Is Salad Consumption Associated with Greater Adherence to Dietary Recommendations? An Examination Based on What We Eat in America, NHANES 2011–2014 (OR31-01)
Rhonda S Sebastian, Cecilia Wilkinson Enns, M Katherine Hoy, Joseph D Goldman, and Alanna J Moshfegh
Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Agricultural Research Services, USDA
Objective: The aim of this study was to determine if a relationship exists between salad reporting status (reporter/nonreporter) and adherence to Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) recommendations.
Methods: One day of data from 9678 adults age ≥20 y in What We Eat in America, NHANES 2011–2014 was analyzed. Individuals who consumed raw vegetable–based salads on the intake day were designated as salad reporters. Individuals were assigned a calorie level and corresponding DGA 2015–2020 Healthy US-Style Eating Pattern based on sex, age, and activity. Linear regression was applied to calculate adjusted estimates of food group intakes, and logistic regression assessed the likelihood of meeting DGA recommendations by salad-reporting status.
Results: On the intake day, 23% of adults ate salad. The proportion of individuals reporting salads varied by sex, age, race, income, education, smoking status, and self-assessed healthfulness of diet (P < 0.001). Compared to nonreporters, salad reporters consumed significantly larger quantities of vegetables (total, dark-green, red/orange, and other), protein foods (total and seafood), and oils but smaller quantities of grains (total and refined). Similarly, salad reporters were more likely than nonreporters to meet their DGA recommendations for total vegetables (RR: 3.32; 99.9% CI: 2.54, 4.33), dark-green vegetables (RR: 3.35; 99.9% CI: 2.70, 4.16), red/orange vegetables (RR: 2.17; 99.9% CI: 1.69, 2.79), other vegetables (RR: 2.97; 99% CI: 2.54, 3.47), total protein foods (RR: 1.19; 99.9% CI: 1.07, 1.32), seafood (RR: 1.53; 99% CI: 1.21, 1.93), and oils (RR: 1.69; 99.9% CI: 1.45, 1.97), and less likely to meet their recommendation for refined grains (RR: 0.88; 99.9% CI: 0.80, 0.97).
Conclusions: Consuming salad is associated with higher intakes of several recommended food groups, especially vegetables and oils, and consequently with greater adherence to DGA. Nevertheless, adherence was low regardless of salad-reporting status. Salad reporters’ greater intake of vegetables, together with the substantial amount of that intake that was attributable to salads, confirms the DGA message that incorporating more salads into the diet is an effective strategy for improving adherence to vegetable consumption recommendations.
Funding Sources
ARS, USDA.
Fruit and Vegetable Intake Is Associated with Alterations in Bitterness and Astringency Perception (OR31-02)
Jonathan Kershaw and Cordelia Running
Purdue University, IN
Objective: Flavors such as bitterness and astringency are frequently cited as a barrier to fruit and vegetable (FV) consumption. Data from rodent studies suggest that exposure to bitter and astringent substances (e.g., tannic acid) increases acceptance of these compounds through changes in salivary proteins. The objective of this study was to identify relationships in humans among FV intake, salivary proteins, and perception of bitterness and astringency.
Methods: Low-, medium, or high-FV consumers (based on three 24-h dietary recalls) were recruited to taste stimuli representative of bitterness and astringency. Quinine, tannic acid, malic
acid, and alum (the first 2 as bitter tastes and the last 3 as astringent stimuli) were presented alone and in combination at 2 concentrations in a sweetened fruit-flavored beverage. Participants evaluated the samples with the use of generalized visual analog scales, sorting, polarized sensory positioning, and check-all-that-apply methods. Baseline saliva from each participant was analyzed by proteomic techniques. Data were analyzed by repeated-measures ANOVA to determine the effect of FV intake, stimuli type and concentration, and relevant interactions on bitterness and astringency perception.
Results: FV intake group significantly influenced astringency and bitterness perception of tannic acid and malic acid samples, but not alum and quinine. Contrary to our hypothesis, high-FV consumers tended to rate bitter and astringency sensations as more intense. The observation that the compounds with the greatest dietary relevance (tannic and malic acids) had the greatest influence on sensory ratings across FV groups supports the hypothesis that flavor perception and exposure frequency influence each other, but the causal direction of the relationship cannot be established with these data. Relationships among salivary proteins and sensory perception are forthcoming and may help explain biological causes for differences among FV intake groups.
Conclusions: FV intake status is associated with differences in bitterness and astringency perception. The findings from this study lay the foundation to design diets and products that may improve the acceptance of FV.
Funding Sources
USDA Hatch Project accession no 1013624; CR’s startup funds.
Impact of Social Media Engagement or Image-Related Exposure on Body Image and Eating Behavior in Healthy Young Adults: A Systematic Review (OR31-03)
Kim Rounsefell, Simone Gibson, Karen Klassen, Catherine Lombard, and Tracy McCaffrey
Monash University, Australia
Objective: Negative body image increases risk of engaging in unhealthy dieting and disordered eating behaviors. The aim of this review was to determine the impact of social media engagement or exposure to image-related content on body image and eating behavior in healthy young adults (aged 18–25 y).
Methods: A systematic search of observational literature published between 2005 and 2017 was conducted across 6 international databases in May 2017. Studies reporting social media engagement (posting, liking, commenting) or any exposure to image-related content in healthy young adults were included. Outcomes of interest were body image (satisfaction or dissatisfaction) and eating behavior (healthy eating, dieting/restricting, overeating/binging). Two authors independently screened and evaluated studies for methodologic quality.
Results: From 3336 screened references, 14 cross-sectional studies (n = 5597 participants) were identified. Social media engagement or image-related exposure was associated with greater body image dissatisfaction in all studies reporting body image outcomes (n = 13). Social media engagement or image-related exposure was also associated with increased dieting, restricting, overeating, bulimic, or healthy eating behaviors (n = 5). Women experienced greater body image dissatisfaction than men (n = 3). Many studies (n = 10) controlled for confounding variables (age, gender, body mass index, ethnicity), but external validity was low due to the cross-sectional designs.
Conclusion: Social media engagement or image-related exposure appears to negatively influence body image and some eating behaviors in healthy young adults. Designers of health-related social media campaigns should be cognizant of the reciprocal relationship between negative body images and eating behaviors, and therefore these influences should be considered and better understood.
Deriving Personalized Recommendations for Fish Intake through the Use of Mathematic Optimization Methods (OR31-04)
Maria Persson, Maarten J Nauta, Sisse Fagt, Sara M Pires, and Morten Poulsen
National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark
Objective: As an alternative to generic dietary guidelines for the whole population, we developed a method for modeling individual dietary recommendations based on personal preference. The method is applied to a model of fish intake in Denmark.
Methods: We developed a mathematic optimization model that applies quadratic programming to model personalized recommendations for fish intake that deviate as little as possible from observed individual fish intake. Model constraints ensured that modeled fish intake levels met the general recommendations for eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, and vitamin D without violating the tolerable intake recommendations for methyl mercury, dioxins, and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls. Recommended intakes of 11 fish species were generated for each individual in a group of 3016 Danish adults (1552 women and 1464 men, aged 18–75 y), whose fish intakes and body weights were recorded from a national dietary survey. Background intakes of the nutrients and contaminants in question from foods other than fish, supplements, and environmental exposure were analyzed. Modeled intakes with different background exposures were compared with the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank test. Modeled intakes were also compared with the observed intakes.
Results: Our results for fish intake suggest that 55% of the study population should be recommended to increase their fish intake by up to 184 g/wk, and that 24% of the study population should increase their fish intake by >100 g/wk. Only 2% of the population should be recommended to decrease their intake of fish. These modeled recommendations were different from the observed intakes of all fish species (P < 0.05). The results appeared to be specifically sensitive to the uncertainty on vitamin D levels due to the effect of exposure from the sun.
Conclusions: The quadratic programming model was appropriate for translating recommendations for nutrients and contaminants into individual fish intake recommendations because of its multidimensionality. Mathematic optimization methods could be used to provide more realistic and achievable dietary guidelines that account for personal preference.
Funding Sources
The preparation of this manuscript was funded through the Metrix project by the Ministry for Environment and Food, Denmark.
Isoflavones in Modern Soy-Food: What about Exposure and Safety? (P19-001)
Catherine Bennetau-Pelissero, Alexandre Armitage-Lee, and Valérie Lamothe
French Agricultural Ministry Engineer School of Bordeaux, France
Objectives: Soy isoflavones, namely genistein, daidzein, and glycitein, are recent additions to the human diet; their use arose with the industrialization of food processing. These isoflavones are estrogenic and lengthen menstrual cycles in women at doses of 45 mg/d, i.e., 0.75 mg · kg–1 · d–1. The US National Toxicology Program confirmed, through assessment of the lowest observed adverse effect level in rats, that dietary doses of genistein raise reproductive concerns. Here we tried to invesigate the isoflavone exposure of French premenopausal women via food assays and other means.
Method: Soy isoflavones were measured in foodstuffs with the use of specific ELISAs. Isoflavone levels were followed in soy-based foodstuffs during traditional Asian cooking, which involves processes that include prolonged cooking, simmering, or soaking in water. Isoflavone levels were compared between modern and traditional Asian foodstuffs. A survey of French foodstuff labels was performed in supermarkets and with a restaurant supplier. Finally, 270 French premenopausal women described their main eating habits, and the resulting isoflavone exposure was assessed with Sphinx software.
Results: Modern soy-based foodstuffs contain isoflavones at levels of 4–60 mg/portion. When tofu and tempeh were prepared according to traditional Asian recipes, isoflavone levels were lowered to 30% ± 5% and to 18.6% ± 1.2%, respectively, of the initial levels, whereas modern processing tended to concentrate them, resulting in levels from 1.7 to 6.8 mg isoflavone/g protein. Traditional recipes involving various cooking steps in water resulted in 0.8 and 0.7 mg isoflavone/g protein for tempeh and tofu, respectively. Based on label review, soy was found to be present in 12% of French manufactured foodstuffs in supermarkets and in 20% of dishes offered in restaurants. The exposure of French premenopausal women to soy isoflavones was found to be highly variable, from <1 to ≤175 mg/d based on their dietary habits. Moreover, 2.6% of the women responding to the survey had a calculated daily intake of >80 mg.
Conclusion: Isoflavone exposure should be reassessed in the French population due to the extensive use of soy in industrialized foods and changes in dietary habits. Isoflavones can have beneficial or adverse effects, and intake should be regulated for specific populations, perhaps via food supplements.
Funding Sources
French Agriculture Ministry (SojaProcess), Aquitaine Region (New Team).
Development of a Shelf-Stable Nutrient-Dense Bar for Sustained Intense Activity (P19-002)
Gabriel K Harris, Ethan Molloy, Matthew Sharp, Naizwhang Wang, and Daphne Weikart
North Carolina State University
Objectives: Military operations may require high levels of physical activity under stressful conditions in which the need to remain vigilant is paramount, but sleep is limited. In these extreme conditions, “field stripping” (throwing away unwanted food) is common. Lack of adequate nutrition and sleep loss can combine to impair physical and mental performance. We created four shelf-stable, nutrient-dense bar prototypes to address these challenges. These bars were designed to serve as the sole source for nutrition for short-term (48–72 h) military operations.
Methods: Bars were produced in two flavors, milk chocolate and savory cheese and crackers, based on feedback from active duty military. The base recipe for both bars included cocoa butter, palm oil, whey protein, oat flour, sugar, and a multivitamin and mineral mix. Each flavor was produced in caffeinated and noncaffeinated versions. Bars were produced by melting fat, incorporating other ingredients until homogeneous, and forming into solid bars.
Results: The milk chocolate flavor, per 100-g serving, contained 530 calories: 50% of calories from fat, 23% from protein, and 28% from carbohydrates, with 5 g dietary fiber. The savory cheese and cracker flavor, per 100-g serving, contained 490 calories: 56% of calories from fat, 21% from protein, and 33% from carbohydrates, with 1.2 g dietary fiber. The high fat content served two purposes: it increased the energy density of the bar, and dispersed protein to prevent bar hardening. Consumption of high-fat diets for short periods of time has not been reported to impair physical performance. Self-association of proteins and resulting bar hardening limits the shelf life of high-protein bars. Shelf stability was assessed by water activity measurements and accelerated shelf-life testing. Water activity was 0.51 ± 0.019 and 0.54 ± 0.064 for the milk chocolate and savory cheese and crackers, respectively. Bars were stored for 6 wk at 45°C and checked weekly for deformation or melting. No changes in shape or melting were observed.
Conclusions: Four nutrient-dense bar prototypes were created and assessed for shelf stability. Future studies will include sensory and shelf-life testing, as well as testing of the effects of the bars on mental and physical performance in simulated military operations.
Funding Sources
Systems and Materials Research Corporation (direct sponsor), Defense Logistics Agency (indirect sponsor).
Supporting Images/Graphs
FIGURE P19-002-1.
Milk Chocolate Bar Prototypes.
Users, Uses, and Effects of Social Media in Dietetic Practice: A Scoping Review (P19-003)
Annie Lapointe, Audrée-Anne Dumas, and Sophie Desroches
Laval University, Canada
Introduction: Social media are increasingly being used by registered dietitians (RDs). However, the current state of the literature on the use of social media in dietetic practice remains to be explored and synthesized.
Objectives: Based on a scoping review methodology, we aimed to map and summarize the evidence about the users, uses, and effects of social media in dietetic practice to identify gaps in the literature and inform future research.
Methods: The scoping review was conducted in the following stages: 1) identifying the research question; 2) identifying relevant studies through an explicit sensitive search strategy; 3) selecting eligible studies; 4) charting the data; and 5) collating, summarizing, and reporting results for dissemination. Finally, 6) knowledge users (RDs working for dietetic professional associations and public health organizations) were involved in various review stages in order to generate usable and practical findings.
Results: Of the 47 included studies, 34 were intervention studies, 4 were descriptive studies, 2 were content analysis studies, and 7 were expert opinion articles in the field of dietetic practice. Discussion forums were the most frequent social media platform studied (n = 19),
followed by blogs (n = 13) and social networking sites (n = 10). Most studies targeted overweight and obese or healthy users, with adults and adult women the most studied. Social media platforms were used to deliver content as part of larger multicomponent interventions for weight management. Among intervention studies that used a control group with no exposure to social media, we identified positive, neutral, and mixed effects of social media for outcomes related to users’ health behaviors and status (e.g., dietary intakes and body weight), participation rates, and professional knowledge.
Conclusions: Research on social media in dietetic practice is still in its infancy, but the literature is rapidly expanding. So far, this field of research has targeted few social media platforms, most of which were assessed in multicomponent interventions for weight management among overweight or obese adults. Trials isolating the effects and mechanisms of action of specific social media platforms are needed to draw clear conclusions regarding the effectiveness of these tools to support dietetic practice.
Funding Sources
Canadian Foundation for Dietetic Reseach Danone Institute.
Development of Grain Certified Reference Material Food through the Use of Key Foods and Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (P19-004)
OKhee Lee,1 Hee-Jung Park,2 Gwang-Min Sun,3 and Jong-Ha Moon3
1Yongin University, Korea; 2Kookmin University, Korea; and 3Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute
Objective: Reference foods containing certified information on trace nutrients can be used to check accuracy when measuring the nutrient content of foods. These foods are essential in the analysis of nutrient values when establishing a food nutrient composition database. To achieve this aim, the reference foods should have a food matrix that corresponds to that of the type of food group being analyzed. Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) is a nondestructive method that has proven useful for the measurement of microminerals or heavy metals in foods, as it can prevent the loss of volatile microminerals during pretreatment and facilitate accurate analysis. The aim of this study was to establish, with the use of INAA, a food list for the development of grain certified reference materials (CRMs) which have certified values of micromineral content that reflect the Korean diet.
Methods: An analysis of dietary consumption by food groups in Korea was conducted by statistical analysis of National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) datasets, The key foods consumed by Koreans were investigated according to food type and energy intake. Rice and wheat flour were selected for the grain food group. In order to establish rice as a CRM, four regions in southern Korea were selected based on rice production levels and soil differences. In order to compose the rice CRM food, 8 kinds of rice were selected. For wheat flour CRM, Korean domestic production was examined and 3 manufacturing companies with high levels of production were selected. The mineral content of these two CRM candidates were analyzed with inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry and INAA performed in the Korean research reactor. Analysis accuracy was confimed by checking against National Institute of Standards and Technology CRMs.
Results: Through analysis of the KNHANES dataset, it was found out that food intake by amount was in the order of white rice, beer, kimchi. The consumption of food items by energy grade for all subjects was as follows: white rice > pork > soju > ramen > bread. Low-mineralized foods were excluded from the final key foods through comparison of nutritional ingredients. The accurate analysis of selenium and zinc in National Institute of Standards and Technology CRMs was achieved with INAA, but inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry did not reach sufficient accuracy for selenium.
Conclusions: Through the use of key foods and INAA, we were able to develop two grain CRM foods reflecting the Korean dietary practice that can be used in the micromineral analysis of grain foods.
Funding Sources
This study was supported by a grant from KAERI 2017.
A Comparative Analysis of the Nutritional Content and Cost of Recipes from UK Healthy Food Blogs and Change4Life: An Exploratory Study (P19-005)
Katharine V Powers and Angeliki Papadaki
University of Bristol, United Kingdom
Objectives: This study examined 90 recipes from 10 “healthy food blogs” (HFBs) authored in the United Kingdom and 57 recipes from the Change4Life (C4L) website. The aims were to determine if recipes met UK dietary guidelines as set out in the Eatwell Guide and if recipes were affordable.
Methods: Ten blogs were selected from the first page of Google results based on the terms “healthy eating blogs” and “healthy food blogs”. The following inclusion criteria were used: UK-based, no medically prescribed dietary requirements, self-identified as healthy, separate recipe section. Nine recipes (3 breakfast, 3 lunch, 3 dinner) from each blog were randomly selected for analysis. All recipes (57) from C4L were also included. Recipes were analyzed for nutritional content with DietPlan7. Average daily intakes were calculated for each recipe source based on mean nutrient content. Ingredient costs were based on average prices across the “big 4” UK supermarkets (Tesco, Sainsbury’s, Morrison’s, Asda). Average daily costs were calculated from mean per-recipe and per-portion costs. Statistical analysis was done with SPSS. Mann-Whitney U tests revealed differences between groups.
Results: The most significant differences in nutritional content between C4L and HFBs occurred in energy (250 compared with 357 kcal; P < 0.001), fat (6.2 compared with 17.3 g; P < 0.001), and saturated fat (1.4 compared with 6.3 g; P < 0.001) content. The mean sugar content of breakfast recipes from blogs was double that of C4L breakfasts (8.9 compared with 4.3; P = 0.284); although this difference did not reach statistical significance, it is nonetheless worth noting. There was a significant difference between the per-portion cost of C4L and blog recipes (£0.62 compared with £1.44; P < 0.001). A theoretical day of meals from C4L cost £2.34 whereas those from HFBs cost £4.77.
Conclusions: Neither source adhered perfectly to the guidelines but C4L was a closer fit. Both sources cost more than the current UK average weekly food spend for a family but HFBs cost twice as much as C4L. C4L recipes are a better resource for families and students, whereas food blogs might be affordable for professional singles and couples. Further research should explore how government recipe sources might make themselves more appealing and how HFBs might partner with nutrition professionals to improve the nutritional quality of their recipes.
Physicochemical Characteristics and Antioxidant Capacity of Chickpea and Wheat Flour Blends (P19-006)
Jiwan S Sidhu,1 Tasleem Zafar,1 Abdualwahab Almusallam,1 Muslim Ali,1 and Amani Al-Othman2
1Kuwait University; and 2Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research
Objective: The major objective of this study was to estimate the physicochemical quality and antioxidant capacity of chickpea-wheat flour blends for ultimately producing pan as well as Arabic bread for diabetic persons.
Methods: The chemical composition and antioxidant capacity of white flour (WF), whole wheat flour (WWF), and chickpea flour (BF), in addition to the effect of replacement of WF and WWF with BF on the texture profile analysis, and the objective colors of these blends in terms of L*a*b* values were also investigated by approved methods.
Results: Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), malondialdehyde (MDA), and total phenolic content (TPC) values varied significantly among all 3 flour samples. WWF had the highest TEAC (117.42/100 g) value, followed by WF (73.98/100 g) and BF (60.67/100 g). The TPC content also followed a similar trend, as the gallic acid equivalent (GAE) values were the highest (8.67 GAE/g) for WWF, followed by WF (5.65 GAE/g) and BF (3.45 GAE/g). Compared with WF and WWF, the b* values for BF were the highest (16.89), indicating higher yellowness in this sample. Texture profile analysis performed on the WF, WWF, and their blends with BF showed significant variations in hardness and compressibility values, with dough becoming less hard and less compressible when the replacement of WF and WWF with BF was increased from 0 to 40%.
Conclusions: The results of this study have shown that chemical composition and antioxidant activity differed among the 3 flour samples studied, with BF having the lowest TEAC values.
Funding Sources
Kuwait University.
Monitoring the Safety of Nutrition Interventions: Point-of-Care Quantification of Aflatoxin Metabolite Concentration in Blood (P19-007)
Balaji Srinivasan, David Erickson, and Saurabh Mehta
Cornell University, NY
Objectives: At present there are limited representative data on the burden of high mycotoxin levels in populations globally; this is mostly due to a lack of affordable point-of-care diagnostics to quantify aflatoxin (AF) metabolite levels in human body fluids. The majority of current research efforts and commercial diagnostic kits are targeted towards developing kits for diagnosing mycotoxin levels in grains. Here, we report the development of mobile device–based diagnostics to quantify AF metabolite levels in fingerprick blood samples within a few minutes at the point-of-care.
Methods: The technology includes a test strip that is inserted into the mobile device–coupled portable test strip reader. The various components of the test strip were selected to achieve optimum flow rates and volume of reagents and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in test samples. Development of the assay involved selection of antibodies and optimization of their concentrations by an iterative method to achieve the required specificity and sensitivity within the detection limits.
Results: Figure 1 shows lateral flow test strip architecture for AFB1 in a competitive immunoassay format. The user begins the test by placing a drop of test sample on the test strip. The entire process is guided by an app which provides step-by-step instructions to the user. The camera within the reader captures the relative intensity changes of the colored bands on the test strip for postprocessing by the app to provide the AFB1 concentration. Figure 2 shows the effect on gold nanoparticle concentration on the test and control line (T/C) intensity ratio. Figure 3 shows the images of the T/C signals for various AFB1 concentrations in buffer. Figure 4 shows the local intensity minima determined by the app at 100 pg/mL concentration. We have determined calibration curves with buffer and serum samples spiked with AFB1 to obtain test samples with concentrations ranging from 10 to 1000 pg/mL. Figure 5 shows the calibration results with AFB1 solution in buffer.
Conclusions: This technology has the potential to enable accurate quantification of exposure to AF for aflatoxicosis diagnosis and food safety monitoring at point-of-care by healthcare workers in low-resource and field settings.
Funding Sources
Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN), grant IIP 1430092.
Supporting Images/Graphs
FIGURE P19-007-1.
Lateral flow immunoassay test strip architecture. AFB1, aflatoxin B1; BSA, bovine serum albumin.
FIGURE P19-007-2.
Effect of nanoparticle concentration (in OD) on the sensitivity of the assay. AF, aflatoxin; OD, optical density; T/C, test and control line.
FIGURE P19-007-3.
Colorimetric variation of the test (bottom) and control (top) lines on the test strips at various spiked AFB1 concentrations in buffer solution.
FIGURE P19-007-4.
Test and control line signals detected by the mobile device app as local intensity minima for 100 pg/mL of AFB1 to calculate T/C ratio.
FIGURE P19-007-5.
Preliminary results of calibration curve showing the T/C ratios of the colorimetric signals at various known AFB1 concentrations in buffer.
Glycemic and Insulinemic Responses to Resistant Starch Type 4 under True-to-Life Testing Conditions (P19-008)
Trevor J Steele,1 Mark Haub,1 Ody Maningat,2 Paul Sieb,1 and Sara K Rosenkranz1
1Kansas State University; and 2MGP Ingredients Inc.
Objectives: Resistant starch (RS) has been shown to beneficially affect glucose homeostasis in the postprandial period following carbohydrate (CHO) consumption. The primary purpose of the current study was to examine the differences in glucose and insulin responses between RS4 and native wheat starch (NWS) crackers when provided in standard amounts (50 g available CHO) compared with amounts that constitute standard serving sizes packaged for consumers.
Methods: Apparently healthy adults (n = 14; age 20–38 y) participated in this randomized controlled crossover trial. All participants completed 5 trials: 50 g dextrose control drink (CON); crackers containing: 50 g available CHO NWS (50NWS), 50 g available CHO RS4 (50RS4), 35 g NWS by weight (35NWS), and 35 g RS4 by weight (35RS4). Participants fasted for 10–12 h prior to each visit with a minimum 48-h washout period between trials. Blood glucose was measured via a glucometer at baseline and 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 min postconsumption. Insulin was measured via venous sample at baseline and 30, 60, and 120 min postconsumption.
Results: Glucose incremental area under the curve (iAUC) was significantly lower for all cracker conditions when compared with CON (P < 0.001). When comparing percentage differences between the 50-g conditions (mean ± SD; 78.25% ± 50.97%) with percentage differences between the 35-g conditions (66.39% ± 46.92%), there was no statistical significance (P = 0.43). There were no differences in glucose iAUC between any cracker conditions (P > 0.05). As compared with CON, insulin iAUC for 50NWS and 50NWS were not different (P > 0.99), but 35NWS and 35RS4 were significantly lower (P < 0.001). When comparing percentage differences between the 50-g conditions (29.06% ± 30.36%) with percentage differences between the 35-g conditions (88.29% ± 60.50%), differences between the 35-g conditions were significantly larger (P < 0.02). The insulin iAUC responses were significantly lower for the 35-g conditions as compared with the 50-g conditions and also for the RS4 conditions as compared with the NWS conditions (Ps < 0.01).
Conclusions: These results indicate differential metabolic responses, specifically a reduced postprandial insulin response, for RS4 compared with NWS crackers when standard testing amounts are used as compared with more true-to-life serving sizes packaged for consumers.
Funding Sources
MGP Ingredients Inc.