, Zojirushi, Osaka, Japan) and was served as a carrier for the soy sauce samples as it may help reduce strong intensity of soy sauce [23]. Bottled water (Nestle, Vevey, Switzerland) was provided for cleansing palate between samples. Soy sauce samples were presented monadically following 4 × 4 Williams Latin square design [24].
Sample preparation and presentation-bulgogi
Thinly sliced rib eye for bulgogi was purchased at H Mart in Upper Darby, PA in USA. They were stored in a freezer and pulled to refrigerator for thawing 1 day before the consumer tests. Bulgogi was prepared by mixing bite sized beef, soy sauce and all other condimental ingredients listed in Table 1. All these ingredients were mixed in separate 4 bowls depending on soy sauce used (Kikkoman, Kimlan, La Choy, or Sempio) and placed in refrigerator at 5 °C for 90 min. After marinating, bulgogi mixtures were cooked in 4 separate sauté pans over medium-heat (Vulcan, Baltimore, MD, US) for 15 min or until they were cooked thoroughly. Once cooked, bulgogi was stored in a rice cooker (NS-ZLH18, Zojirushi, Osaka, Japan) set on warm until served. Bulgogi sample was used within 2 h after preparation. After 100 g of cooked rice was provided to each assessor as a carrier, 50 g of bulgogi was served in 6 inch Styrofoam plate coded with three-digit random numbers. Bulgogi samples were also presented monadically following 4 × 4 Williams Latin square design [24].
Table 1.
Bulgogi recipe
| Ingredients | Amount |
|---|---|
| Beef, thinly sliced rib eye | 1.5 kg |
| Soy sauce | 220 g |
| Water (bottled water) | 240 mL |
| White sugar | 112.5 g |
| Onion juice | 250 g |
| Minced green onion | 87.5 g |
| Minced garlic | 67.5 g |
| Rice wine | 50 g |
| Sesame oil | 55 g |
| Black pepper | 4.5 g |
| Sesame seed | 27 g |
Consumer testing
Recruit consumers for test consumers who were willing to taste rice, soy sauce, and soy sauce marinated beef dish and did not have known food allergies and food restrictions were asked to participate. Allergies question included main ingredients of testing samples which were soy, wheat (Gluten), salt, alcohol, rice, corn syrup, onion, garlic, and beef. A total of 123 consumers participated and all were 18 or older and 70% of consumers were between 18 and 25 years old. Consumers were composed of Caucasian (n = 59), Asian or Pacific Islander (n = 44), African American (n = 13), Hispanic or Latino (n = 4), and multiracial (n = 3).
Evaluation procedure
Consumers evaluated 4 samples of soy sauce (Kikkoman, Kimlan, La Choy, and Sempio) and 4 samples of bulgogi made using the aforementioned soy sauces. In study of Jeong et al. [1], they conducted descriptive analysis of soy sauce. Before evaluation, they determined whether to dilute soy sauce sample with water or not. Although diluted soy sauce would not cause too strong salty flavor of soy sauce, but it also reduced other flavor than salty flavor, making evaluation more difficult. Thus, soy sauces were used without dilution in this study. The samples were served every 5 min and the assessors could freely rinse their mouth with water and unsalted tops saltine crackers (Nabisco, East Hanover, NJ, US) between soy sauce and bulgogi samples as much as needed. The questionnaire was composed of consumer acceptance and intensity for soy sauce samples and consumer acceptance of bulgogi samples. For soy sauce, consumers’ overall liking, liking of appearance, texture, bitterness, sweetness, and sourness were measured using 9-point hedonic box scale ranging from “dislike extremely” (1) and “neither like nor dislike” (5) to “like extremely” (9). Open-ended question asked how they can change soy sauce samples to make better. Consumer’s perceived intensity for attributes of samples was also measured using a 5-point intensity box scale ranging from “none” to “Extreme”. Soy sauce attributes were adapted from Cherdchu et al. [18] and included sweet, salty, sour, umami (brothy), bitter, astringent, pungent, alcohol, beany, burnt, fermented, fruity, medicinal, metallic, meaty, molasses, smoky, and woody. If consumers perceived other characteristics in addition to provided 18 attributes, they were able to specify it and score its intensity using the same 5-point intensity box scale.
For bulgogi, consumers’ overall liking, liking of appearance, texture, flavor, soy sauce flavor, and saltiness were evaluated using the 9-point hedonic box scale. Open ended question concerning suggestion for improvement was also provided to consumers. After evaluation, consumers answered demographic questionnaire about their gender, age, ethnicity, educational background, and income. The purchase and consumption frequency of soy sauce, brand of soy sauce they purchase, important aspects for soy sauce, typical price of soy sauce they pay for, and type(s) of other soy products they consumed were also asked.
The study was reviewed and exempt by the institutional review board of the Drexel University (Protocol No. 1301001768).
Statistical analysis
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to analyze significance of acceptability and sensory differences among soy sauce samples and bulgogi samples, respectively. Least significant difference (LSD) was computed where significance was found. Because there were consumers who used certain brand soy sauce, possibility of consumer segmentation was explored for both soy sauce and bulgogi acceptability data using Ward’s minimum variance cluster analysis. Pearson’s correlation analysis was also done to investigate any correlation between overall liking of soy sauce and bulgogi samples. SAS (Version 9.3, SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA) was used for statistical analysis.
Results and discussion
Consumers’ demographic information
A total of 123 participants (male = 48, female = 75) evaluated soy sauce samples and bulgogi samples. As a result of purchase and consumption frequency, about 41% of participants bought soy sauce 1–2 times per year, followed by 3–4 times per year (24%), 5 or more times per year (19%), and 15% of consumers do not buy soy sauce. When it comes to consumption frequency, about 44% consumed soy sauce 1–2 times per week, followed by once a month (30%), and 3–4 times per week (15%). Percentages of participants who consumed soy sauce 5–6 times per week or consumed daily were 4%, respectively, and participants who do not consume soy sauce also took up about 4%.
Table 2 shows preferred brand and purchasing behavior toward soy sauce and soy products. Consumers’ most preferred soy sauce brand was overwhelmingly Kikkoman, followed by Maggi, La Choy, Trader Joe’s, Lee kum kee, and Jin bao. Kikkoman is leading soy sauce market, occupying 56.3% of market share in the US with the home-use soy sauce in 2013 [25]. For this reason, Kikkoman soy sauce was relatively well known among consumers compared to other brands’ soy sauce. Ten percent of participants answered that they did not know the brand they purchased and 11.4% did not answer this question. About 12.2% of participants answered that they purchased soy sauce on sale, regardless of brand. These consumers, totaling about 41% of participants suggested that they rarely cared about brand of soy sauce when they purchased it.
Table 2.
Consumers’ purchasing behavior of soy sauce and other soy products
| Category | Response (N = 123) | Response (N = 123, %) |
|---|---|---|
| Preferred brand | ||
| Kikkoman | 43 | 35.0 |
| La Choy | 3 | 2.4 |
| Trader Joe’s | 3 | 2.4 |
| Maggi | 4 | 3.2 |
| Lee kum kee | 3 | 2.4 |
| Jin bao | 2 | 1.6 |
| Other brands | 14 | 11.4 |
| Do not know | 13 | 10.6 |
| Do not purchase | 9 | 7.3 |
| No answer | 14 | 11.4 |
| Others (on sale, anything) | 15 | 12.2 |
| Soy sauce aspects (choose all that apply) | ||
| All natural | 49 | 17.3 |
| Gluten free | 9 | 3.2 |
| Organic | 26 | 9.2 |
| Low sodium | 80 | 28.3 |
| Brand name | 37 | 13.1 |
| Price/affordability | 81 | 28.7 |
| Typical price they pay for soy sauce | ||
| 1–3 USD | 44 | 35.8 |
| 3.1–5 USD | 38 | 30.9 |
| 5.1–7 USD | 7 | 5.7 |
| 7.1–9 USD | 4 | 3.3 |
| 9.1–10 or over 10 USD | 4 | 3.3 |
| Do not know | 6 | 4.9 |
| Do not purchase | 10 | 8.1 |
| No answer | 10 | 8.1 |
| Types of other soy products they consumed (choose all that apply) | ||
| Soy milk | 75 | 21.3 |
| Tofu | 81 | 23.0 |
| Fermented soy bean paste | 20 | 5.7 |
| Soy bean oil | 22 | 6.2 |
| Soy flour | 7 | 2.0 |
| Soy ice cream | 23 | 6.5 |
| Soy yogurt | 14 | 4.0 |
| Soy cheese | 12 | 3.4 |
| Soy veggie burgers | 33 | 9.3 |
| Other | 43 | 12.2 |
| Do not answer | 22 | 6.2 |
Consumers were more influenced by price of soy sauce and being a low-sodium product and only 35% of consumers were influenced by soy sauce brand. This might be linked closely to consumers’ age group as about 70% of our consumers were between 18 and 25 years old because impact of price on purchasing behavior was reported to be greater for younger population. High price affected purchase and preferred eating frequency of chocolate bar samples and intent to buy again in organic food [26, 27]. Similarly, price of product can affect its acceptability. Moreover, Guinard et al. [28] showed that price of product influences more greatly to the young consumer because of their relatively low income. In current study, about 67% of consumers spent typically 1-5 USD when they purchased soy sauce. When it comes to soy products, 21.3% and about 23.0% of consumers answered that they consumed soy milk and tofu, respectively. Other soy products such as soy bean oil, soy flour, soy ice cream, soy yogurt and soy cheese were less than 10%. A few consumers answered “other” and indicated that they consumed Edamame, kind of green soy beans.
Acceptability of soy sauce
Overall liking, liking of appearance, texture, bitterness, sweetness, and sourness of soy sauces were evaluated by consumers (Table 3). There were no significant differences among four soy sauce samples except appearance liking. Kimlan, which got the lowest appearance liking, might be different from other soy sauce in terms of color. In addition to liking questions, consumer perceived flavor intensities of 18 soy sauce attributes evaluated and only sour, umami, smoky, and woody attributes were significantly different among four soy sauce samples (Table 4). Open-ended question asked how to change soy sauce sample to make it better and consumers suggested that all of the soy sauce samples have too much saltiness. Although rice was provided as a carrier, consumers may have tasted soy sauce a lot more than usual consumption to evaluate samples and lead to say they were all too salty. Moreover, Syarifuddin et al. [29] showed that sardine odor could increase saltiness perception on cheese samples and Lee et al. [30] also studied that soy sauce odor could cause salty taste perception in beef soup samples. Further studies can be conducted in respect of perceived saltiness of not only soy sauce taste but also odor-mediated saltiness. Especially in Kimlan soy sauce sample, they answered that color was lighter than other samples so it needed to be darker. Results of this opinion were in line with aforementioned the lowest appearance liking of Kimlan samples. In case of La Choy sample, a lot of consumers thought that it had strong chemical, acidic, sour flavor and consumers described Sempio sample was salty soy sauce.
Table 3.
Consumers’ mean liking scores for soy sauce samples and bulgogi
| Sample | Overall | Appearance | Texture | Bitterness | Sweetness | Sourness |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (a) Soy sauce | ||||||
| Kikkoman | 5.5 | 6.4ab | 6.3 | 5.2 | 5.3 | 5.2 |
| Kimlan | 5.1 | 6.1b | 6.1 | 5.0 | 5.4 | 5.1 |
| La Choy | 5.4 | 6.7a | 6.6 | 5.2 | 5.3 | 5.0 |
| Sempio | 5.5 | 6.5a | 6.3 | 5.2 | 5.5 | 5.3 |
| P value | 0.5143 | 0.0236 | 0.1864 | 0.6362 | 0.7380 | 0.5298 |
| LSD | – | 0.40 | – | – | – | – |
| Sample | Overall | Appearance | Texture | Soy sauce | Saltiness | Flavor |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (b) Bulgogi | ||||||
| KikkomanB1 | 7.2 | 6.6 | 6.6 | 7.0 | 6.6 | 7.3 |
| KimlanB | 7.1 | 6.4 | 6.6 | 6.9 | 6.7 | 7.2 |
| La ChoyB | 6.8 | 6.6 | 6.5 | 6.6 | 6.3 | 6.9 |
| SempioB | 6.9 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 6.6 | 6.5 | 6.9 |
| P value | 0.1837 | 0.3306 | 0.2946 | 0.1109 | 0.1816 | 0.0999 |
| LSD | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Used a 9-point hedonic scale
Sharing the same letter in the same column means they do not have significant difference each other (alpha = 0.05)
1B stands for bulgogi
Table 4.
Consumers’ mean intensity scores for soy sauce attributes
| Attributes | Kikkoman | Kimlan | La Choy | Sempio | P value | LSD1 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sweet | 2.2 | 2.4 | 2.5 | 2.4 | 0.1345 | – |
| Salty | 3.9 | 4.1 | 3.9 | 4.0 | 0.4269 | – |
| Sour | 2.6b | 3.0a | 3.0a | 2.8ab | 0.0377 | 0.30 |
| Umami | 2.9a | 2.6ab | 2.5b | 2.5b | 0.0495 | 0.27 |
| Bitter | 2.8 | 2.6 | 2.7 | 2.6 | 0.6884 | – |
| Astringent | 2.3 | 2.3 | 2.3 | 2.2 | 0.9616 | – |
| Pungent | 2.6 | 2.6 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 0.9439 | – |
| Alcohol | 1.8 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 1.8 | 0.6349 | – |
| Beany | 1.9 | 1.8 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 0.3134 | – |
| Burnt | 1.9a | 1.5b | 1.6b | 1.5b | 0.0246 | 0.25 |
| Fermented | 2.2 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 2.0 | 0.4726 | – |
| Fruity | 1.3 | 1.5 | 1.6 | 1.4 | 0.0541 | – |
| Medicinal | 1.6 | 1.5 | 1.4 | 1.5 | 0.6465 | – |
| Metallic | 1.5 | 1.6 | 1.7 | 1.5 | 0.4763 | – |
| Meaty | 2.0 | 1.7 | 1.8 | 1.8 | 0.0900 | – |
| Molasses | 1.8 | 1.5 | 1.7 | 1.6 | 0.1039 | – |
| Smoky | 3.1a | 1.9b | 1.9b | 2.0b | 0.0477 | 1.00 |
| Woody | 2.1a | 1.7b | 1.7b | 1.7b | 0.0647 | 0.26 |
Used 5-point intensity scale (1 = none, 3 = moderate, 5 = extreme)
Sharing the same letter in the same row means they do not have significant difference each other (alpha = 0.05)
1LSD stands for the least significant difference
Although overall liking did not show significant differences among soy sauce samples, distribution of liking score was widespread, thus presence of consumer segments was suspected. Firstly, soy sauce cluster analysis was done with regard to overall liking scores (Fig. 1) and there were 4 consumer segmentations differing their acceptability. Consumers in cluster 1 (n = 48) preferred Kimlan (7.0) and La Choy (6.8) soy sauces rather than Kikkoman (5.5) and Sempio (5.6) and the results were significant. Consumers in cluster 2 (n = 28) liked La Choy, Sempio and were neutral with Kikkoman but disliked Kimlan (3.4). Cluster 3 was consisted of 24 consumers who generally disliked soy sauce and has no significant difference in liking among samples. Cluster 4 was consisted of 20 consumers and they clearly preferred Kikkoman (7.0) and Sempio (7.0). In contrast, liking for La Choy (3.0) and Kimlan (5.2) soy sauce sample was relatively low. Seven consumers of cluster 4 answered that they purchased Kikkoman soy sauce. Three consumers answered ‘do not know’ (n = 3), and the rest of each consumer chose different brand (n = 5) or did not care about soy sauce brand (n = 5). Consumer segmentation information can be utilized for targeted marketing of soy sauce products.
Fig. 1.
Overall liking of soy sauce samples by consumer clusters. Soy sauce samples sharing the same alphabet are not significantly different with α = 0.05 within each cluster. Cluster 1 (n = 48) samples were significant different at p < .0001 with the least significant difference (LSD) of 0.69; Cluster 2 (n = 28) samples were significant different at p < .0001 with LSD of 0.90; Cluster 3 (n = 24) no significant difference among samples; and Cluster 4 (n = 20) samples were significant different at p < .0001 with LSD of 0.82
Acceptability of bulgogi
Additionally, there was no significant difference on overall liking, appearance liking, texture liking, soy sauce flavor liking, saltiness liking, and flavor liking on bulgogi samples made using four different soy sauces (Table 3). As a result of open-ended question, there were opinion that flavor of additional ingredients such as garlic and pepper was too much, especially in bulgogi sample using La Choy soy sauce. Furthermore, consumers focused on intensity of salty taste, sweet taste, and toughness of bulgogi samples.
Cluster analysis was also performed on the overall liking scores of bulgogi evaluation (Fig. 2). Based on cubic clustering criterion, which measures within-cluster similarity relative to between-cluster dissimilarity [31] and is typically used to determine the number of clusters, there were five clusters differing their acceptability of bulgogi. Consumers in cluster 1 (n = 36) liked bulgogi and gave relatively higher scores compared to consumers in other clusters. Bulgogi made using Kikkoman (8.5), La Choy (8.1), and Sempio (8.0) were all liked very much and only Kimlan (7.6) received liking score below 8. In cluster 2 (n = 23), bulgogi using Kimlan (8.1) was liked the most followed by Sempio (7.5), La Choy (7.3), and Kikkoman (6.7). There were 18 consumers in cluster 3 and they liked bulgogi in order of using Kikkoman (7.1), Sempio (7.0), La Choy (6.4), and Kimlan (5.3). Consumers in cluster 4 (n = 16) moderately liked bulgogi except the one made with La Choy (4.9). Mean overall liking score of cluster 5 (n = 25) was generally lower compared to that of other clusters. Bulgogi using Kimlan (6.4) was liked the most followed by La Choy (6.0), Kikkoman (5.4), and Sempio (5.0).
Fig. 2.
Overall liking of bulgogi samples by consumer clusters. Bulgogi samples sharing the same alphabet are not significantly different with α = 0.05 within each cluster. Cluster 1 (n = 36) samples were significant different at p < .0001 with the least significant difference (LSD) of 0.41; Cluster 2 (n = 23) samples were significant different at p < .0001 with LSD of 0.50; Cluster 3 (n = 18) samples were significant different at p < .0001 with LSD of 0.78; Cluster 4 (n = 16) samples were significant different at p < .0001 with LSD of 0.66); and Cluster 5 (n = 25) samples were significant different at p = 0.0029 with LSD of 0.80
After cluster analysis, Pearson’s correlation analysis was done between overall liking of soy sauce samples and overall liking of bulgogi samples for investigating if overall liking of soy sauce influenced on overall liking of bulgogi samples. However, there was no significant correlation between the two measurements. This suggested that there was little effect of soy sauce acceptability on overall liking of bulgogi samples. As shown by Aaslyng and Frost’s study [32], vegetable accompaniments that have certain kinds of taste may affect sensory properties of pork meat samples. In the similar context, although soy sauce is a main ingredient of bulgogi, other ingredients could be playing a leading role on flavor of bulgogi. Overall liking of bulgogi samples could be also decided by individual perception of blendedness of additional ingredients such as black pepper, onion juice or meat quality. According to a study of Verbeke et al. [33], beef tenderness is crucial to taste and quality perception for consumers. Meat tenderness increased along with increasing amount of soy sauce in marination, affecting consumers’ acceptability [34].
Relationship between Consumption and Acceptability
Meanwhile, it was also needed to investigate more with relation to Kikkoman soy sauce, the greatest number of purchase frequency on demographic information. As a result, among all respondents, a total of 16 out of 37 consumers (43.2%) gave the highest liking score on Kikkoman soy sauce and bulgogi made by Kikkoman soy sauce, simultaneously. This may be evidence that familiar flavor of Kikkoman soy sauce as one of the most accessible in the US market may have an influence on acceptability of bulgogi. Similarly Korean consumers preferred Korean green teas to green tea from China or Japan, suggesting there was relationship between familiarity and liking [35, 36].
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
- 1.Jeong SY, Chung SJ, Suh DS, Suh BC, Kim KO. Developing a descriptive analysis procedure for evaluating the sensory characteristics of soy sauce. J Food Sci. 2004;69:S319–S325. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2004.tb18024.x. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 2.Fenko A, Backhaus BW, Vanhoof JJ. The influence of product- and person-related factors on consumer hedonic responses to soy products. Food Qual Prefer. 2015;41:30–40. doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2014.11.009. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 3.Cheok CY, Chin NL, Yusof YA, Mustapa kamal, SM, Sazili AQ. Effect of marinating temperature on physical changes of traditionally marinated beef satay. J Food Process Pres. 35: 464–482 (2011)
- 4.Scanga JA, Delmore RJ, Jr, Ames RP, Belk KE, Tatum JD, Smith GC. Palatability of beef steaks marinated with solutions of calcium chloride, phosphate, and (or) beef-flavoring. Meat Sci. 2000;55:397–401. doi: 10.1016/S0309-1740(99)00168-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 5.Chang HJ, Choi BR, Yi NY, Park BS, Kim HS. Preferences and product development opinions of Koreans and Non-Koreans regarding commercialization of Korean foods. Korean J. Soc. Food Cookery Sci. 2010;26:458–468. [Google Scholar]
- 6.Hong SP, Lee MA, Kim EM, CHAE, IS. Sensory evaluation of Korean traditional food for Americans. J. Korean Soc. Food Cult. 22: 801–807 (2007)
- 7.Kim SA, Lee MA, Kim EM, Lee SJ. The gap analysis of recognition and preference for Korean traditional food and restaurants between foreign visitor and foreign resident. Korean J Soc Food Cookery Sci. 2004;20:619–629. [Google Scholar]
- 8.Seo WH, Kim YK. JANG SH, Baek HH. Aroma characterization of roasted bulgogi reaction flavor manufactured by a high-temperature reaction apparatus. Korean. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2015;47:176–183. [Google Scholar]
- 9.Jo C, Kim DH, Shin MG, Kang IJ, Byun MW. Irradiation effect on bulgogi sauce for making commercial Korean traditional meat product, bulgogi. Radiat Phys Chem. 2003;68:851–856. doi: 10.1016/S0969-806X(03)00328-1. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 10.Park JG, Park JN, Han IJ, Song BS, Kim JH, Yoon YH, Byun MW, Park KS, Lee JW. Effects of various physicochemical treatments on volatiles and sensory characteristics of irradiated beef bulgogi. Korean J Food Sci of Ani Resour. 2011;31:200–206. doi: 10.5851/kosfa.2011.31.2.200. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 11.Hong JH, Yoon EK, Chung SJ, Chung L, Cha SM, O’Mahony M, Vickers Z, Kim KO. Sensory characteristics and cross-cultural consumer acceptability of bulgogi (Korean traditional barbecued beef) J Food Sci. 2011;76:S306–S313. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02173.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 12.Jo SG, Lee SM, Sohn KH, Kim KO. Sensory characteristics and cross-cultural acceptability of Chinese and Korean consumers for ready-to-heat (RTH) type bulgogi (Korean traditional barbecued beef) Food Sci. Biotechnol. 2015;24:921–930. doi: 10.1007/s10068-015-0119-7. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 13.Feng Y, Su G, Zhao H, Cai Y, Cui C, Sun-waterhouse D, Zhao M. Characterisation of aroma profiles of commercial soy sauce by odour activity value and omission test. Food Chem. 2015;167:220–229. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.06.057. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 14.Steinhause P, Schieberle P. Characterization of the key aroma compounds in soy sauce using approaches of molecular sensory science. J Agric Food Chem. 2007;55:6262–6269. doi: 10.1021/jf0709092. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 15.Goh FXW, Itohiya Y, Shimojo R, State T, Hasegawa K, Leong LP. Using naturally brewed soy sauce to reduce salt in selected foods. J Sens Stud. 2011;26:429–435. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-459X.2011.00357.x. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 16.Kremer S, Shimojo R, Holthuysen N, Köster EF, Mojet J. Consumer acceptance of salt-reduced “soy sauce” bread over repeated in home consumption. Food Qual Prefer. 2013;28:484–491. doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2012.12.001. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 17.Mcgough MM, Sato T, Rankin SA, Sindelar JJ. Reducing sodium levels in frankfurters using naturally brewed soy sauce. Meat Sci. 2012;91:69–78. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2011.12.008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 18.Cherdchu P, Chambers E, IV, Suwonsichon T. Sensory lexicon development using trained panelists in Thailand and the U.S.A: soy sauce. J Sens Stud. 2013;28:248–255. doi: 10.1111/joss.12041. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 19.Lee DY, Chung SJ, Kim KO. Sensory characteristics of different types of commercial soy sauce. Korean J. Food Culture. 2013;28:640–650. doi: 10.7318/KJFC/2013.28.6.640. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 20.Kim HW, Choi YS, Choi JH, Kim HY, Hwang KE, Song DH, Lee SY, Lee MA, Kim CJ. Antioxidant effects of soy sauce on color stability and lipid oxidation of raw beef patties during cold storage. Meat Sci. 2013;95:641–646. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.06.006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 21.Lee EJ, Mun KC. Globalization of Korean cuisine through Korean sauces –Focusing on the success of world-wide sauces–. Korean J Culinary Res. 2012;18:108–120. [Google Scholar]
- 22.Song SW. Effect of Korea-America FTA in Food Industry. Food Sci. Ind. 2006;39:5–11. [Google Scholar]
- 23.Cherdchu P, Chambers E., IV Effect of carriers on descriptive sensory characteristics: a case study with soy sauce. J Sens Stud. 2014;29:272–284. doi: 10.1111/joss.12100. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 24.Cochran WG, Cox GM. Experimental designs. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 1992. pp. 95–145. [Google Scholar]
- 25.Kikkoman. Kikkoman annual report. Available from: http://www.kikkoman.com/finance/library/annual/pdf/ar2013AnnualReport2013_e.pdf. Accessed Dec. 5, 2015
- 26.Avitia J, Costa-font M, Gil JM, Lusk JL. Relative importance of price in forming individuals’ decisions toward sustainable food: a calibrated auction-conjoint experiment. Food Qual Prefer. 2015;41:1–11. doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2014.10.008. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 27.Di monaco R, Ollila S, Tuorila H. Effect of price on pleasantness ratings and use intentions for a chocolate bar in the presence and absence of a health claim. J Sens Stud. 20 (1): 1–16 (2005)
- 28.Guinard JX, Uotani B, Schlich P. Internal and external mapping of preferences for commercial lager beers: comparison of hedonic ratings by consumers blind versus with knowledge of brand and price. Food Qual Prefer. 2001;12:243–255. doi: 10.1016/S0950-3293(01)00011-8. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 29.Syarifuddin C, Septie C, Salles C, Thomas-danguin T. Reducing salt and fat while maintaining taste: An approach on a model food system. Food Qual Prefer. 2016;48:59–69. doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2015.08.009. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 30.Lee CL, Lee SM, Kim KO. Use of consumer acceptability as a tool to determine the level of sodium reduction: a case study on beef soup substituted with potassium chloride and soy-sauce odor. J Food Sci. 2015;80:S2570–S2577. doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.13098. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 31.Ketchen DJ, Jr, Shook CL. The application of cluster analysis in strategic management research: An analysis and critique. Strateg Manage J. 1996;17:441–458. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199606)17:6<441::AID-SMJ819>3.0.CO;2-G. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 32.Aaslyng MD, Frøst MB. The effect of the combination of salty, bitter and sour accompaniment on the flavor and juiciness of pork patties. J Sens Stud. 2010;25:536–548. [Google Scholar]
- 33.Verbeke W, Van Wezemael L, De Barcellos MD, Küglerb JO, Hocquette JF, Ueland O, Grunert KG. European beef consumers’ interest in a beef eating-quality guarantee. Insights from a qualitative study in four EU countries. Appetite. 2010;54:289–296. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2009.11.013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 34.Kim HW, Choi YS, Choi JH, Kim HY, Lee MA, Hwang KE, Song DH, Lim YB, Kim CJ. Tenderization effect of soy sauce on beef M. biceps femoris. Food Chem. 2013;139:597–603. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.01.050. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 35.Kim YK, Jombart L, Valentin D, Kim KO. A cross-cultural study using Napping®: Do Korean and French consumers perceive various green tea products differently? Food Res Int. 2013;53:534–542. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2013.05.015. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 36.Lee J, Chambers E, IV, Chambers DH, Chun SS, Oupadissakoon C, Johnson DE. Consumer acceptance for green tea by consumers in the United States. Korea and Thailand. J Sens Stud. 2010;25:109–132. [Google Scholar]