Table 1.
Diet wide significant associations with serum urate levels (μmol/L) in full, male, and female study cohorts
| Food items | Full cohort | Male cohort | Female cohort | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No | β (95% CI)† | Pβ | R2 (%)‡ | β§ | No | β (95% CI) | Pβ | R2 (%) | No | β (95% CI) | Pβ | R2 (%) | |||
| Associated with higher urate levels | |||||||||||||||
| Beer | 16 724 | 1.38 (1.02 to 1.74)¶ | <0.001 | 0.99 | 3.91 | 8392 | 1.33 (0.93 to 1.74)¶ | <0.001 | 1.31 | 8332 | 1.78 (1.22 to 2.34) | <0.001 | 0.49 | ||
| Liquor | 16 743 | 1.38 (0.79 to 1.98)¶ | <0.001 | 0.40 | 2.46 | 8403 | 1.16 (0.46 to 1.86)¶ | 0.001 | 0.41 | 8340 | 1.84 (1.21 to 2.48) | <0.001 | 0.44 | ||
| Wine | 16 743 | 1.07 (0.34 to 1.80)¶ | 0.004 | 0.17 | NA | 8402 | 1.30 (0.64 to 1.96) | <0.001 | 0.16 | 8341 | 0.89 (−0.17 to 1.94)¶ | 0.10 | 0.20 | ||
| Potato | 16 754 | 0.87 (0.42 to 1.32) | <0.001 | 0.11 | NA | 8411 | 0.90 (0.25 to 1.56) | 0.007 | 0.09 | 8343 | 0.77 (0.15 to 1.40) | 0.02 | 0.09 | ||
| Poultry | 16 740 | 0.70 (0.29 to 1.10) | <0.001 | 0.08 | NA | 8403 | 0.94 (0.33 to 1.56) | 0.003 | 0.10 | 8337 | 0.50 (−0.02 to 1.02) | 0.06 | 0.05 | ||
| Soft drink | 16 745 | 0.68 (0.34 to 1.02)¶ | <0.001 | 0.30 | 0.89; 0.58; 0.56 | 8404 | 0.79 (0.53 to 1.04) | <0.001 | 0.39 | 8341 | 0.55 (0.09 to 1.01)¶ | 0.02 | 0.16 | ||
| Beef, pork, or lamb | 16 757 | 0.63 (0.32 to 0.95) | <0.001 | 0.08 | 1.95; 0.43 | 8412 | 0.72 (0.28 to 1.16) | 0.001 | 0.12 | 8345 | 0.47 (0.02 to 0.92) | 0.04 | 0.04 | ||
| Associated with lower urate levels | |||||||||||||||
| Eggs | 16 736 | −1.10 (−1.54 to −0.66) | <0.001 | 0.13 | NA | 8403 | −1.45 (−2.03 to −0.86) | <0.001 | 0.27 | 8333 | −0.45 (−1.74 to 0.84)¶ | 0.49 | 0.01 | ||
| Peanuts* | 12 504 | −0.88 (−1.25 to −0.51) | <0.001 | 0.18 | NA | 6277 | −1.01 (−1.51 to −0.52) | <0.001 | 0.24 | 6227 | −0.65 (−1.23 to −0.07) | 0.03 | 0.07 | ||
| Cold cereal | 16 751 | −0.72 (−0.97 to −0.47) | <0.001 | 0.14 | NA | 8409 | −0.73 (−1.07 to −0.38) | <0.001 | 0.19 | 8342 | −0.67 (−1.04 to −0.30) | <0.001 | 0.08 | ||
| Skim milk | 16 714 | −0.63 (−0.78 to −0.48) | <0.001 | 0.40 | −0.63 | 8390 | −0.78 (−1.00 to −0.56) | <0.001 | 0.55 | 8324 | −0.48 (−0.68 to −0.28) | <0.001 | 0.24 | ||
| Cheese | 16 755 | −0.62 (−0.89 to −0.35) | <0.001 | 0.09 | NA | 8410 | −0.64 (−1.05 to −0.23) | 0.002 | 0.10 | 8345 | −0.64 (−0.99 to −0.29) | <0.001 | 0.09 | ||
| Brown bread | 16 710 | −0.60 (−0.77 to −0.42) | <0.001 | 0.22 | NA | 8382 | −0.68 (−0.93 to−0.44)¶ | <0.001 | 0.34 | 8328 | −0.45 (−0.71 to −0.20) | <0.001 | 0.11 | ||
| Margarine | 16 716 | −0.29 (−0.44 to −0.15) | <0.001 | 0.10 | NA | 8383 | −0.25 (−0.69 to 0.18)¶ | 0.26 | 0.10 | 8333 | −0.34 (−0.53 to −0.14) | <0.001 | 0.11 | ||
| Non-citrus fruit | 16 760 | −0.28 (−0.43 to −0.13) | <0.001 | 0.06 | NA | 8414 | −0.43 (−0.66 to −0.19) | <0.001 | 0.14 | 8346 | −0.14 (−0.33 to 0.04) | 0.13 | 0.01 | ||
NA=not applicable.
Not all datasets were included in the analysis. The number of asterisks represents the number of datasets missing.
Effect size, reflecting the change in serum urate level (μmol/L) per weekly serve.
Partial R2 value (R2 B) converted to a percentage (R2×100) that quantitates the percent variance in serum urate levels explained by the food item.
Values from significantly associated analyses from published data in combined men and women: beer and liquor were obtained from reference 21; soft drink data from references 18, 51, and 52; meat (beef, pork, or lamb) data from references 19 and 52; skim milk data from reference 52. References 18, 19, and 21 analysed NHANES III and therefore are not independent of our study.
A random effect model was used in the meta-analysis (PQ<0.1).