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. 2018 Nov 7;8:16466. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-34825-6

Evolution of six novel ORFs in the plastome of Mankyua chejuense and phylogeny of eusporangiate ferns

Hyoung Tae Kim 1,2, Ki-Joong Kim 1,✉
PMCID: PMC6220310  PMID: 30405200

Abstract

In this paper, three plastomes of Mankyua chejuense, Helminthostachys zeylanica, and Botrychium ternatum in Ophioglossaceae were completely sequenced in order to investigate the plastome evolution and phylogeny of eusporangiate ferns. They were similar to each other in terms of length and the gene orders; however, six unknown open reading frames (ORFs) were found between rps4 and trnL-UAA genes in M. chejuense. Similar sequence regions of six ORFs of M. chejuense were found at the plastomes of Ophioglossum californicum and H. zeylanica, as well as the mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of H. zeylanica, but not in B. ternatum. Interestingly, the translated amino acid sequences of three ORFs were more similar to the proteins of distantly related taxa such as algae and bacteria than they were to proteins in land plants. It is likely that the six ORFs region arose from endosymbiotic gene transfer (EGT) or horizontal gene transfer (HGT), but further study is needed to verify this. Phylogenetic analyses suggested that Mankyua was resolved as the earliest diverging lineage and that Ophioglossum was subsequently diverged in Ophioglossaceae. This result supports why the plastome of M. chejuense have contained the most ancestral six ORFs in the family.

Introduction

Chloroplast is an apparatus for photosynthesis in plant cells that holds an independent genome compared to nuclear and mitochondrial genomes. The plastomes of land plants are typically 120–160 kb in length and have quadripartite structures1. Because of the strong selective constraint for photosynthesis, land plant plastomes usually contain a set of unique 100–120 photosynthetic and housekeeping genes that originate from cyanobacteria1. Chloroplast gene(s) or duplicated part(s) of plastomes are frequently transferred to the nuclear or mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) through intracellular gene transfer (IGT)s2,3. However, gene transfer to the counter direction is very rare evolutionary events2. Only a few cases of IGT to plastomes have been reported in unrelated plant families, such as Apiaceae4,5, Poaceae6,7, Apocynaceae8, and Anacardiaceae9. In all of these IGT cases, short portions of mitogenome were the donors to plastomes, and there has been no documented case of nuclear genome donor to plastome.

Horizontal plastome capture through hybridization between similar species is one kind of horizontal gene transfer (HGT) that is relatively common in land plants. In addition, HGT has also been documented between far distant organisms such as plant-fungus, plant-bacteria, and plant-virus10. Many land plants live in the symbiotic associations with fungi or bacteria. Therefore, they have relatively high chances of HGT between distant organisms. However, on the plant side, the reported HGTs were engaged in mitogenomes or nuclear genomes, not in plastomes. Land plant plastomes do not normally recombine with other genomes, therefore it is very rare for them to act as a recipient of the HGT in land plant plastomes10. In contrast, in the green alga Euglena myxocylindracea, plastomes show intron gains from bacteria11,12.

So far, more than 2,000 complete plastome sequences are available from public databases, such as NCBI. Plastomes, however, appear to be recalcitrant to the incorporation of foreign DNA by either IGT or HGT9. Only a few families, as mentioned in the previous paragraphs, have been recognized as containing DNA of nonplastome origin. However, most published reports on plastomes have been on those from seed plants. We still have limited complete plastomes for several major fern lineages. Ferns are usually divided into two groups: eusporangiate and leptosporangiate ferns. The eusporangiate ferns form basal paraphyletic assemblages because they include the eusporangiate fern clade. So far, 65 plastomes have been reported in leptosporangiate ferns13–15; in contrast, only nine plastomes in eusporangiate ferns have been sequenced from two species of Marattiales16,17, two species of Psilotales18,19, two species of Equisetales18,20,21, and one species of Ophioglossales18.

The order Ophioglossales of eusporangiate ferns contains a single family Ophioglossaceae, and this family consists of four genera (Ophioglossum, Botrychium, Helmintostachys, and Mankyua)22. Ophioglossum and Botrychium each consist of a number of species and are both relatively common in the northern hemisphere; however, both Helmintostachys and Mankyua are monotypic genera and show restricted distribution patterns in temperate regions of East Asia23,24. Among four genera, Mankyua has recently been described from a volcanic island in the Southern part of Korea as Mankyua chejuense24. It is a rare, endemic, and endangered plant species, and only a couple hundred individuals were reported to live in the specific habitats of small scattered volcanic craters called “Gotjawal” in Jeju island of Korea25.

In the phylogeny of Ophiglossacae, Hauk, et al.26 showed that Ophioglossum was the sister group to the clade of Helminthostachys + Botrychium s.l. using rbcL and trnL-F sequences. However, the phylogenetic studies including Mankyua have shown different phylogenetic relationships among four genera. Sun, et al.27 suggested that M. chejuense was sister to the clade of Botrychium + Helminthostachys and that Ophioglossum was the sister group to the three genera. In contrast, Shinohara, et al.28 suggested that Botrychium was sister to Ophioiglossum + Helminthostachys and that Mankyua was sister to the remaining taxa. In addition to the topological incongruences of the four genera, several nodes in the previous phylogenies of Ophioglossaceae were not strongly supported. As a result, the relationships among four genera in Ophioglossaceae remain unclear.

In this paper, plastomes of M. chejuense, H. zeylanica, and B. ternatum were completely sequenced and compared with previously reported plastomes of O. californiacum in order to investigate the evolution of plastomes in Ophioglossaceae. During this study, we identified approximately 10 kb insertion with six unknown ORFs between rps4 and trnL-UAA genes of M. chejuense plastome. These six ORFs were located in the same direction as those in polycistronic genes. Therefore, we discussed the possible origins of the six ORFs through intensive comparative data analysis. In addition, the phylogeny of the four genera in the family Ophioglossaceae was reconstructed based on coding sequences of the plastome in order to resolve the enigmatic relationships among the four genera in Ophioglossaceae.

Results and Discussion

Genome structure and gene contents of plastomes in Ophioglossaceae

The four completely annotated plastome sequences reported in this study are available from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) under the accession numbers of B. ternatum (KM817789), H. zeylanica (KM817788), and M. chejuensis 1,2 (NC017006, KP205433). The row Illumina MiSeq sequence data files also available from the NCBI database (Supplemental Table 1). We sequenced two different accessions of M. chejuensis using different methods: PCR-amplified Sanger sequencing and the MiSeq (Illumina, San Diego) NGS.

The plastome of M. chejuense sequenced through PCR was 146,221 bp in length with a large single copy (LSC) region of 106,096 bp, a small single copy (SSC) region of 20,613 bp, and two inverted repeat (IR) regions of 9,756 bp each (Fig. 1). It contained 135 genes, including 84 protein coding genes, 8 ribosomal RNAs, 37 transfer RNAs, and six unknown ORFs. Four rRNA and five tRNA genes were duplicated in the IR region (Table 1). Sixteen genes had one intron while the clpP and ycf3 genes each had two introns. The plastome of M. chejuense sequenced through NGS was 146,225 bp. An average coverage depth of the plastome was approximately 400 times (Supplemental Table 1). A total of six poly-T length variations and 45 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were found between two plastome sequences of M. chejuense (Supplementary Table S2). Thirty-seven SNPs were found at the coding regions; in particular, SNPs in petB and psbB accounted for 71% of the total SNPs. Interestingly, non-synonymous substitutions were almost three-fold the prevalence of synonymous substitutions in petB and psbB, and petB in plastome of M. chejuense sequenced by PCR method had one premature stop codon caused by substitution (TGG > TGA).

Figure 1.

Figure 1

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Maps of three plastomes in Ophioglossaceae. Arrows and dashes refer to inversion and expanded positions, respectively.

Table 1.

Gene list of chloroplast genomes found in four genera in Ophioglossaceae.

Group of gene Conserved genes M. chejuense (PCR) M. chejuense (NGS) H. zeylanica B. ternatum O. californicum
RNA genes Ribosomal RNAs rrn4.5(x2), rrn5(x2), rrn16(x2), rrn23(x2)
Transfer RNAs trnA-UGCa(x2), trnC-GCA, trnD-GUC, trnE-UUC, trnF-GAA, trnfM-CAU, trnG-GCC, trnG-UCC, trnH-GUG, trnI-CAU, trnI-GAUa(x2), trnK-UUUa, trnL-CAA, trnL-UAAa, trnL-UAG, trnM-CAU, trnN-GUU(x2), trnP-GGG, trnP-UGG, trnQ-UUG, trnR-ACG(x2), trnR-CCG, trnR-UCU, trnS-CGA, trnS-GCU, trnS-GGA, trnS-UGA, trnT-GGU, trnV-GAC(x2), trnV-UACa, trnW-CCA, trnY-GUA φtrnT-UGU φtrnT-UGU
Protein genes Photosystem I psaA, psaB, psaC, psaI, psaJ, psaM
Photosystem II psbA, psbB, psbC, psbD, psbE, psbF, psbH, psbI, psbJ, psbK, psbL, psbM, psbN, psbT, psbZ
Cytochrome petA, petDa, φpetB a petB a petB a petB a petB a
ATP synthase atpA, atpB, atpE, atpFa, atpH, atpI
Chlorophyll biosynthesis chlL, chlN chlB chlB chlB φchlB chlB
Rubisco rbcL
NADH dehydrogenease ndhAa, ndhBa, ndhC, ndhD, ndhE, ndhF, ndhG, ndhH, ndhI, ndhJ, ndhK
ATP-dependent protease subunit P clpP a
Chloroplast envelope membrane protein cemA
Ribosomal proteins large units rpl2a, rpl14, rpl16a, rpl20, rpl21, rpl22, rpl23, rpl32, rpl33, rpl36
small units rps2, rps3, rps7, rps8, rps11, rps12a, rps14, rps15, rps18, rps19 rps4 rps4 rps4 φrps4 rps4
Transcription RNA polymerase rpoC1 a rpoA, φrpoB, rpoC2 rpoA, φrpoB, rpoC2 rpoA, rpoB, φrpoC2 φrpoA, rpoB, φrpoC2 rpoA, rpoB, rpoC2
Translation Initiation factor infA
Miscellaneous proteins accD, ccsA matK matK φmatK matK
Hypothetical proteins & Conserved reading frame ycf2, ycf3a, ycf4, ycf12 ORF135, ORF187, ORF295, ORF372, ORF436, ORF531, φycf1 ORF135, ORF187, ORF295, ORF372, ORF436, ORF531, φycf1 φycf1 ycf1 ycf1
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(x2): duplicated genes, a: genes having introns φ: pseudogene.

Even though intraspecific variations of plastomes in ferns have been reported21, population studies of M. chejuense have shown extremely low genetic diversity29. Based on our observation of the reproduction of M. chejuense over three years, asexual reproduction by rhizomes was found to be very common. Therefore, these polymorphisms between two plastomes seem to not be genuine. It has been previously shown that after free-living cyanobacteria are engulfed by eukaryotes, numerous genes are translocated from plastids to nucleus30. Nuclear copies of organellar DNAs have frequently been found in land plants31, and they have led to misleading phylogeny results32. Consequently, PCR-amplified sequences of the plastome of M. chejuense might be derived from the nuclear DNA rather than the plastome of M. chejuense, because the nuclear copies of plastid DNA were homologous to their counterparts in the plastome and their primer regions were shared.

The plastome of H. zeylanica was 145,120 bp with an LSC region of 103,088 bp, an SSC of 19,950 bp, and two IR regions of 11,041 bp (Fig. 1). The plastome of B. ternatum was 139,127 bp with an LSC of 99,586 bp, an SSC of 20,569 bp, and two copies of IR with 9,486 bp (Fig. 1). Among four genera in Ophioglossaceae, rps16 and trnT-UGU genes were commonly lost; however, pseudo trnT-UGU remained in the H. zeylanica and B. ternatum plastomes between rps4 and trnL-UAA. The chlB, matK, petB, rpoA, rpoB, rpoC2, rps4, and ycf1 were pseudogenes in at least one plastome, but not in all plastomes. But, the status of pseudogene was not confirmed because we did not study the RNA editing. In addition, there was an inversion of trnT-GGU in the plastome of B. ternatum.

Six ORFs of M. chejuense and similar sequences in Ophioglossaceae

The most distinctive feature among the plastomes of the four genera was the region between trnT-GGU and ndhJ (Fig. 2A). Compared to B. ternatum plastome, the three plastomes of the other genera contained the expanded regions between trnT-GGU and ndhJ, but they were not identical (Fig. 2B). The intergenic spaces (IGSs) of rps4 - trnL (M. chejuense and O. californicum), trnT-GGU - trnfM-CAU (O. californicum and H. zeylanica) and trnF-GAA - ndhJ (H. zeylanica) were 1.5~10 times longer than the IGSs of these regions in B. ternatum. In particular, six unknown ORFs (ORF295, ORF436, ORF135, ORF372, ORF531, and ORF187) were found between rps4 and trnL-UAA genes in M. chejuense, and these six ORFs were located in the same direction as polycistronic genes. The expanded regions in O. californicum and H. zeylanica were partial of six ORFs of M. chejuense with structural mutations (Fig. 2C).

Figure 2.

Figure 2

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Alignments of plastomes in Ophioglossaceae. (A) Whole genome alignment. (B) Alignment between trnT-GGU and ndhJ. (C) Visualized alignment by MAUVE.

Contigs generated by the de novo assembly of three sets of NGS data were hit to six ORFs region in the plastome of M. chejuense using blastn in order to investigate translocated ORFs into other genomes such as mitogenome. Two contigs of H. zeylanica with 10-11 coverage depths included sequences similar to six ORFs except for plastome contigs. One contig contained plastome genes of petN and psbM and mitogenome genes of nad7 and nad2 with six ORFs (Fig. 3A). IGS of rps4 - trnL-UAA in the plastome of M. chejuense corresponded highly with petN-psbM in the mitochondrial contig of H. zeylanica, even though there were rearrangements and insertions/deletions (Fig. 3B). Another contig contained a region similar to ORF295 with low similarity. Certain contigs of M. chejuense, H. zeylanica, and B. ternatum had similar sequences of six ORFs; however, they were less than 1,500 bp with less than three coverage depths (almost around 1). These contigs were removed upon further analyses because we could not verify the assembly errors.

Figure 3.

Figure 3

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(A) Comparison between plastome and mitogenome of H. zeylanica. (B) Sequence similarity between six ORFs regions of H. zeylanica and M. chejuense. Score/max ratio colouring with blue < = 0.25, green < = 0.5, orange < = 0.75, and red >0.75.

As the total length of NGS data of H. zeylanica was 4.25 Gb, and the lowest 1 C reported in Ophioglossaceae so far was 2.5 Gb33,34, 10-11 coverage depths implied that this contig belonged to mitogenome rather than nuclear genome, even though many plastome and mitogenome sequences were found in nuclear genomes35. The translated amino acid sequences of ORF135, ORF295, and ORF436 between the plastome of M. chejuense and mitogenome of H. zeylanica had over 70% identity while that of ORF372 had 40% identity (Supplementary Fig. 1). The ORF187 and ORF531 of H. zeylanica underwent frame-shift mutations and rearrangement, respectively.

The origin of six ORFs

Based on blastp results (Table 2), the translated amino acid sequence of ORF295 was only similar to the protein of the green alga Roya anglica, which belongs to Streptophyta, and the translated amino acid sequence of ORF436 was similar to the proteins of Chlorophyta, which is a sister group of Streptophyta in Viridiplantae. Interestingly, the translated amino acid sequence of ORF531 was more similar to bacterial proteins than the proteins in Viridiplantae, even though the TrlaMp60 of Treubia lacunosa belonging to Streptophyta was hit to ORF531. Blastn results showed that the plastomes of very few species in ferns contained similar sequences to six ORFs (Supplementary Table S2).

Table 2.

Results of blastp of six ORFs with e-value 10−2.

Gene Description Phylum Species Max.score Total.score Query.cover E.value Ident Accession
ORF295 hypothetical protein (chloroplast) Streptophyta Roya anglica 89 89 65% 2.00E-17 30% YP_009033761.1
ORF436 hypothetical protein (chloroplast) Chlorophyta Ettlia pseudoalveolaris 95.5 95.5 41% 3.00E-17 32% YP_009105467.1
hypothetical protein (chloroplast) Chlorophyta Prasiola crispa 68.6 68.6 42% 4.00E-09 27% AKZ21082.1
hypothetical protein (chloroplast) Chlorophyta Sarcinofilum mucosum 65.9 65.9 28% 5.00E-09 35% YP_009367460.1
hypothetical protein (chloroplast) Chlorophyta Ostreobium sp. HV05007a 67.4 67.4 28% 1.00E-08 35% ARQ82113.1
hypothetical protein (chloroplast) Chlorophyta Gloeotilopsis planctonica 67.8 67.8 37% 2.00E-08 29% AOC61661.1
ORF531 hypothetical protein Cyanobacteria Pleurocapsa sp. PCC 7319 78.6 78.6 52% 2.00E-11 27% WP_019503236.1
hypothetical protein Cyanobacteria Chondrocystis sp. NIES-4102 75.1 75.1 50% 2.00E-10 27% WP_096724718.1
DUF3854 domain-containing protein Cyanobacteria Cyanothece sp. CCY0110 70.9 70.9 49% 4.00E-09 28% WP_008277431.1
DUF3854 domain-containing protein Cyanobacteria Cyanothece sp. CCY0110 70.1 70.1 49% 7.00E-09 29% WP_008277548.1
DUF3854 domain-containing protein Cyanobacteria Cyanothece sp. PCC 7822 69.3 69.3 21% 9.00E-09 36% WP_049802779.1
hypothetical protein Cyanobacteria Myxosarcina sp. GI1 69.3 69.3 50% 1.00E-08 25% WP_052055931.1
DUF3854 domain-containing protein Cyanobacteria Crocosphaera watsonii 69.3 69.3 49% 1.00E-08 29% WP_007304689.1
DUF3854 domain-containing protein Cyanobacteria Tolypothrix bouteillei 68.9 68.9 49% 2.00E-08 28% WP_050044965.1
hypothetical protein Cyanobacteria Pleurocapsa sp. CCALA 161 68.2 68.2 50% 3.00E-08 27% WP_106238468.1
DNA primase Cyanobacteria Crocosphaera watsonii WH 0402 65.5 65.5 25% 5.00E-08 36% CCQ65996.1
ATPase Cyanobacteria Aphanothece hegewaldii 67 67 48% 7.00E-08 28% WP_106459345.1
MULTISPECIES: DUF3854 domain-containing protein Cyanobacteria Cyanothece 66.2 66.2 36% 1.00E-07 31% WP_009547941.1
DUF3854 domain-containing protein Cyanobacteria Crocosphaera watsonii 66.2 66.2 50% 1.00E-07 26% WP_007310072.1
hypothetical protein Cyanobacteria Myxosarcina sp. GI1 65.9 65.9 50% 1.00E-07 25% WP_052055870.1
DNA primase Cyanobacteria Aphanothece hegewaldii 65.9 65.9 50% 2.00E-07 24% WP_106459560.1
hypothetical protein Cyanobacteria Myxosarcina sp. GI1 65.5 65.5 46% 2.00E-07 26% WP_052056024.1
DUF3854 domain-containing protein Cyanobacteria Cyanothece sp. CCY0110 64.7 64.7 34% 4.00E-07 31% WP_008278684.1
hypothetical protein TrlaMp60 Streptophyta Treubia lacunosa 62.4 62.4 22% 7.00E-07 37% YP_004927707.1
hypothetical protein Firmicutes Tumebacillus sp. AR23208 61.6 61.6 24% 1.00E-06 27% WP_087457668.1
DUF3854 domain-containing protein Cyanobacteria Cyanothece sp. CCY0110 63.2 63.2 43% 1.00E-06 27% WP_008276837.1
hypothetical protein Cyanobacteria Myxosarcina sp. GI1 62.4 62.4 50% 2.00E-06 25% WP_052056026.1
hypothetical protein BWK76_02530 Proteobacteria Desulfobulbaceae bacterium A2 61.6 61.6 28% 3.00E-06 30% OQX20052.1
hypothetical protein Cyanobacteria Myxosarcina sp. GI1 61.2 61.2 50% 4.00E-06 24% WP_052055874.1
hypothetical protein Firmicutes Lachnospiraceae bacterium 60.8 60.8 46% 4.00E-06 22% WP_099450353.1
hypothetical protein Cyanobacteria Myxosarcina sp. GI1 59.7 59.7 50% 1.00E-05 24% WP_052055951.1
hypothetical protein C7H79_02365 Proteobacteria Nitrosomonas sp. APG5 58.5 58.5 34% 2.00E-05 31% PSJ18450.1
hypothetical protein Actinobacteri Streptomyces pini 58.5 58.5 30% 3.00E-05 25% WP_093850669.1
hypothetical protein Cyanobacteria Myxosarcina sp. GI1 58.2 58.2 50% 4.00E-05 24% WP_052056112.1
hypothetical protein Actinobacteri Mycobacterium szulgai 58.2 58.2 36% 4.00E-05 24% WP_082965783.1
ATP-binding protein Actinobacteri Streptomyces coelicolor 57.8 57.8 30% 4.00E-05 25% WP_011030338.1
hypothetical protein A5657_18130 Actinobacteri Mycobacterium szulgai 57.8 57.8 36% 5.00E-05 24% OBK51436.1
hypothetical protein CBD94_01510 Proteobacteria Gammaproteobacteria bacterium TMED234 55.5 55.5 49% 3.00E-04 26% OUW91419.1
phage/plasmid primase P4 Cyanobacteria Stanieria cyanosphaera 54.7 54.7 50% 4.00E-04 25% WP_015193635.1
MULTISPECIES: hypothetical protein Proteobacteria Alteromonas 54.7 54.7 28% 5.00E-04 25% WP_052010194.1
phage P4 DNA primase domain-containing protein Cyanobacteria Anabaena sp. 90 53.9 53.9 52% 7.00E-04 29% WP_015081293.1
hypothetical protein Cyanobacteria Nostoc sp. ‘Peltigera malacea cyanobiont’ DB3992 53.9 53.9 30% 8.00E-04 29% WP_099101112.1
DNA primase Firmicutes Eubacterium aggregans 53.1 53.1 34% 0.001 29% WP_090304657.1
phage/plasmid primase P4 family C-terminal domain containing protein Proteobacteria Desulfovibrio africanus 53.5 53.5 20% 0.001 29% WP_005988925.1
primase Firmicutes Lactobacillus equicursoris 53.5 53.5 28% 0.001 23% WP_008463426.1
DNA primase Cyanobacteria Crocosphaera watsonii WH 0401 52.8 52.8 49% 0.001 22% CCQ62642.1
hypothetical protein Proteobacteria Thiotrichales bacterium HS_08 53.1 53.1 46% 0.001 24% WP_103918394.1
primase Firmicutes Lactobacillus delbrueckii 52.8 52.8 28% 0.002 23% WP_003622798.1
DUF3854 domain-containing protein Cyanobacteria Crocosphaera watsonii 52.4 52.4 49% 0.002 22% WP_053074885.1
MULTISPECIES: hypothetical protein Proteobacteria Defluviimonas 52.4 52.4 28% 0.002 29% WP_035839891.1
phage/plasmid primase P4 Proteobacteria Mesorhizobium ciceri 51.6 51.6 25% 0.003 25% WP_013531683.1
hypothetical protein AMDU1_APLC00062G0028 Euryarchaeota Thermoplasmatales archaeon A-plasma 51.6 51.6 18% 0.004 34% EQB70371.1
hypothetical protein BSZ19_16225 Proteobacteria Bradyrhizobium japonicum 51.2 51.2 48% 0.004 21% OSJ33189.1
hypothetical protein Cyanobacteria Aphanizomenon flos-aquae 51.2 51.2 52% 0.004 28% WP_027404306.1
primase Proteobacteria Desulfovibrio vulgaris 51.6 51.6 22% 0.004 26% WP_010939463.1
primase Proteobacteria Desulfovibrio vulgaris 51.6 51.6 22% 0.004 26% WP_011792015.1
hypothetical protein A5769_14235 Actinobacteri Mycobacterium intracellulare 51.2 51.2 11% 0.005 38% OBG17368.1
hypothetical protein Actinobacteri Mycobacterium intracellulare 51.2 51.2 11% 0.005 38% WP_081284074.1
hypothetical protein Proteobacteria Bradyrhizobium japonicum 50.8 50.8 48% 0.006 21% WP_094184029.1
MULTISPECIES: DNA primase Firmicutes Lachnospiraceae 50.8 50.8 33% 0.007 27% WP_066730774.1
hypothetical protein Proteobacteria Sandarakinorhabdus sp. AAP62 50.1 50.1 24% 0.008 22% WP_017667662.1
hypothetical protein Firmicutes Lachnospiraceae bacterium TWA4 50.4 50.4 34% 0.009 27% WP_082039423.1
phage/plasmid primase, P4 family Firmicutes Lachnospiraceae bacterium TWA4 50.1 50.1 34% 0.01 27% KIR03447.1
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The first question regarding these six ORFs is whether or not they were created through the shuffling process of endogenous sequences in the plastome. The mitogenomes of land plants rapidly evolve structurally36, and direct repeats and inverted repeats have served as good tools for rearrangement37,38. Additionally, double-strand break repairs with non-homologous end-joining affect the dynamic mitogenomic variation39. As a result, novel chimeric ORFs generated by the shuffling process have been reported in the mitogenomes of land plants40,41. However, in contrast with mitogenome, rearrangements of plastome have been generally restricted in land plants1, especially in eusporangiate ferns42. Therefore, we ruled out the possibility of the six ORFs having been generated by the shuffling process of plastome sequences.

The second question is where the six ORFs region originated from prior to translocation to M. chejuense (or Ophioglossaceae). Gene transfer from other genomes, such as mitogenome or nuclear genome to plastome, were previously thought to occur extremely rarely if at all43; however, recently reported gene transfers from mitogenome to plastome6 have suggested the possibility of gene transfers from nuclear genome to plastome. Knox44 proposed that large ORFs in the plastomes of 51 species belonging to the Campanulaceae sensu lato arose from nuclear genome and Spooner, et al.4 provided the first evidence of a known nuclear sequence transferred into plastome. Martin, et al.45 revealed that massive EGTs have occurred during the evolution from plastid to nucleus in land plants. This implies that plant nuclear genome contains many genes which are orthologous to bacterial genes. Therefore, if the six ORFs region in the plastome of M. chejuense was transferred from the nuclear genome of M. chejuense, they could be similar to the ancient DNAs which remain in green algae or bacteria but not in the plastomes of land plants (Fig. 4A). In addition, as the structures of plastome in land plants have been very conserved throughout evolution with the exception of certain lineages1, it is likely that the translocated six ORFs region in the plastome of M. chejuense keeps its structure.

Figure 4.

Figure 4

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Integration models of six ORFs in Ophioglossaceae. (A) Ancient endosymbiotic gene transfer model. (B) Recent horizontal gene transfer model.

Another possible scenario for six ORFs is gene transfer from bacteria to the ancestor of Ophioglossaceae or directly to more ancient clade of ferns (Fig. 4B). Although a few nuclear genome sequences have been reported in land plants and most of them belonged to angiosperms46,47 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome), the six ORFs were only similar to the plastomes of very few fern species and the mitogenomes of H. zeylanica. In addition, the amino acid sequences of ORF436 and ORF531 were more similar to the genes of green algae or bacteria, which are distantly related to ferns, than to these of land plants. So far, many HGTs in land plants have been reported, and bacteria, fungi, and viruses have been agents of HGT in certain cases48,49. HGT from bacteria to eukaryotes has been detected in yeast50 along with that from bacteria to organelle51. Therefore, it is conceivable that the six ORFs result from HGT from bacteria to ancestor of Ophioglossaceae or more ancient clade of ferns.

The phylogenetic relationships among genera in eusporangiate ferns

Eusporangiate ferns consist of four major families: Equisetaceae, Ophioglossaceae, Psilotaceae, and Marratiaceae. The generic relationships of eusporangiate ferns have been relatively well resolved by previous studies, except for those of the family Ophioglossaceae. Therefore, our phylogenetic study is focused on the family Ophioglossaceae. Four genera of Ophioglossaceae have different distribution patterns. Both Botrychium and Ophioglossum have cosmopolitan distributions52. H. zeilanica are distributed in Asia from India and Ceyon to South China, Taiwan, and tropical Australia52, but M. chejuense is distributed only in Jeju Island of South Korea24, specifically in twenty areas called “Gotjawal” created by volcanic activity. The trophophore of Mankyua is similar to that of Helminthostachys, but its sporophore is similar to that of Ophioglossum. In addition, Mankyua and Ophioglossum have subterranean vegetative reproduction24. Even though these intermediate features of Mankyua confused its phylogenetic position in Ophioglossaceae, phylogenetic analysis containing Mankyua is rare. Sun, et al.27 presented that Ophioglossum is the sister of Mankyua + Helminthostachys + Botrychium through parsimony analysis using rbcL data, and Shinohara, et al.28 suggested two different phylogenetic position of Mankyua by ML and Bayesian analysis using rbcL and matK. However, the bootstrap values for the clade comprised of more than two genera that were still under 90% according to previous studies.

The phylogenetic relationships among all species used in this paper were almost identical between ML and Bayesian analysis (Fig. 5). Only the topology of ((Amborella, Illicium), (Trithuria (Nuphur, Nymphaea)) was supported as being stronger than that of (Amborella (Illicium (Trithuria (Nuphur, Nymphaea)) in terms of bootstrap value under ML analysis. Eusporangiate ferns, except for the Angiopteris, were monophyly with strong supports, and Ophioglossaceae also formed a clade. The phylogenetic relationships among the four genera in Ophioglossaceae in this study are completely different from those of Sun, et al.27 and Shinohara, et al.28. Mankyua was firstly diverged from a common ancestor of Ophioglossaceae, and then Ophioglossum was subsequently diverged from a common ancestor of Helminthostachys and Botrychium. Finally, Helminthostachys diverged from a sister group with Botrychium. The phylogenetic relationships of Ophioglossum, Helminthostachys, and Botrychium and not for Mankyua correspond with those described in Hauk, et al.26. They described that the ophioglossoid (Ophioglossum s.l.) and botrychioid (Helminthostachys + Botrychium s.l.) diverged relatively early in the evolutional history of the Ophioglossaceae.

Figure 5.

Figure 5

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Phylogeny of eusporangiate ferns using 44 complete plastome sequences of ferns and its relatives. Numbers on the branches refer to ML bootstrap/Bayesian posterior probability. Dash and star stand for less than 50/0.5 and 100/1.0, respectively.

Considering molecular phylogenetic analysis and the morphological characters of Ophioglossaceae, it seems that the ancestor of Ophioglossaceae have linear, fleshy spikes and vegetative reproduction. The ophioglossoid derived from a common ancestor have specialized their own trophophore and botrychioid have kept their trophophore and have specialized their own sporophore. In addition, the longitudinally dehiscent of sporangium in H. zeylanica was not plesiomorphic but apomorphic characteristic.

Materials and Methods

Plants materials and DNA extraction

H. zeylanica, M. chejuense, and B. ternatum were sampled at Cambodia and Jeju Island, Korea. The voucher specimens were deposited in the Korea University herbarium (KUS, K.-J. Kim et al., TCA2009-0806; K.-J. Jo et al., 2012–0028; K.-J. Kim et al., 2011–1638; Kim et al., 2012–0053). Total genomic DNA was extracted from fresh leaves using the CTAB method53. The DNA was purified using ultra-centrifugation in a cesium chloride/ethidium bromide gradient, then further purified by dialysis54.

Sequencing of the plastome of M. chejuense by PCR method and assembling

The total genomic DNA of M. chejuense was PCR-amplified in order to construct a plastome map using a series of primer sets designed based on three plastome sequences of Psilotum nudum, Adianthum capillus-veneris, and Angiopteris evecta16,55. Both the long-range PCR method and normal PCR method were employed using overlapping primer sets. The PCR condition for long range amplification was as follows: initial denaturation step for 4 min at 94 °C, then 35 cycle amplifications consisting of 30 sec denaturation at 94 °C, 30 sec annealing at 53~65 °C, and about 1 min/kb extension at 68 °C, followed by an extension period of 7 min at 72 °C. The PCR condition for normal amplification was as follows: initial denaturation step for 4 min at 94 °C, then 35 cycle amplifications consisting of 30 sec denaturation at 94 °C, 30 sec annealing at 47~52 °C, and about 2 min extension at 72 °C, followed by an extension period of 3 min at 72 °C. The PCR products were purified with the MEGAquick-spin kit (iNtRON, Seoul, Korea) and the cleaned products were sequenced in both directions using an ABI 3730XL automatic sequencer. Sequence contigs were assembled using Sequencher 4.7 (Gene Code Corporation, Ann Arbor, MI, USA).

Sequencing of the plastomes of H. zeylanica, M. chejuense, and B. ternatum by NGS and assembling

The genomic DNAs of H. zeylanica, M. chejuense, and B. ternatum were sequenced using MiSeq (Illumina, San Diego, CA, USA) (Supplementary Table S3). The raw reads were trimmed by trimmomatic 0.3656 with LEADING:10 (trimming the leading sequences until quality >10), TRAILING:10 (trimming the trailing sequences until quality >10), SLIDINGWINDOW:4:20 (trimming the window of size four for reads with the average quality less than 20), and MINLEN:50 (removing reads less than 50 bp in length). We followed the assembly method described by Kim, et al.57 using the plastome sequences of O. californicum18 and M. chejuense (NC017006) sequenced through PCR in this paper. Certain regions with low coverages caused by simple sequence repeats were verified using PCR.

Gene annotation

Genes in four plastomes were annotated compared with previously reported plastomes in eusporangiate ferns based on similarity. Coding genes and tRNAs were re-checked by blastp58 and tRNAscan-SE59. ORFs were annotated using with >303 bp in length.

Analyses of six ORFs in Ophioglossaceae

Six ORFs of M. chejuense were searched using blastn with 11 word size and 10−5 e-value and blastp with 3 word size and 10−2 e-value58 in order to investigate the homology with previously reported sequences in GenBank. In order to investigate the translocation of six ORFs into other genomes like nuclear or mitochondrial genome (mitogenome), three NGS raw data were de novo assembled using megahit60 and contigs were hit to six ORFs using blastn58. Mauve61 and Circoletto62,63 were used to visualize sequence similarity between six ORFs contigs in Ophioglossaceae.

Phylogenetic relationships among four genera in Ophioglossaceae

The 44 complete plastome sequences of ferns and their relatives were used to resolve the unclear intergeneric relationships in Ophioglossaceae (Supplementary Table S4). Eighty-four protein coding genes were extracted from each plastome. Each gene was aligned by MAFFT64 and 84 aligned genes were concatenated into a single aligned sequence.

The best-fit nucleotide substitution models for each gene position in a single concatenated sequence were evaluated using Partitionfinder V2.1.165,66. The maximum likelihood (ML) analysis was inferred by RAxML Black Box67 in CIPRES Science Gateway68 and Bayesian inference (BI) analysis was inferred by Mrbayes69 under GTR substitution model with gamma-distributed rate variation and a proportion of invariable sites (ngen = 1,000,000, samplefreq = 200, burninfrac = 0.25).

Electronic supplementary material

Supplementary Dataset 1 (268.9KB, pdf)

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) under grant nos. NRF-2015M3A9B8030588 to KJK and NRF-2018R1D1A3B07048213 to HTK. We thank two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on the manuscript.

Author Contributions

H.T.K. performed the experiments and data analysis, and wrote a draft of the manuscript, and K.J.K. suggested the idea for the research, guided the experiment and data analysis, and wrote the final version of the manuscript.

Data Availability Statement

The complete sequence data generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available in the NCBI GenBank repository. All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its Supplementary Information files.

Competing Interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Footnotes

Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Supplementary information accompanies this paper at 10.1038/s41598-018-34825-6.

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Supplementary Materials

Supplementary Dataset 1 (268.9KB, pdf)

Data Availability Statement

The complete sequence data generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available in the NCBI GenBank repository. All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its Supplementary Information files.

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