Table 1.
Summary of characterization features of GBNs, type of graphene nanomaterial, and inclusion criteria based on reported therapeutic and/or diagnostic role of graphene in the overall system developed. The figures mentioned in this table can be found in each referenced study and represent examples from the revised studies where therapeutic and/or diagnostic relevance of graphene is clearly illustrated.
| Graphene-Based Nanomaterial | Graphene Type | Coating | Theranostic System Size (D or D × T) |
Zeta-Potential/ Colloidal Stability in Serum |
Proven Graphene Therapeutic Relevance | Proven Graphene Diagnostic Relevance | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Au@PLA-(PAH/GO)n | GO | 1.5 µm | n.r. | USI (Figure 2) s.e. Au@PLA |
[61] | ||
| UCNPs-NGO/ZnPc | GO | PEG | ≈ 300 × 1.5 nm (GO) + 40 nm (UCNPs) | n.r. | PTT (Figure 3 and Figure S4) | [85] | |
| GO-HA-Ce6 | GO | ≈ 440 nm | n.r. 1 d stability |
PTT (Figure 3) s.e. Ce6 |
[52] | ||
| ICG-GO-FA | GO | PEG-FA | ≈ 200 nm | n.r. 3 h stability |
PTT (Figure S3, Figure 2 and Figure 3) s.e. ICG |
[86] | |
| GO-AuNS | GO | ≈ 0.8 μm | −19 mV 10 days |
PTT (Figure 6) s.e. AuNS |
[70] | ||
| GQD-Cur | GO | ≈ 150 nm (GQD-Cur) 3–6 nm (GQD) |
n.r. | PL (Figure 6) | [78] | ||
| GO-Abs/Cy7 | GO | 100–600 × 1.2 nm | n.r. | PAT (Figure 3 and Figure 9) s.e. Cy7 |
PAI (Figure 3 and Figure 6) s.e. Cy7 |
[72] | |
| GDH | GO | HA | ≈ 120 nm (GDH) ≈ 30 nm (GO) |
n.r. 7 days |
PTT (Figure 5a) | [62] | |
| PheoA+GO:FA-BSA-c-PheoA | GO | PEG-FA | ≈ 180 nm | ≈ −30 mV n.r. |
PTT + PDT (Figure 7 and Figure 9) s.e. Pheo |
[47] | |
| GO-PEG-ZnS:Mn-DOX | GO | PEG-ZnS:Mn | n.r. | n.r. | PL (Figure 4) s.e. ZnS:Mn |
[53] | |
| CPGA | GO | PEG | ≈ 230 × 15 nm | ≈ −25 mV 7 d stability |
PTT (Figure 3) s.e. Au and Cy5.5 |
PAI (Figure 2) FI (Figure 2) s.e. Au |
[56] |
| GO@Gd-PEG-FA/DOX | GO | PEG-FA | n.r | ≈ −6 mV | PTT (Figure 6) | [75] | |
| GO/AuNS-PEG/Ce6 | GO | PEG | ≈ 400 × 18 nm | ≈ −38 mV 1 d stability |
PTT (Figure 2b) s.e. AuNS |
[87] | |
| GO/Bi2Se3/PVP | GO | ≈ 150 nm | ≈ −18 mV (GO) n.r. |
PTT (Figure 5d) s.e. Bi2Se3 |
[92] | ||
| GO/UCNPs ZnFe2O4 | GO | PEG | ≈ 400 nm | ≈ −17 mV n.r. |
PTT (Figure 2d) PDT+PTT (Figure 3) s.e. UCNPs |
[48] | |
| GO/MnWO4/PEG | GO | PEG | ≈ 130 nm | ≈ −26 mV n.r. |
PTT (Figure 3) | [5] | |
| LOGr-Pc-LHRH | LOGr | PEG | ≈ 80 nm | n.r. n.r. |
PTT (Figure 3a and Figure 6b) PDT (Figure 6c) s.e. Pc |
[81] | |
| GO-DOX | NGO | PEG | ≈ 30 × 6 nm | n.r. | PAI (Figure 5) s.e. Cy 5.5 | [71] | |
| ICG-FeCl3@GO | NGO | _ | ≈ 40 nm | n.r. | PTT (Figure 3d) s.e. ICG |
[83] | |
| GO@Ag-DOX-NGR | NGO | DSPE-PEG-NGR | ≈ 40 nm | −29 mV | PTT (Figure 6) s.e. Ag |
[76] | |
| GO-PEG-DVDMS | NGO | PEG | ≈ 20.5 × 1.5 nm | n.r. | PTT (Figure 2a, Figure 3a and Figure 3d) s.e. DVDMS |
[88] | |
| IO/GO-COOH | NGO | OA | ≈ 50 × 20 nm | n.r. | PTT (Figure 5) s.e. IO |
MRI (Figure 3) s.e. IO |
[60] |
| GO-PEG-CysCOOH | NGO | PEG-CysCOOH | < 50 × 2 nm | n.r. 1 d stability |
PTT (Figure 2 and Figure 4) s.e. CysCOOH |
PAI (Figure 3) s.e. CysCOOH |
[73] |
| Au@NGO | NGO | ≈ 98 nm | ≈ −28 mV n.r. |
SERS (Figure 3) s.e. Au |
[68] | ||
| NGO-PEG-FA | NGO | PEG-FA | ≈ 100 nm | n.r | PTT (Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure 7 | FI (Figure 3) | [7] |
| NGO-IR-808 | NGO | PEG | ≈ 20–40 × 3 nm | n.r. | PTT (Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 7) s.e. IR-808 |
FI (Figure 4 and Figure 6) IR-TI (Figure 7) s.e. IR-808 |
[67] |
| NGO-PEG-ICG/PTX | NGO | PEG-ICG | < 100 × 1 nm | ≈ −30 mV 14 d stability |
PTT (Figure 4, Figure S5 and Figure 6) s.e. ICG |
FI (Figure 5) s.e. ICG |
[91] |
| NGO-UCNPs-Ce6 | NGO | OA | ≈ 100 nm (GO)+ 48 nm (UCNPs) |
n.r. | PTT (Figure S4, Figure 7 and Figure 8) PDT+PTT (Figure 3, Figure 7 and Figure 8) s.e. UCNPs |
[57] | |
| UCNP@NGO | NGO | OA | ≈ 100 nm (GO)+ 55 nm (UCNPs) |
n.r. | PTT (Figure 2, Figure 4 and Figure 5) s.e. UCNPs |
[64] | |
| BSA/nano-rGO | rGO | BSA | ≈ 70 nm | ≈ −30 mV 30 d stability |
PTT (Figure 3) | PAI (Figure 4 and Figure 5) | [74] |
| rGONM-PEG-Cy7-RGD | rGO | PEG | ≈ 61 nm | n.r. | PTT (Figure 2) | [46] | |
| rGO-Fe2O3@AuNPs | rGO | NH2-PEG | ≈ 610 nm | −21.1 mV > 5 h |
PTT (Figure 3a) s.e. Fe2O3@Au NPs |
[50] | |
| rGO nanosheets | rGO | HA | ≈ 115 nm | ≈ −60 mV n.r. |
PTT (Figure 4a and Figure 5a) s.e. ICG |
[69] | |
| 131I-RGO-PEG | rGO | PEG | ≈ 50 × 3.5 nm | n.r. 7 days |
PTT (Figure 2) s.e. 131I |
γ-image (Figure 3) s.e. 131I |
[51] |
| rGO-AuNRVe | rGO | PEG | ≈ 74 nm | n.r. | PTT (Figure 2) s.e. AuNR |
PAI (Figure 5) s.e. AuNR |
[79] |
| anti-EGFR-PEG-rGO@ CPSS-Au-R6G |
rGO | PEG-Anti-EGFR | < 200 nm | n.r. | PTT (Figure S5 and Figure 7b) s.e. AuNPs |
[6] | |
| ICG-PDA-rGO | rGO | PDA | 1–5 μm × 1 nm | n.r. | PTT (Figure 3 and Figure 8) s.e. ICG |
PAI (Figure 4 and Figure 6) IR-TI (Figure 7) s.e. ICG |
[59] |
| rGO-GSPs | rGO | PEG | ≈ 100 nm | n.r. 3 d stability |
PTT (Figure 2a and Figure 2b) s.e. AuNPs |
PAI (Figure 2d and Figure 2e) s.e. AuNPs |
[66] |
| rGO-mfHSA | rGO | mfHSA | ≈ 200 nm | −25 mV 2 d stability |
PTT (Figure 3c) | [93] | |
| FA-PEG-Lip@rGO/Res | rGO | PEG-FA | ≈ 220 nm | ≈ −24 mV 7 d stability |
PTT (Figure 7b) | IR-TI (Figure 7a) | [58] |
| ArGO | rGO | APGA | ≈ 115 nm | ≈ −38 mV 28 d stability |
PTT (Figure 5b and Figure 6a) |
IR-TI (Figure 5a) | [77] |
| AAP10-pDA/rGO | rGO | pDA | 300 nm × 3.5 nm | n.r. | PTT (Figure 2) s.e. pDA |
[90] | |
| cGdots | GQDs | ≈ 5 nm | n.r. n.r. |
All therapeutic outcomes came from GQDs | All diagnostic outcomes came from GQDs | [45] | |
| GQDs | GQDs | 2–6 nm | n.r. | All therapeutic outcomes came from GQDs | All diagnostic outcomes came from GQDs | [44] | |
| PLA-PEG-grafted GQDs (f-GQDs) |
GQDs | PLA-PEG | ≈ 22 × 1.7 nm | ≈ −4 mV n.r. |
PL (Figure 4) | [55] | |
| AS1411@GQD | GQDs | ≈ −13 mV n.r. |
PTT (Figure 6a and Figure 6b) s.e. AS1411 |
[84] | |||
| HA-GQD -SiO2 NPs |
GQDs | ≈ 40 nm | n.r. | PDT (Figure 6) s.e. HA and SiO2 |
[94] | ||
| GQDs@Cys-BHC | GQDs | ≈ 5 nm | n.r. | FI (Figure 8) | [82] | ||
| Fe3O4@SiO2@GQDs-FA/DOX | GQDs | ≈ 25 nm | ≈ −18 mV n.r. |
PL (Figure 3) FI (Figure 5) |
[80] | ||
| GQD-MSN--DOX | GQDs | 50-80 nm | n.r. | PTT (Figure 6 and Figure 9) |
[89] | ||
| GQD-PEG-P | GQDs | PEG | 8 × 1 nm | ≈ + 14 mV n.r. |
PTT (Figure 3) | FI (Figure 5) | [49] |
| DOX@GQD-P-Cy | GQDs | ≈ 15 nm | ≈ −4 mV (w/o) DOX n.r. |
FI (Figure 4d–e) s.e. DOX by FRET |
[54] | ||
| DL-GQD-comp | GQDs | ≈ 220 nm | n.r. | ― | PL (Figure 5) | [63] | |
| IR780/GQDs-FA | GQDs | 8.5 × 1.5 nm | n.r. | PTT (Figure 5a and Figure 5b) s.e. IR780 | FI (Figure 6) IR-TI (Figure 7a) s.e. IR780 |
[65] | |
| SCNA (DOX/GQD) |
GQDs | HTPGS | < 5 nm | n.r. 4 h stability |
PTT (Figure 5e) | CLSMI (Figure 4) | [8] |
Table 1 abbreviations: GO—Graphene oxide; NGO—Nanographene oxide; rGO—Reduced Graphene oxide; GQDs—Graphene Quantum Dots; D—Diameter; D × T—Diameter × Thickness; d–day(s); n.r.—not reported; s.e.—synergic effect with; CLSMI—confocal laser scanning microscopy imaging; FI—fluorescence imaging; FRET—fluorescence resonance energy transfer; IR-TI—infrared thermal imaging; MRI—magnetic resonance imaging; PAI—photoacoustic imaging; PAT—photoacoustic therapy; PDT—photodynamic therapy; PL—Photoluminescence; PTT—photothermal therapy; SERS—Super Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy; USI—ultra sound imaging. AAP10—Antiarrhythmic peptide 10 (promotes bystander effect); Abs—integrin αvβ3 mAb (targeting ligand); Ag—silver; anti-EGFR—anti-epidermal growth factor receptor (targeting ligand); APGA—amphiphilic poly-γ-glutamic acid; ArGO—rGO coated with amphiphilic poly-γ-glutamic acid; AS1411—aptamer of 26-base guanine-rich short oligonucleotide (targeting ligand); Au—gold; AuNPs—gold nanoparticles; AuNRVe—gold nanorod vesicles; AuNR—Gold nanorods; AuNS—Gold nanostars; Bi2Se3—Bismuth Selenide; BHC—Berberine hydrochloride; BSA—bovine serum albumin; Ce6—Chlorin e6 (photosensitizer); cGdots—carboxylated graphene dots; Cy5.5—Cyanine 5.5 (NIR dye and photosensitizer); Cy7—Cyanine 7 (NIR dye and photosensitizer); Cys—Cysteamine hydrochloride (NIR dye); Cys-COOH—Cysteine- rich Carboxy-terminal domain CPGA—theranostic probe formed by Cy5.5 (NIR dye) labelled-matrix metalloproteinase-14 (MMP-14) substrate (CP) conjugated onto the GO/Au complex (GA); CPSS—carbon porous silica nanosheets; Cur—curcumin; DL-GQD-comp—doxorubicin hydrochloride loaded GQD complex; DOX—doxorubicin hydrochloride; DSPE—1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine; DVDMS—bis[1-[6,7-bis[2-(sodium carbonate ethyl]-1,3,5,8,-tetramethyl-2-vinyl-porphin-4-yl]ethyl]ether (photosensitizer); FA—Folic acid (target ligand); FeCl3—Iron chloride; Fe2O3 and Fe3O4—Iron oxide nanoparticles; Gd—Gadolinium; GDH—Graphene–DOX conjugate in HA nanogel; GSPs—gold superparticles; HA—hyaluronic acid (target ligand); HA-GQD—complex of Hypocrellin A (photosensitizer), HA and GQD; HTPGS—N-acetyl histidine-functionalized D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate; 131I—Iodine-131 (radioisotope); ICG—NIR fluorescence dye; IO—iron oxide; IR780—IR780 iodide (NIR dye); IR-808—Heptamethine indocyanine dye (photosensitizer); LHRH—luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone peptide; Lip—Phospholipids; LOGr—low-oxygen graphene; mfHSA—multifunctional human serum albumin—HSA functionalized with indocyanine green (ICG) and lactobionic acid (LA); MnWO4—manganese tungstate; MSN—mesoporous silica nanoparticles; NGR—Asn-Gly-Arg peptide (target ligand); OA—Oleic acid; P—porphyrin; PAH—poly (allylamine hydrochloride); Pc—phthalocyanine; P-Cy—Cyanine 5.5 dye conjugated to GQD though a cathepsin D-responsive peptide (P); PDA or pDA—Polydopamine (reduces GO improves water solubility and biocompatibility and increases NIR absorption); PEG—Polyethylene glycol; PheoA—Pheophorbide A (photosensitizer); PLA—polylactic acid; PTX—Paclitaxel; PVP—polyvinylpyrrolidone; R6G—Rhodamine 6G; Res—Resveratrol; rGONM—reduced graphene oxide nanomesh; RGD—arginine–glycine–aspartic acid-based peptide (target ligand); SCNA—size-changeable graphene quantum dot nanoaircraft; SiO2 NPs—silicon dioxide nanoparticles; UCNPs—upconversion luminescence nanoparticles; ZnFe2O4—Zinc ferrite nanoparticles; ZnPc—Zinc phthalocyanine (photosensitizer); ZnS:Mn—manganese-doped zinc sulfide nanoparticles.