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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2020 Oct 1.
Published in final edited form as: J Ethn Subst Abuse. 2018 Feb 16;18(4):613–633. doi: 10.1080/15332640.2018.1428709

Pathways linking intergenerational cultural dissonance and alcohol use among Asian American youth: The role of family conflict, parental involvement, and peer behavior

Jeremy C Kane 1, Renee M Johnson 1, Derek K Iwamoto 2, David H Jernigan 3, Tracy W Harachi 4, Judith K Bass 1
PMCID: PMC6163085  NIHMSID: NIHMS1503823  PMID: 29452050

Abstract

A difference in degree of acculturation between immigrant parents and children, known as intergenerational cultural dissonance (ICD), is a risk factor for adolescent alcohol use. We used path analysis with 292 Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents from immigrant families in the U.S. to measure potential mediators (family conflict, parental involvement/monitoring, association with deviant peers) of the ICD-alcohol use relationship. The hypothesized model was an adequate data fit among both groups. Among Cambodian adolescents, higher ICD levels significantly predicted increased family conflict, which in turn was associated with reduced parental involvement/monitoring, increased association with deviant peers, and a subsequently higher risk of alcohol use (p<.05 for all coefficients). We also found significant indirect effects of ICD on alcohol among Vietnamese adolescents through family conflict and parental involvement/monitoring (p<.05 for all coefficients) but not through peer behavior. For both groups, there was no direct effect of ICD on alcohol use outside these pathways. Identification of significant mediators provides potential targets for preventing alcohol use among these populations. Additionally, differences in path coefficients between Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents underscores the importance of conducting analyses stratified by Asian ethnic group.

Keywords: Intergenerational cultural dissonance, acculturation, alcohol, adolescent, Asian, path analysis, mediators

Introduction

Intergenerational cultural dissonance (ICD) is defined as the difference in the acculturation experience between youth from immigrant families and their parents or caregivers (also known as “the acculturation gap” or “acculturative dissonance”). As described by Portes and Rumbaut (1996), this gap often forms as a result of adolescents more readily and/or more fully adopting aspects of a host country’s culture than their parents (Choi, He, & Harachi, 2008; Portes & Rumbaut, 1996). This cultural dissonance has been associated with a range of adverse outcomes among youth from immigrant families, including depression (Cheng, Lin, & Cha, 2015; Costigan & Dokis, 2006; Kim, Chen, Li, Huang, & Moon, 2009; Wong, 2000; Ying & Han, 2007), suicidality (Lau, Jernewall, Zane, & Myers, 2002), social anxiety (Farver, Narang, & Bhadha, 2002), and externalizing problem behaviors (Choi et al., 2008) among Asian youth, and substance and alcohol use among Hispanic adolescents (Elder, Broyles, Brennan, Zúñiga de Nuncio, & Nader, 2005; Martinez, 2006; Unger, Ritt-Olson, Wagner, Soto, & Baezconde-Garbanati, 2009). We recently found that higher levels of ICD were significantly associated with a 57% increased odds of alcohol use among two specific Asian subgroups in the U.S., Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents (Kane, Johnson, Robinson, Jernigan, Harachi, & Bass, 2016).

Kim and colleagues (2009) have argued that ICD may be a more consistent predictor of adverse childhood outcomes than an adolescent’s own individual acculturation because it accounts for family dynamics and may result in a deterioration of the parent-child relationship (Choi et al., 2008; Chung, 2001). ICD is also likely a more proximal risk factor for outcomes than acculturation itself (Kim et al., 2009). Several researchers have called for more rigorous investigation of the role of mediators in the relationship between acculturation and childhood outcomes (Hahm, Lahiff, & Guterman, 2004; Lim, Stormshak, & Falkenstein, 2011; Suinn, 2010) that will allow for the identification of the mechanisms through which ICD may impact alcohol use and that can serve as specific intervention points (Hahm et al., 2004). In this study, we aim to investigate the potential role of three mediators in the ICD-alcohol relationship among Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents: family conflict, parental involvement, and peer behavior.

Family Conflict

Several studies have suggested that ICD can precipitate intra-family conflict (Choi et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2000; McQueen et al., 2003). Differences in cultural identity can cause increased miscommunication between an adolescent and his/her parents. Misunderstanding between generations can be further intensified if there is not a commonly spoken language between caregiver and child (Lee & Cynn, 1990) resulting in cases of role-reversals: situations where adolescents must care for and help navigate aspects of the new culture for their parents (e.g., healthcare services) due to language barriers (Portes & Rumbaut, 2001). Misunderstandings and miscommunication caused by ICD can result in overt family conflict featuring fighting, disagreements, and frequent arguments (Unger et al., 2009; McQueen et al., 2003; Choi et al., 2008; Formoso et al., 2000)

Parental Involvement and Monitoring

Patterson and colleagues (1992) theorized and Ary et al. (1999) found empirical evidence that family conflict can impact parental involvement and monitoring (Figure 1). As parent-child conflicts intensify, parents may begin avoiding interactions with their children that could result in additional arguments, leading to inconsistent monitoring. Therefore, families that have high levels of family conflict may have lower levels of parental involvement and monitoring (Ary et al. 1999). Low levels of parental involvement and monitoring and unsupportive parenting practices can lead to a range of adverse childhood outcomes, including mental health and behavioral problems (Choi et al., 2008; Kim et al., 2009; Formoso et al., 2000).

Fig 1.

Fig 1

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Theoretical model of child problem behaviors. Adapted from Patterson et al. (1992) and Ary et al. (1999)

The family conflict-parental involvement relationship has been documented in the context of ICD. Martinez (2006) tested a mediational model and found that ICD was associated with increased family tension and decreased parental involvement among Latino youth, which led to an increased risk for substance use. In a study with Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents in Washington State, Choi et al. (2008) found that increased levels of ICD were associated with intensified parent-child conflict, a subsequent weakening parent-child bond, and an increased risk for externalizing and problem behaviors (Choi et al., 2008). Among Chinese immigrant families, Kim et al. (2009) found that the increased risk for adolescent depression symptoms conferred by higher levels of ICD was mediated by unsupportive parenting practices (Kim et al., 2009).

Peer Behavior

In addition to directly impacting childhood outcomes, a lack of parental involvement could naturally lead to lower parental knowledge of a child’s behavior (Crouter and Head, 2002). This lack of involvement and knowledge can provide increased opportunity for an adolescent to establish relationships with deviant peers. In the model of adolescent problem behavior development tested by Ary et al. (1999), the authors found evidence for a direct link between lack of parental monitoring and increased adolescent association with deviant peers. Association with deviant peers, in fact, was the most proximal factor in predicting problem behaviors among the adolescents. The literature has increasingly pointed to relationships with peers who engage in deviant behavior (i.e., negative or antisocial behavior such as substance use or violent behavior) as a factor that increases the risk of delinquent behavior among adolescents themselves, including stealing, truancy, fighting, and substance use (Chung & Steinberg, 2006; Dishion & McMahon, 1998; Henry, Tolan, & Gorman-Smith, 2001; Lim et al., 2011; Patterson & Yoerger, 1999).

In the presence of family conflict and a reduction of parental involvement, the influence of delinquent peers may be even more salient among youth from immigrant families (Hahm et al., 2004; Lim et al., 2011). As adolescents navigate the acculturation process, they may find that “American-oriented” behaviors result in rewards in terms of positive perception by peers and increased social status (Hahm et al., 2004). They may also find that peers, rather than parents, are a critical source for providing insight into these behaviors and cultural norms (Akers & Lee, 1996; Hahm et al., 2004), which may lead to a growing acculturation gap between parent and child. Close parental monitoring of and involvement with children, on the other hand, reduces the likelihood of adolescents forming relationships with such peers (Crouter & Head, 2002). Recent studies among Asian immigrant populations found that: 1) ICD among Vietnamese- families was a significant predictor of adolescent substance use, a relationship that was fully mediated by peer substance use (there was no similar significant effect among Cambodian, Chinese, or Lao/Mien adolescents in that study) (Le, Goebert, & Wallen, 2009) and 2) in a study of adolescents from Chinese families living in the U.S., researchers found a significant pathway of ICD leading to adolescent perceptions of low parental knowledge in their activities, which in turn led to more adolescent contact with deviant peers and increased delinquency (Wang, Kim, Anderson, Chen, & Yan, 2012).

Current Study

Mental health, substance, and alcohol use among Southeast Asian populations are understudied (Choi et al., 2008; Cook et al., 2015) and most investigations do not differentiate between subgroups (Harachi et al., 2001; Kane, Damian, et al., 2016). As argued by many previous authors, this is problematic because there are important historical, cultural, and social differences between ethnic groups. As summarized by Choi and colleagues (2008), key differences between Vietnamese and Cambodian families may include premigration history, religion, and culture. Parenting practices may differ as well: Tajima and Harachi (2010) found that Cambodian parents were more likely to place a high value on child obedience in their children than Vietnamese parents. In focus groups, Vietnamese parents in the U.S. identified “appropriate ways to discipline their children” as the aspect of parenting behavior most influenced by living in the U.S. compared to Vietnam (Tajima and Harachi, 2010). Similarly, adolescents within Vietnamese and Cambodian immigrant families in the U.S. have adjusted somewhat differently: Vietnamese adolescents on average have done better in school and Cambodian adolescents have had higher rates of externalizing and problem behaviors, such as fighting, delinquency, and truancy (Choi et al., 2008; Kim 2002; Goldberg, 1999). Alcohol use among Cambodian youth in the U.S. also appears to be increasing, with a recent study finding that drinking and binge drinking were both highly prevalent (Lee et al., 2008).

Given the dearth of research on predictors of alcohol use among adolescent Asian subgroups, studies on risk factors and mediators of drinking have the potential to identify culturally specific pathways that can lead to alcohol use and possible intervention points. A preponderance of research suggests that ICD may trigger a cascade of negative events in immigrant families, beginning with intensified family conflict, leading to reduced parental involvement, increased association with deviant peers, and finally an increased risk for alcohol use. The three combined constructs of family conflict, parental monitoring, and peer behavior were responsible for 46% of variation in the model of adolescent problem behaviors tested by Ary et al. (1999). However, the relationship of these factors in relation to ICD and alcohol use has not been tested empirically among Asian immigrant families.

In this study, we aim to test the role of these three potential mediators in the ICD-alcohol use relationship separately among Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents using a path model. Path analysis methodology is advantageous because it permits the directional sequencing of indicators and the concurrent measurement of direct and indirect effects associated with each indicator (Choi et al., 2008; Ramirez-Valles, Zimmerman, & Newcomb, 1998). In testing the path model, the paper builds on the conceptual models tested by Ary et al (1999) and Choi et al. (2008) and our recent finding that ICD was significantly associated with increased alcohol use among Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents (Kane, Johnson, et al., 2016).

Methods

Participants and Procedure

The data source for this study is the Cross Cultural Families Project (CCF), a longitudinal investigation of 164 Cambodian (all of the Khmer ethnic group) and 163 Vietnamese immigrant families in Washington State that was also used by Choi et al. (2008). Data were collected annually from these families beginning in 2001 through 2005. Stratified random sampling with school district lists as the sampling frame was used to recruit an approximately equal number of Vietnamese and Cambodian families from the Seattle metro area. To recruit families, an informational letter was sent by the school district to parents identifying as either Vietnamese or Cambodian ethnicity and who had a student in the target age group (3rd to 6th grade). The letter provided the families with an opportunity to immediately opt out of participation in the study. If the parent did not opt out, a bilingual research assistant followed up to schedule an in-person visit to explain the study and gather active consent from the parents or legal guardian of the target student. The consent form was translated into Khmer and Vietnamese. If parents or legal guardians provided consent and permission, child assent was then obtained prior to the study interview (Kane, Johnson et al., 2016; Tajima & Harachi, 2010). The caregivers in the parent study were all female mothers of the children. The average age of caregivers was approximately 43 and 72% received public assistance, food stamps, or qualified for free/reduced lunch program (Choi, Mericle, & Harachi, 2006). The response rate of the CCF study was 85%.

Five annual study interviews were conducted with caregiver and youth participants. Face-to-face interviews were conducted individually (i.e., the parent/caregiver was not present for the youth interview and vice versa) with a research assistant, typically in a private space at the school, such as a nurse’s office or a room in the library. Interviewers were of Cambodian or Vietnamese ethnicity and most were bilingual; they had previous experience working with youth and collecting research data. A nominal, age appropriate thank you gift was provided to participants. Highly sensitive questions (e.g., sexual behavior, violence, abuse) were self-administered by participants; that is, participants were provided the questionnaire to fill out on their own without the interviewer present. The interviews with youth participants were conducted in English.

The current study focuses on data from the adolescent participants only (not the caregivers) from the final two waves of data collection in CCF, waves 4 (baseline for this study) and 5 (follow up), because these were the time points at which information on ICD was obtained (i.e., ICD was not measured at waves 1–3; Choi et al., 2008; Kane, Johnson, et al., 2016). Therefore, adolescent participants were between 13–18 years old at baseline of this study. Retention at wave 4 was 94.5% among Cambodian (n=155) and 98.2% (n=160) among Vietnamese adolescents. For this analysis, we included all adolescents with complete data on relevant variables at Wave 4 and 5: n=145 Cambodian (93.5% of available participants at Wave 4; 88.4% of original sample) and n=147 Vietnamese (91.9% of available participants at Wave 4; 90.2% of original sample).

The University of Washington Human Subjects Committee approved the parent longitudinal study and the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health reviewed the study proposal for this secondary analysis and designated it as exempt. Informed consent was obtained from all study participants.

Instruments

The primary outcome of interest, current alcohol use, was operationalized from a single question asking about any past 30-day use: “in the past 30 days, on how many occasions have you had beer, wine or liquor?” Response options included: 1) Never; 2) 1–2 times; 3) 3–5 times; 4) 6–9 times; 5) 10 or more times. Due to heavily right skewed data, we coded this variable as a binary indicator of any or no alcohol use in the past 30 days. Additional variables are described below.

Intergenerational cultural dissonance (ICD) was measured with the Asian American Family Conflicts Scale (α=.86) (Lee, Choe, Kim, & Ngo, 2000). The scale included 10 items on cultural-related conflicts, each prefaced by the question “How likely is this type of situation to occur in your family?” Response options were: 1) never; 2) seldom; 3) sometimes; 4) often; and 5) almost always. From these 10 items, an average ICD score was calculated for each participant with a higher score indicating a greater amount of ICD and a possible range of 1–5 (Kane, Johnson, et al., 2016).

Family conflict was measured with four items from the Conflict Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ) (α=.65) (Prinz, Foster, Kent, & O’Leary, 1979): “my parents and I argue a lot about rules,” “my parents nag me a lot,” “my parents never listen to my side of the story,” and “at least three times a week my parents and I get angry at each other a lot.” Responses were “yes” (coded as 1) and “no” (coded as 0). The four responses were summed to create a scale of family conflict with higher scores indicative of greater conflict.

Parental involvement and monitoring was measured through a ten-item scale (α=.81) that assessed: adolescents’ perceptions of parental knowledge on their friends and activities; whether adolescents talked to parents about their activities and how they were doing in school; and whether parental permission was required for going out with friends (Catalano, Oxford, Harachi, Abbott, & Haggerty, 1999; Stattin & Kerr, 2000; Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling, 1992). Response options were designed specifically for youth, and ranged from 0–3 (i.e., NO!, no, yes, YES!). An average score was calculated for the ten items with higher scores indicative of greater parental involvement/monitoring.

Peer behavior was assessed through a twelve-item scale (α=.80) that asked the adolescent if any of his/her three best friends used alcohol or drugs, had been suspended from school, or had asked the adolescent to do things that would get them in trouble (Catalano, Kosterman, Hawkins, Newcomb, & Abbott, 1996; Kosterman, Hawkins, Guo, Catalano, & Abbott, 2000). Responses to each item were “yes” (coded as 1) and “no” (coded as 0). A total score was calculated with higher scores indicating peers engaging in more problem behaviors.

Data Analysis

We estimated a path model to test our hypothesized mediational framework (Figure 2) following the methods described by Choi and colleagues in their investigation of ICD and child problem behaviors with CCF data (Choi et al., 2008). To establish temporality, the predictors in the model (ICD, family conflict, parental involvement/monitoring, and peer behavior) were measured at wave 4, and the outcome (any past 30-day alcohol use) was measured at wave 5, one year later.

Fig 2.

Fig 2

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Estimated path model with standardized coefficients for the Cambodian (n=145) and Vietnamese sample (n=147)

+Vietnamese paths are in Bold

++Curved lines are correlations

*p value < .05 ** p value < .01

The model was estimated using a weighted least squares mean and variance-adjusted χ2-test statistic (WLSMV) with robust standard errors, which is an appropriate method for models with continuous and categorical data (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Choi et al., 2008). Model fit was assessed using several indices: 1) the model chi squared (χ2) statistic and corresponding p value (non-significant tests are an indication of good fit); 2) the comparative fit index (CFI; values >0.90 indicate good fit); 3) the root mean square error approximation (RMSEA; values <0.06 suggest good fit; <.08 adequate fit); and 4) the weighted root mean square residual (WRMR; values <0.90) (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Muthén, 2004). Standardized and unstandardized path coefficients with corresponding robust standard errors were calculated. In addition to the regression path coefficients, we also estimated correlational paths between each combination of the three mediating variables (family conflict, parental involvement, peer behavior) such that the asymmetric regression path coefficients were estimated after accounting for any correlation between the variables. The model controlled for gender, age, place of birth (i.e., generational status), and number of years lived in the U.S. Coefficient estimates were considered statistically significant at p < .05.

We tested the model separately in the Cambodian and Vietnamese samples and present the results stratified by ethnicity. We also tested for measurement invariance by conducting a multiple group test to determine whether there were significant differences in the model between the Cambodian and Vietnamese adolescents. We estimated two models in the overall combined sample. The first model included constraints for all estimated pathways that forced coefficients to be equal between ethnic groups. The second model was unconstrained and allowed coefficients to be estimated freely. A difference in chi-squared method was used to compare the constrained and unconstrained models (Choi et al., 2008; Muthén & Muthén, 2012). Analyses were conducted using Stata, version 13 (StataCorp, 2013) and Mplus, version 7 (Muthén & Muthén, 2012).

Results

The sample consisted of 145 Cambodian and 147 Vietnamese adolescents (Table 1). Fifty-three percent of participants were female and the mean adolescent age was 15 with no significant difference between the two groups. There were no significant differences between the groups in most key indicators of interest: ICD, family conflict, and peer behavior. Vietnamese adolescents did report a slightly greater amount of perceived parental involvement and monitoring than Cambodian adolescents (p = .02). Alcohol use in the past 30 days was reported by 16.1% of the sample and by approximately equal proportions of Cambodian (16.6%) and Vietnamese (15.7%) adolescents. Correlations between variables are presented in Table 2.

Table 1.

Characteristics of study sample

Total
Sample
(n=292)		 Cambodian
(n=145)		 Vietnamese
(n=147)		 t-Test/χ2
mean (SD)
Female, n (%) 156 (53.4) 75 (51.7) 81 (55.1) 0.33
Age 15.2 (1.1) 15.2 (1.2) 15.2 (1.1) 0.13
Born in U.S., n (%) 186 (63.7) 132 (91.0) 54 (36.7) 93.1*
Number of years in U.S. 14.6 (2.7) 15.8 (2.1) 13.5 (2.8) −8.0*
Speak Khmer/Vietnamese ‘well’ or ‘very well’, n (%) 194 (66.4) 85 (58.6) 109 (74.2) 7.9*
ICD 2.9 (0.8) 2.9 (0.8) 2.8 (0.8) −1.9
Family conflict 1.1 (1.2) 1.2 (1.2) 1.1 (1.3) −0.4
Parental involvement/monitoring 2.1 (0.5) 2.1 (0.5) 2.2 (0.5) 2.0*
Peer behavior 1.7 (2.3) 2.0 (2.6) 1.4 (2.1) −1.8
Alcohol use (past 30 days), n (%) 47 (16.1) 24 (16.6) 23 (15.7) 0.83
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*

p < .05

Table 2.

Spearman correlation coefficients between variables (n=292)

ICD Family conflict Parental involvement Peer behavior Alcohol use
ICD
    Vietnamese
    Cambodian
-
Family conflict
    Vietnamese
    Cambodian
0.57*
0.49*
-
Parental involvement
    Vietnamese
    Cambodian
−0.49*
−0.24*
−0.39*
−0.30*
-
Peer behavior
    Vietnamese
    Cambodian
0.35*
0.20*
0.25*
0.27*
−0.42*
−0.34*
-
Alcohol use
    Vietnamese
    Cambodian
0.16
0.14
0.26*
0.15
−0.32*
−0.28*
0.32*
0.43*
-
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*

p<.05

Table 3 presents the path model fit indices. Among Cambodian adolescents, fit index values were: χ2 = 17.7 (p = 0.12), CFI = 0.92, RMSEA = 0.06, and WRMR= 0.79, all suggesting that the model was a good fit for the data. Among Vietnamese adolescents, fit index values were: χ2 = 23.0 (p = .03), CFI = 0.90, RMSEA = 0.08, and WRMR = 0.89, suggesting that the model was an adequate fit to the data. In the combined sample with Cambodian and Vietnamese samples, both the constrained (χ2 = 50.9 (p = .08), CFI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.05, and WRMR = 0.89) and unconstrained (χ2 = 40.3 (p = .02), CFI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.07, and WRMR = 1.2) models were adequate fits to the data. The difference in chi-squared statistics between the constrained and unconstrained models was 50.9–40.3=10.6; the difference in degrees of freedom was 36–24=14. The p-value for a chi squared statistic of 10.6 with 14 degrees of freedom is 0.72, suggesting that the unconstrained model did not fit the data significantly better than the constrained model and that there was no statistically significant difference in the overall model between the Vietnamese and Cambodian samples.

Table 3.

Path model fit indices

Index Cambodian
(n=145)		 Vietnamese
(n=147)		 Combined Models (n=292)
Constrained Unconstrained
Chi square (χ2) 17.7, p = 0.12 23.0, p = .03 50.9, p = 0.08 40.3, p =0.02
CFI 0.92 0.90 0.93 0.91
RMSEA 0.06 0.08 0.05 0.07
WRMR 0.79 0.89 1.3 1.2
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Table 4 and Figure 2 present the path coefficient estimates from the Cambodian and Vietnamese samples. Among Cambodian adolescents, statistically significant (standardized) path coefficients included: ICD → family conflict (β = 0.52, p < .01), family conflict → parental involvement/monitoring (β = −0.45, p < .01), parental involvement/monitoring → peer behavior (β = −0.96, p < .05), and peer behavior → alcohol use (β = 0.23, p < .01). Parental involvement/monitoring did not have a significant direct effect on alcohol use (β = −0.17, p = .09). There was also no significant direct effect of ICD on alcohol use (β = 0.04, p = .77). The indirect effect of ICD on alcohol use through family conflict, parental involvement/monitoring, and peer behavior was significant (β = 0.05, p < .05) as were the total indirect effects of ICD on alcohol use (β = 0.15, p < .05).

Table 4.

Path coefficients for Cambodian and Vietnamese samples

Path Estimate
(unstandardized)		 S.E. Estimate
(standardized)		 Estimate
(unstandardized)		 S.E. Estimate
(standardized)
    Direct Effects Cambodian (N=145) Vietnamese (N=147)
ICD → Family conflict 0.79** 0.13 0.52 0.85** 0.13 0.56
Family conflict → Alcohol use 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.26* 0.12 0.26
Family conflict → Parental involvement/monitoring −0.18** 0.07 −0.45 −0.32** 0.07 −0.86
Parental involvement → Peer behavior −4.9* 2.1 −0.96 −2.6** 0.96 −0.59
Parental involvement → Alcohol use −0.45 0.27 −0.17 −0.80** 0.33 −0.30
Peer behavior → Alcohol use 0.12** 0.04 0.23 0.04 0.04 0.06
ICD → Alcohol use 0.06 0.20 0.04 −0.14 0.23 −0.09
Gender → Alcohol use 0.42 0.28 0.42 0.33 0.28 0.33
Age → Alcohol use 0.51 0.45 0.48 0.50** 0.17 0.47
Country of birth → Alcohol use 0.37 1.7 0.37 0.18 0.41 0.18
Number of years in the U.S. → Alcohol use 0.04 0.41 0.07 0.02 0.06 0.05
    Indirect Effects
ICD → Family conflict → Alcohol use 0.10 0.28 0.06 0.21* 0.11 0.15
ICD → Family conflict → Parental involvement → Alcohol use 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.22* 0.10 0.15
ICD → Family conflict → Parental involvement → Peer behavior → Alcohol use 0.08* 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.02
Total indirect effects 0.24* 0.10 0.15 0.46** 0.12 0.31
R2=0.45 R2=0.47
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*

p < .05

**

p<.01

Among Vietnamese adolescents, significant paths included: ICD → family conflict (β = 0.56, p < .01), family conflict → alcohol use (β = 0.26, p < .05), family conflict → parental involvement/monitoring (β = −0.86, p < .01), parental involvement/monitoring → peer behavior (β = −0.59, p < .01), and parental involvement/monitoring → alcohol use (β = −0.30, p < .01). There was not a significant effect of peer behavior on alcohol use (β = 0.06, p = .32) nor was there a significant direct effect of ICD on alcohol (β = −0.09, p = .55). There were significant indirect effects of ICD on alcohol through family conflict (β = 0.15, p < .05) and through family conflict and parental involvement/monitoring (β = 0.15, p < .05) but not through the full mediating pathway of family conflict, parental involvement/monitoring, and peer behavior (β = 0.02, p = .37). The total indirect effects of ICD on alcohol use were significant (β = 0.31, p < .01).

Discussion

This study found that approximately 16% of Cambodian and Vietnamese adolescents reported recent alcohol use. This is in line with the recent National Survey of Drug Use and Health that found 15% of Asian youth reported past-month use and lower rates of past-month drinking compared to Black (18%), Hispanic (21%), and White (26%) racial and ethnic groups (SAMHSA, 2014). Despite the lower prevalence, it is important to investigate alcohol use among this population given that risk factors for drinking have been understudied among Asians (Cook et al., 2015) and the strong link between adolescent alcohol use and adverse outcomes (Hingson and Zha, 2009). In a previous investigation, we observed a strong and statistically significant association between the risk factor ICD and past-month alcohol use among Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents (Kane, Johnson, et al., 2016). In the present study, we explored the potential mechanisms underlying that association through an analysis of potential mediators: family conflict, parental involvement and monitoring, and peer risk behavior (e.g., truancy, substance use). Results indicate that the three mediating factors collectively explain much of the ICD-alcohol use association among this sample of Cambodian and Vietnamese adolescents. In fact, we found no significant direct effects of ICD on alcohol in either the Cambodian or Vietnamese samples, but did find that the total indirect effects of ICD on alcohol through the proposed mediators were significant (p < .05 in both samples). This suggests that the association of ICD and alcohol is fully mediated by the variables included in our analysis. Several studies have now suggested that the impact of acculturation-level factors such as ICD on adolescent health outcomes are partially or fully explained by parent- and peer-level variables (Choi et al., 2008; Hahm et al., 2004; Le et al., 2009).

Our model fit statistics and test of measurement invariance indicated that the proposed model was an adequate fit in both samples and that there was not a significant difference in the overall model between the two groups. This is in line with previous research with this sample, which found no significant difference in prevalence of alcohol use, ICD, or the strength of the ICD-alcohol use relationship between the two groups and no significant difference between the two groups in an ICD-child problem behavior path that included family conflict and parent-child bonding (Choi et al., 2008; Kane, Johnson, et al., 2016). We did find, however, differences in strength and statistical significance of individual paths between the groups. We discuss the similarities and differences in the path models below.

In both samples, elevated levels of ICD were associated with increased amounts of family conflict, which is consistent with several previous studies of ICD among both Asian (Choi et al., 2008; Farver et al., 2002) and non-Asian immigrant families (Birman, 2006; Telzer, 2011). ICD can impact family conflict from both the child and parent perspectives. Among youth, the perception of a gap in cultural norms with their parents can make them more likely to instigate arguments or disagreements with parents and other family members; parents with a strong traditional cultural identification, on the other hand, may view a host country’s culture as threatening for their children, which also serves to increase tension and conflict within the family unit (Choi et al., 2008; Chung, 2001). Among the Vietnamese adolescents, this family conflict was directly associated with an increased risk for alcohol use. Choi and colleagues (2008) similarly found that family conflict had a direct effect on child problem behaviors.

Among both groups we also observed that an increased amount of reported conflict within families was associated with lower levels of parent-child involvement and parental monitoring. Studies of adolescent health have similarly suggested that in an effort to avoid increased conflict with their children, parenting practices, including monitoring, involvement, and disciplining of children may become inconsistent or decrease overall (Ary et al., 1999; Patterson et al., 1992). This finding is also consistent with previous ICD studies that analyzed parenting domains, in which ICD led to unsupportive parenting practices among Chinese adolescents (Kim et al., 2009; Kim, Chen, Wang, Shen, & Orozco-Lapray, 2013) and reduced parent-child bonding among Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents (Choi et al., 2008). Practically, this means that Vietnamese and Cambodian youth may be receiving limited monitoring from parents during a critical time for initiation of risk behaviors. Among Vietnamese adolescents, reduced monitoring and involvement was directly associated with an increased risk for alcohol use; among Cambodian adolescents, the p value of the parental involvement/monitoring path coefficient for alcohol use was marginal (p =.09).

Among both groups, parental involvement/monitoring was strongly inversely linked to adolescents’ relationships with deviant peers. Higher levels of parental involvement/monitoring were associated with a lower level of association with peers who used substances or got into trouble. Previous studies have found that positive parental practices can serve as buffers to adverse adolescent outcomes (Choi et al., 2008; Kim et al., 2009, 2013); our finding, similar to that of Wang et al. (2012), is interesting because it indicates that even the child’s perception of their parents’ involvement and knowledge of activities can mitigate the influence of peers who engage in deviant behaviors. Conversely, the lack of involvement by parents may be associated with feelings of alienation among youth, which facilitates their desire to find support and acceptance from peers (Le et al., 2009).

The most striking difference between the samples was with regard to the role of peer behavior on alcohol use. Among Cambodian adolescents, peer behavior was strongly associated with adolescent alcohol use, consistent with a substantial body of literature among adolescents from both immigrant and non-immigrant families on the impact of deviant peers (Ary et al., 1999; Hahm et al., 2004; Le et al., 2009; Lim et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2012). Additionally, the indirect pathway of ICD on alcohol use through family conflict, parental monitoring, and peer behavior was significant. Conversely, the direct effect of peer behavior on alcohol use was not significant among Vietnamese adolescents, nor was the indirect path of ICD on alcohol through peer behavior (the indirect paths of ICD through family conflict and parental monitoring, on the other hand, were significant among Vietnamese adolescents).

Previous research has suggested that Cambodian adolescents in the U.S. have experienced more difficulty than other Asian adolescent ethnic groups (including Vietnamese) in adjusting to life in the U.S. (Choi et al., 2008; Kim 2002), including studies showing an elevated risk for externalizing behaviors (Choi et al., 2008) and associating with delinquent peers, such as through gang involvement (Go and Le, 2005; Kim, 2002). This difference may partially explain the relative importance of peer behavior on alcohol use among Cambodian adolescents compared to Vietnamese adolescents in our sample. It is possible that there are other, unmeasured factors that stem from ICD, family conflict, and parental monitoring and lead to alcohol use among Vietnamese youth.. For example, literature has suggested that ICD is associated with depression among Chinese adolescents via family conflicts and unsupportive parenting practices (Kim et al., 2009). Children may internalize their feelings over these conflicts leading to depressive symptoms (Crane, Ngai, Larson, & Hafen, 2005). Additionally, Kim et al. (2009) hypothesized that higher levels of ICD result in less openness and communication between adolescents and their caregivers. The adolescents thus lose a key source of support that would otherwise be able to help them navigate difficult circumstances, leading to depression symptoms of hopelessness and helplessness. Alcohol use may then follow depression as a means for coping or regulating negative mood (Fang, Barnes-Ceeney, & Schinke, 2011). It is possible that in our study, family conflicts led to internalizing symptoms among Vietnamese adolescents and externalizing behaviors (e.g., associating with deviant peers) among Cambodian adolescents, which could partially explain the difference in the peer behavior path coefficient.

Similarly, a study by Nguyen (2008) found that among Vietnamese adolescents in the U.S., depression was related to parenting practices. The study reported that adolescents who perceived that their fathers had a low level of acculturation (i.e., a low identification with U.S. cultural norms) also reported that their fathers were more likely to have an authoritarian parenting style. Authoritarian parenting styles are characterized by placing a high value on obedience to parenting authority, punitive punishments in cases of disobedience, and emphasis on hard work and tradition (Baumrind, 1968; Wang, Kviz, et al., 2012) compared to authoritative parenting, which typically includes greater emphasis on communication and child independence (Baumrind, 1968; Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Wang, Kviz, et al., 2012). In the Nguyen (2008) study, adolescent report of authoritarian parenting was, in turn, associated with an increased risk for adolescent depressive symptomatology and low self-esteem compared to adolescents who reported their fathers had a more authoritative parenting style. Depression is therefore one possible mechanism through which ICD, family conflict, and parental monitoring may impact alcohol use among Asian youth and is an avenue for future research.

The findings of this study provide several potential intervention targets, increasing the options for strategies to prevent alcohol use among adolescents. For example, conflict management within family units experiencing ICD could be an effective indicated prevention strategy (Choi et al., 2008). Family conflict, however, has been found in some cases to be intractable to intervention efforts (Formoso, Gonzales, & Aiken, 2000); in these cases, programs focused on parenting, and specifically encouraging supportive parenting practices and bicultural effectiveness training, may be more effective than addressing conflict directly (Formoso et al., 2000; Kim et al., 2013; Unger et al., 2009). Options for intervening on association with deviant peers can include resilience and assertiveness training (Hahm et al., 2004; Scheier, 2001). Hahm et al. (2004) also recommend that parents and teachers encourage immigrant youth – particularly those who may be experiencing conflict with parents – to participate in prosocial activities with adult supervision, such as sports, clubs, or Asian cultural activities (language, art, etc.). Because there is limited peer expectation of substance or alcohol use in such groups, youth would have reduced access to peers engaged in risk behaviors (Hahm et al., 2004). Our findings underscore the need to ensure that interventions such as those mentioned above are targeted and designed to be culturally relevant (Le et al., 2009) given potential differences across ethnic groups in how ICD impacts alcohol use.

Limitations

This study had several limitations. First, we used a path analysis, which refers to a structural equation model of observed variables; that is, the model contains a structural component, but not a measurement component. The sample size of the current study, especially when separated into Vietnamese and Cambodian samples, is insufficiently large to create and test latent constructs. Therefore, this study used “measured constructs” that are assumed to be observed and not latent and our results should be replicated in larger samples (Choi et al., 2008). Second, we had reports of ICD and other predictors from only the adolescent perspective; ICD studies should attempt to get reports from both parent and child when possible (Birman, 2006). Third, our measure of alcohol consumption was limited by only capturing frequency and not quantity of recent drinking. The measure of alcohol use prevalence, however, is clearly an important indicator and has implications for future health: research has demonstrated that early age initiation of drinking alcohol (such as those ages represented by the sample in the CCF data) and any alcohol use between the ages of 12–17 is associated with a range of negative outcomes (NIAAA, 2009). Fourth, a limitation of the CCF study is that it was a regional, not a national, sample of Vietnamese and Cambodian families living in Washington State. Fifth, although we had the ability in this study to establish temporality of the predictors (measured at wave 4) relative to the alcohol outcome (measured at wave 5), ICD and all three mediators were measured at the same time. Reverse directionality, bidirectionality, and cyclical effects of the ICD and mediator relationships are possibilities. This is particularly salient given that ICD, family conflict, parental monitoring, and peer relationships are all dynamic constructs during adolescence. A longitudinal study that tracks these indicators over the adolescent years is therefore warranted. Finally, we acknowledge that the data from the original CCF study were collected in 2005, over a decade before the current analysis. However, we believe the findings are relevant to the current literature for several reasons: 1) prevalence of alcohol use found in our study is similar to that of recent surveys conducted among Asian groups (SAMHSA, 2014); 2) recent studies have found similar relationships between ICD, parental knowledge, peer deviance and adverse outcomes (Wang et al., 2012; Lim et al., 2011); 3) Asian youth are a rapidly growing population in the U.S. that is expected to increase by 87% by 2060 (Colby & Ortman, 2015); and 4) it has been demonstrated that negative outcomes associated with ICD can persist into a child’s adulthood (Hannum & Dvorak, 2004).

Conclusion

This study identified several mediators of the ICD-alcohol use relationship among Cambodian and Vietnamese adolescents from immigrant families in the U.S. These mediators serve as potential targets for preventive intervention efforts. Our findings highlight the need for future studies to include measures of potentially mediating constructs. Differences in path coefficients between Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents also reinforces the findings from several recent studies that there are important distinctions between adolescent Asian ethnic groups in alcohol use and correlates of drinking (Iwamoto, Corbin, & Fromme, 2010; Iwamoto, Kaya, Grivel, & Clinton, 2016; Kane, Damian, et al., 2016) indicating that subgroup analyses should be conducted when possible.

Acknowledgments

The Cross Cultural Families Project was funded by NIMH and NICHD (5 R01 MH059777; PI: Harachi). Dr. Kane is supported by NIDA (T32DA007292) and NIAAA (L40 AA025231). The funding sources had no role in study design; in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; or in the decision to submit the paper for publication.

Footnotes

Conflict of interest

The authors have no conflicts to declare.

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